The Skull

- The human skull consists of 22 bones (29 with the inner ear bones and hyoid bones)
which are mostly connected together by ossified joints called sutures.
- The skull is divided into 2 parts the neurocranium and viscerocranium
- Its main task is the protection of the most important organ of the human body the
brain.
- The brain is almost entirely enclosed by the neurocranium with the exception of
the foramen magnum and other foramina at the skull base which serve as entry and exit
point for blood vessels and cranial nerves.
- The skull base is the inferior portion of the neurocranium. Looking at it from the inside it
can be subdivided into the anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossae. The skull base
comprises parts of the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, occipital and temporal bones.
- Anterior Cranial Fossa
o Approximately 20 cribriform foramina serve as a passageway for the olfactory
nerves to the olfactory mucosa in the nasal cavity.
o Both the optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery pass through the optic
canal which is centrally located on the sphenoid bone.
- Middle Cranial Fossa
o The middle cranial fossa lies slightly deeper than the anterior cranial fossa. 
o Foramen rotundum (maxillary nerve)
o Foramen ovale (mandibular nerve)
o Carotid canal (internal carotid artery)
- Posterior Cranial Fossa
o The largest opening in the skull is the foramen magnum. Here
the brainstem leaves the skull and becomes the spinal cord. The foramen
magnum is situated in the center of the posterior cranial fossa
o internal acoustic meatus (facial nerve, vestibulocochlear nerve),
o jugular foramen (internal jugular vein, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus
nerve, accessory nerve)
o hypoglossal canal (hypoglossal nerve)
Cranial Meninges
-  The function of the meninges is to protect the brain and spinal cord from mechanical
trauma, to support the blood vessels and to form a continuous cavity through which
the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) passes. 
- This outer layer connects the meninges to the skull and vertebral column.
It is composed of tough, fibrous connective tissue. Dura mater that
surrounds the brain consists of two layers. The outer layer is called the
periosteal layer and the inner layer is the meningeal layer. The
outer periosteal layer firmly connects the dura mater to the skull and
covers the meningeal layer. The meningeal layer is considered the actual
dura mater. Located between these two layers are channels called dural
venous sinuses. 
- This middle layer of the meninges connects the dura mater and pia mater. The
arachnoid membrane loosely covers the brain and spinal cord and gets its name from its
web-like appearance. The arachnoid mater is connected to the pia mater through tiny
fibrous extensions that span the subarachnoid space between the two layers. The
subarachnoid space provides a route for the passage of blood vessels
and nerves through the brain and collects cerebrospinal fluid that flows from the fourth
ventricle.
- Membrane projections from the arachnoid mater called arachnoid granulations extend
from the subarachnoid space into the dura mater. Arachnoid granulations remove
cerebrospinal fluid from the subarachnoid space and send it to the dural venous sinuses,
where it is reabsorbed into the venous system
- This thin inner layer of the meninges is in direct contact with and closely covers
the cerebral cortex and spinal cord. The pia mater has a rich supply of blood vessels,
which provide nutrients to nervous tissue. This layer also contains the choroid plexus, a
network of capillaries and ependyma (specialized ciliated epithelial tissue) that produce
cerebrospinal fluid. The choroid plexus is located within the cerebral ventricles.

-  The fluid consists of water and other plasma components, amino acids, and glucose
that nourish brain tissue. In addition to providing nutrients for the brain to complete its
metabolic activity, CSF travels through the ventricles and eventually surrounds the
entire brain in the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia
mater). It therefore acts as a shock absorbent in instances of mild or severe head injury.
The choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles produces the most CSF, followed by that of
the third ventricle then that of the fourth ventricle.
- Once CSF is produced in the lateral ventricle, it fills the cavity then leaves to enter
the third ventricle by way of the interventricular foramen of Monro. In addition to the
CSF from the lateral ventricle, the CSF produced in the third ventricle then exits the
space through the cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius to enter the fourth ventricle.
- Very little CSF is produced in the fourth ventricle; however, it – along with that coming
from the above ventricles – exits the fourth ventricle to either enter the central canal of
the spinal cord or by the foramina of Luschka and foramen of Magendie
-  CSF surrounds the brain, and then leaves by way of arachnoid granulations to enter
the superior sagittal sinus and subsequently join the systemic circulation.
- The term meninges comes from the Greek for membrane and refers to 3 membranes
that surround the brain and the spinal cord: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and
the pia mater. The meninges protect and provide structural support for the brain as well
as contain cerebrospinal fluid. The outermost layer of the meninges is the dura mater,
which literally means “hard mother.” This thick and tough layer adheres to the skull on
one side and the arachnoid mater on the other side. The dura provides the brain and
spinal cord with an extra protective layer, attaches the brain to the skull and the spinal
cord to the vertebral column to keep them from being jostled around, and provides a
system of veinous drainage through which blood can leave the brain. The arachnoid
mater gets its name because it has the consistency and appearance of a cobweb. It is
much less substantial than the dura. Strands of connective tissue called arachnoid
trabeculae stretch between the arachnoid and pia mater. These help to suspend the
brain in place. Between the arachnoid and pia mater there is also an area known as the
subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The pia mater is a thin layer
that closely follows the contours of the brain. It forms a tight membrane around the
brain and spinal cord, acting as an an additional barrier and aiding in the secretion and
containment of cerebrospinal fluid. Blood vessels are held against the pia mater by
connective tissue before they penetrate the brain. There is a space between the dura of
the spinal cord and the bone of the vertebral column known as the epidural space;
analgesics and anesthesia are sometimes administered here. Also, the dura and
arachnoid mater extend several vertebrae below the end of the spinal cord, creating a
cerebrospinal fluid-filled area called the lumbar cistern where there is no spinal cord
present. Cerebrospinal fluid can be withdrawn from here because a needle can be
inserted with little risk of damaging the spinal cord. Thus, the lumbar cistern is the site
where cerebrospinal fluid is aspirated in a lumbar puncture, also known as a spinal tap.
This is done, for example, to diagnose meningitis, a potentially life-threatening
inflammation of the meninges.
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- The ventricles are a network of cavities that are distributed throughout the brain.They
are lined with a specialized membrane called the choroid plexus, which is composed of
glial cells called ependymal cells. Ependymal cells are specially designed to secrete
cerebrospinal fluid, which then flows through the ventricles and around the brain. Thus
the main role of the ventricles is the production and distribution of cerebrospinal fluid.
Cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF as it is commonly called, is a clear colorless liquid that
performs a number of important functions in the brain. Among other things, CSF
surrounds the brain, forming a protective layer and suspending the brain in fluid, which
reduces the strain forces like gravity would have on the brain. Also, it constantly flows
through and around the brain removing toxins and regulating the extracellular
environment of neurons. There are 4 ventricles. There are two C-shaped lateral
ventricles, one in each of the cerebral hemispheres. The lateral ventricles are connected
to a third ventricle by an opening called the interventricular foramen. The third ventricle
is a narrow cavity that runs along the midline of the diencephalon. It looks something
like a misshapen donut, and the section that would be the hole of the donut is an area
 known as the interthalamic adhesion. In this section the thalamus makes up the wall of
the third ventricle. The third ventricle communicates with the fourth ventricle via the
cerebral aqueduct. The fourth ventricle is wedged between the cerebellum on one side
and the brainstem on the other. The fourth ventricle is shaped like a tent whose peak
protrudes into the cerebellum. There are three openings in the fourth ventricle that
allow cerebrospinal fluid to enter the subarachnoid space, a CSF-containing cavity that
surrounds the brain. Thus, CSF leaves the ventricular system via the 4th ventricle. The
4th ventricle extends to, and is continuous with, the central canal, a CSF-filled cavity that
runs the length of the spinal cord. If CSF circulation is blocked as by a tumor, or is
otherwise abnormally excessive, it can result in increased pressure and expansion of the
ventricles. This creates a condition known as hydrocephalus, which can cause a variety
of complications and be life-threatening

- There are two major divisions of the nervous system. The first is the central nervous
system, which is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The second is the peripheral
nervous system, which consists of nerves that run throughout the body.The peripheral
nervous system itself is made up of two subdivisions. The first is the somatic nervous
system, which contains nerves that carry sensory signals from the body to the central
nervous system and nerves that carry motor signals from the central nervous system to
skeletal muscles.The somatic nervous system is associated with voluntary movement.
When you clicked on this video to play it, the signal to depress your finger was sent from
your brain to your finger via the somatic nervous system. The second division of the
peripheral nervous system is the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous
system is sometimes called the involuntary nervous system, and it is involved in
regulating the internal environment of the body. It carries signals from internal organs
to the central nervous system and from the central nervous system to the internal
organs. In this way, it is involved in regulating things like digestion and heartbeat, which
are generally outside the realm of conscious control. The autonomic nervous system can
be further subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers. The
sympathetic nervous system plays a large role in stimulating and mobilizing energy
resources, while the parasympathetic nervous system acts to conserve energy. For
example, if you are in a frightening situation, the sympathetic nervous system will cause
your heart rate to increase, your blood pressure to increase, and your sweat glands to
be stimulated. If you are eating a meal, however, and are not frightened, your
parasympathetic nervous system will stimulate digestion, increase salivation, and slow
your heart rate. Due to these functions, the sympathetic nervous system is often
described as being involved in fight or flight responses, while the parasympathetic
nervous system is described as being involved in rest and digest responses.
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- The brainstem is a stalk that leaves the base of the brain and connects the brain to the
spinal cord. It contains many important pathways that run between the brain and spinal cord as
well as pathways to other areas like the cerebellum. It also contains a large number of
important nuclei, and is essential for both survival and proper cognitive functioning. It consists
of three major divisions: the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. The medulla
oblongata, often simply called the medulla, is the point where the brainstem connects to the
spinal cord. The medulla is essential for survival as it contains nuclei that ensure vital systems
like the cardiovascular and respiratory systems are working properly. The medulla also contains
nuclei that are responsible for a number of reflexive actions, including vomiting, swallowing,
coughing, and sneezing. Several cranial nerves also exit the brainstem at the level of the
medulla. The next structure on our way up the brainstem is the pons. The word "pons" means
bridge in Latin, and the pons is a large, rounded structure resembling a rounded bridge that
connects the medulla and the midbrain. The pons is home to a number of nuclei for cranial
nerves and contains nuclei that deal with sensations from the head and face, motor movement
of the eyes, face, and mouth, hearing, equilibrium, and autonomic functions like tear and saliva
production. The final branch of the brainstem as we move toward the cerebrum is called the
midbrain. On the posterior side of the midbrain we find four bumps representing two paired
structures: the superior and inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi are involved in eye
movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory
processing. The midbrain also contains the major dopamine-producing nuclei of the brain: the
ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra. Among other functions, the ventral tegmental
area is involved in motivation and reward while the substantia nigra plays an important role in
movement.

- The internal carotid arteries supply the brain with about 80% of its blood, while the
vertebral arteries contribute the remaining 20%. After ascending to the brain, the
internal carotid arteries split into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. The anterior
cerebral arteries supply the medial frontal and parietal lobes, and they are connected by
the anterior communicating artery. The middle cerebral arteries supply most of the
lateral surface of the cerebral hemispheres. Before splitting into the middle and anterior
cerebral arteries, the internal carotids give rise to the anterior choroidal arteries, which
supply a number of different structures, and the posterior communicating arteries,
which connect the internal carotid arteries to the posterior cerebral arteries. The
vertebral arteries give rise to the posterior inferior cerebellar arteries, which supply the
inferior surface of the cerebellum and in most brains will also give rise to the posterior
spinal arteries, which supply the posterior spinal cord. The anterior spinal artery, which
supplies the anterior spinal cord, also branches off the vertebral arteries, then the two
vertebral arteries come together to form the basilar artery. The basilar artery gives rise
to the anterior inferior and superior cerebellar arteries, which supply the rest of the
cerebellar surface. Then, at the the level of the midbrain, the basilar artery splits into
two posterior cerebral arteries. The posterior cerebral arteries supply the medial and
inferior surfaces of the occipital and temporal lobes. The anterior cerebral, internal
carotid, and posterior cerebral arteries of both sides of the brain are all connected,
forming what is known as the Circle of Willis. This interconnection can allow blood flow
to continue if a major vessel is blocked on one side of the brain.

- Cerebellum is Latin for “little brain,” and the cerebellum does look like miniature version
of the brain as it protrudes from under the posterior and inferior region of the cerebral
 cortex. Although the cerebellum has many functions, it is primarily associated with
movement. Specifically, it seems to be involved with facilitating movement by detecting
errors that occur in the course of a movement and correcting them, so the movement
appears fluid and achieves its intended goal. The cerebellum is also involved with motor
learning to reduce the likelihood errors in movement will occur again in the future. The
cerebellum consists of two cerebellar hemispheres and can be divided into 3 parts. The
cerebrocerebellum receives input from the cerebral cortex and is involved with planning
and initiating movements. The spinocerebellum receives information about limb
position and touch and pressure sensations from the spinal cord. The spinocerebellum
uses this information, for example, to compare where a limb is in space with where it
should be if the movement were going as planned. If there is a discrepancy, the
spinocerebellum can modify motor signals to correct any errors in the movement. The
vermis is the area of the spinocerebellum that runs along the midline of the cerebellum;
it is involved with posture, limb movement, and eye movements. The
vestibulocerebellum, also called the flocculonodular lobe, is important to maintaining
equilibrium, balance, and posture. The cerebellum communicates with the rest of the
nervous system through three large pathways called the cerebellar peduncles, which
include the superior, middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles. When information is sent
to the cerebellum, it takes an indirect path to reach extensively branched cells called
Purkinje cells. These cells then project to a group of nuclei in the center of the
cerebellum called the deep cerebellar nuclei. The deep cerebellar nuclei send the
information to various areas in the brainstem and thalamus that then can influence
motor areas of the cortex or descending motor tracts to modify movements.

- The cerebral cortex is the  outermost layer of the brain.It is primarily made up of gray 
matter that is extensively folded, forming ridges called gyri and grooves called  sulci. The
folding substantially increases the surface area of the cerebral cortex,  making room for
more neural components.
- Sensory areas receive information related to  sensation, and include regions like the
primary  somatosensory cortex---which processes  information about sensations like
touch, pain, and temperature---primary visual  cortex, and primary auditory cortex, as
well as other areas devoted to sensations  like olfaction, taste, and the vestibular
senses.
- The motor areas of the cerebral  cortex are involved with movement, and include regions
like the primary motor cortex,  premotor cortex, and supplementary motor cortex.
Association areas are involved in the integration of information from multiple brain
regions.  
- Cortex man this is what a man would look like if each part grew in relation to the area of the
cortex that controls it.