1. What are the three ways we learn?

learning, modeling, vicarious conditioning

- Learning: a change in behavior, resulting from
experience. (2) The brain changes during learning
- Donald Hebb: learning results from alterations
(1) We learn from experience in the connections between synapses/ when one
a. behaviorism neuron excites another, some change takes
- formal learning theory: based on events others place that strengthens the connection between
could observed the two neurons
- John Watson: observable behavior is the only - long-term potentiation: enhanced activity that
valid indicator of psychological activity -> results from the strengthening of synaptic
behaviorism // environment and its associated connections between neurons/ involve in
effects on animals were the only determinants learning and memory/ hippocampus에서 많이 발
of learning 견됨/ drugs improve learning -> LTP increased
- John Locke: infant is a tabularasa(blank state)/
develops over time by acquiring all of its 2. How do we learn by classical conditioning?
knowledge through sensory experiences
- B. F. Skinner: “Pigeons or rats experiment”-> by (1) Through classical conditioning, we learn that
giving an animal food for doing particular stimuli are related
actions, he could radically change that animal’s - classical conditioning: a type of learned
behavior response in which a neutral object comes to
- learning types = non-associative learning, elicit a response when it is associated with a
associative learning, learning by watching others stimulus that already produces a response

(2) We learn in three ways A. Pavlov’s experiments reveal the four steps in
a. non-associative learning: learns about one classical conditioning
stimulus ⓵ stimulus produces the response(=reflex), no
- habituation: an individual is exposed to a learning is required
stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly -> the - stimulus = “Unconditioned stimulus”(US) =
individual’s behavioral response to that stimulus salivary reflex
decrease / when stimulus is neither harmful - response = “Unconditioned response”(UR) = food
nor rewarding - “Unconditioned” = Unlearned
- sensitization: when an individual is exposed to a ⓶ a neutral stimulus(NS) is presented. neutral
stimulus for a long time, or many times, and stimulus must not be associated with the UR!!
then has an increased behavioral - neutral stimulus = metronome
response/when there is some potential harm or ⓷ conditioning trials
reward - neutral stimulus is presented along with the
unconditioned stimulus that reliably produces
b. associative learning: how two or more pieces of the UR
information are related to each other? develop - “animal is learning” = UR – NS (food –
through two types of conditioning metronome)
- classical conditioning: when you learn two ⓸ critical trial!! -> see evidence that the animal
stimuli go together is classically conditioned
- operant conditioning: when you learn that a - ex. presenting the metronome alone, without the
behavior leads to a particular outcome food, makes the dog salivate
- learning by watching others: observational - at this point, metronome = Conditioned
stimulus(CS) = learned stimulus similar but not identical to the conditioned
- salivation reacted by metronome = Conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
response(CR) = occurs only after conditioning b. Stimulus discrimination
-------------------------------------------- - a differentiation between two similar stimuli
- conditioned response is weaker than the when only one of them is consistently
unconditioned response associated with the unconditioned stimulus
- 두 자극 중 하나는 자신에게 해를 끼칠 수 있으므로
(2) Learning varies in classical conditioning 두 자극을 구분해야 한다
- Pavlov: conditioning is how animals adapt to ---------------------------------------------
their environments - what might happen if another stimulus is added
to the situation?
A. Acquisition - ex. pavlov’s experiment
- the gradual formation of an association between 1st: metronome -> salivation
conditioned and unconditioned stimuli 2nd: metronome + black square -> salivation
- Pavlov: to acquire a learned association, two 3rd: black square -> salivation
stimuli must occur at the same time (하지만...) => black square became the second conditioned
- Now: strongest conditioning occurs when the stimulus
conditioned stimulus is presented slightly before => “Second-order conditioning”
the unconditioned stimulus - ex. money -> desirable objects/ uncle ->
-> conditioned stimulus will predict money => associate uncle with money
unconditioned stimulus
(3) We learn fear responses through classical
B. Extinction conditioning
- a process in which the conditioned response is - phobia: an acquired fear that is very strong in
weakened when the conditioned stimulus is comparison to the real threat of an object or of
repeated without the unconditioned stimulus a situation/ develop through generalization of a
- form of learning that takes the place of the fear experience
previous association
- animals learn the original association no longer A. The case of little Albert
holds true - John Watson
- does not completely eliminate the bond ⓵ loud sound + white rat * several times
⓶ Albert was scared of white rat when there was
C. Spontaneous recovery no loud sound
- a process in which a previously extinguished => US(loud sound) led to a UR(fear)
response reemerges after the conditioned pairing of the CS(rat) with the US(loud sound)
stimulus is presented again SC(rat) led to a CR(fear)
- if CS-US pairings do not continue, it is ⓷ fear response generalized to other stimuli that
extincted again Watson had presented along with the rat at the
initial meeting: rabbit, ball of wool, 걍 하얀 뭉치..
D. Generalization, discrimination, and => phobias could be brought about by classical
second-order conditioning conditioning
- How brain determine stimulus worth ----
responding? - criticism: unethical!!
a. Stimulus generalization
- learning that occurs when stimuli that are B. Counterconditioning
a. Mary Cover Jones: how to reduce phobia? - the strength of the CS-US: how unexpected or
- 토끼 무서워하는 3살 아이에게 맛있는 것을 주면서 토 surprising the US is. (동물이 자극의 원인을 알아내
끼와 점차 가까워지게 했다. 기 위해 고군분투 하므로)
- exposing client to fearful object while having - US가 생존과 직결된 것(ex. foods)일수록, 예상치 못
him/her engaging in an enjoyable task 한 것일수록 classical conditioning이 잘 일어남
=> Counterconditioning
b. Joseph Wolpe -> “Systematic desensitization” 3. How do we learn by operant conditioning?
- exposing client feared stimulus while relaxing - operant conditioning: a learning process in
- CS -> CR(fear) can be broken by developing a which the consequences of an action determine
CS -> CR(relaxation) the likelihood that the action will be performed
- 그러나...: repeated exposure to the feared in the future
stimulus is more important than relaxation
(1) Animals learn through the outcomes of their
(3) Adaptation and cognition influence classical actions
conditioning A. Thorndike’s experiments reveal the effects of
- Pavlov: the strength of the association was action
determined by factors such as the intensity of - “Thorndike’s puzzle box”
the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli of the - 레버를 누르면 문이 열리고 갇혀있던 동물이 빠져나
conditioned/unconditioned stimuli 갈 수 있는 구조. 밖에는 보상으로 먹이가 놓여있다.
- 파블로프 비판: some conditioned stimuli were ⓵ the cat make several unsuccessful attempts to
more likely to produce learning than others escape. Minutes later, the cat accidently step on
the lever and escape
A. Evolutionary influences ⓶ repeat the trial -> the cat more and more
- John Garcia: certain pairings of stimuli are more quickly pushed the lever(나중에는 수 초 안에 탈출)
likely to become associated than others ---------------------------------------------
- ex. conditioned taste aversions (새우 먹고 토함 -> - law of effect: any behavior that leads to a
새우를 다시는 먹지 않는다) satisfying state of affairs is likely to occur
-> easy to produce with smell and taste sense, again. 반대 성립
but they are very difficult to produce with light or
sound (2) Learning varies in operant conditioning
=> because smell and taste are the main cues - B. F. Skinner: “Operant conditioning”
that guide an animal’s eating behavior - -> the learning process in which an action’s
- anials are genetically programmed, or consequences determine how likely that action
biologically prepared, to fear specific objects is to be performed in the future
- reinforcer: a stimulus that occurs after a
B. Cognitive influences response and increases the likelihood that the
- Classical conditioning is a way that animals response will be repeated
come to predict the occurrence of events -> - “Skinner Box”: 레버 누르면 먹이가 나온다
mental process is the basis of conditioning -> lever(operant) is connected to a
- behaviorist와는 반대되는 입장 food(reinforcer)
a. Robert Rescorla: role of cognition in learning ->비판: 박스 안에서는 할 수 있는 일이 한정되어 있
- for learning to take place, the conditioned 기 때문에 동물이 행동을 쉽게 할 수 있으나 박스 밖에
stimulus must accurately predict the US 서는 할 수 있는 다른 것들이 많기 때문에 동물이 쉽게
- a stimulus that occurs before the US is more 실험자가 의도한 행동을 하지는 못할 것이다.
easily conditioned! A. Shaping
- an operant-conditioning technique consists of - ex. painful electric shock, headache, noise,
reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly - 가끔씩 negative reinforcement를 쓰면 상대방은 자
similar to the desired behavior 동적으로 positive reinforcement를 쓰게 되는 경우가
- 원하는 행동을 할 때까지 범위를 좁혀가면서 선택적으 있다. 예를 들어 엄마: 사탕 -> 아이 울음./ 아이: 울
로 보상을 한다(selectively reinforce) 음 -> 사탕
- ex. teach dog surfing
- used to teach people(특히 정신적 장애를 가지고 있 B. Positive and negative punishment
는 사람들 또는 아이들) a. Positive punishment: decrease behavior/ plus
stimulus
B. Reinforcers can be conditioned - electric shock when pressing lever
- primary reinforcers: necessary for survival b. Negative punishment: decrease behavior/ minus
- -> 생존전략 stimulus
- secondary reinforcers: do not directly satisfy - 과속으로 인한 면허정지
biological needs
C. Schedules of partial reinforcement
C. Reinforcer potency a. continuous reinforcement: behavior reinforced
- David Premack each time it occurs
- How a reinforcer’s value could be determined? b. partial reinforcement: occasional reinforcement
-> the amount of time an animal engages in a of behavior is more common in the real world
specific behavior which is associated with the - effect: depends on the reinforcement schedule
reinforcer (when they are free to do anything) - fixed schedule: given on a predictable basis
- can account differences in individual people’s - variable schedule: unpredictable schedule
values - interval schedule: based on the passage of
- “Premack principle” : a more valued activity time
can be used to reinforce the performance of a - ratio schedule: number of behavioral
less valued activity responses
---------------------------------------------
(3) Reinforcement and punishment influence c. fixed interval schedule: reinforcing the
operant conditioning occurrence of a particular behavior after a
a군 predetermined amount of time since the last
- reinforcement: behavior increase reward
- punishment: behavior decrease - scalloping pattern: behavior continually
b군 increases just before the opportunity for
- positive: a stimulus is added reinforcement, and then drops off after
- negative: a stimulus is removed reinforcement
=>a군과 b군을 조합하면 4가지 경우의 수가 나옴 d. variable interval schedule: reinforcing the
occurrence of a particular behavior after and
A. Positive and negative reinforcement unpredictable and varying amount of time since
- increase the likelihood of a certain behavior the last reward
a. Positive reinforcement: increase behavior/ plus - ex. pop quiz schedule
stimulus - lead to more consistent response rates than FI
- reward schedules
b. Negative reinforcement: increase behavior/ e. fixed ratio schedule: reinforcing a particular
minus simulus behavior after that behavior has occurred a
- negative reinforcement != punishment predetermined number of times
- elicit more robust responding than FI schedules - the use of operant conditioning techniques to
- ex. pay a factory worker by the piece / a coffee eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them
card rewards program that gets you a free cup with desirable ones
of coffee - most unwanted behaviors can be unlearned
f. variable ratio schedules: reinforcing a particular a. principle of secondary reinforcement
behavior after the behavior has occurred an - ex. tokens economy : 영어학원 다닐 때 달란트 받
unpredictable and varying number of times 는 것랑 비슷한 듯
- ex. slot machine - reward: give participants a sense of control
over their environment
=> 216p 표 참고
- the schedule of reinfocement also effects how (5) Biology and cognition influence operant
long a behavior persists conditioning
- continuous reinforcement: highly effective for A. Dopamine activity affects reinforcement
teaching a behavior - positive reinforcement works in two ways
- reinforce stopped -> the behavior is quickly ⓵ provides the subjective experience of pleasure
extinguished ⓶ increases the desire for the object or event
g. partial-reinforcement extinction effect: the that produced the pleasure
greater persistence of behavior under partial - operant conditioning is the result of the
reinforcement than under continuous neurotransmitter dopamine
reinforcement
B. Biology constrains reinforcement
(4) Operant conditioning affects our lives - 본성과 반대되는 행위를 배우는 것은 쉽지 않다.
A. Parental punishment is ineffective a. experiment of “Marian and Keller Breland”
- for punishment to e effective, it must be - raccoon rubbed the coin instead place it in
reasonable, unpleasant, and applied immediately piggy bank
so that the relationship between the unwanted - conditioning is most effective when the
behavior and the punishment is clear -> 헷갈릴 association between the response and the
가능성 존재 reinforcement is consistent with the animal’s
- 좋은 행동과 처벌이 잘못 연결되는 경우: 자백-벌 -> buil-in-biological predispositions
진실되는 것이 처벌과 연결되면 아이는 거짓을 말하는
방법을 배우게 된다. C. Learning without reinforcement
- lead to negative emotions – fear, anxiety -> - learning can take place without reinforcement
may become associated with the person who - Edward Tolman – reinforcement has more
administers the punishment impact on performance than on acquisition of
- fails to offset the reinforcing aspects of the knowledge through learning
undesired behavior -> 잘못된 행동으로 인해 얻는 a. “Tolman’s experiment”
보상을 처벌이 상쇄하지 못할 때도 있다. ex. 손가락을 - 가정: each rat developed a cognitive map
빠는 행위 -> 안정감, 배고픔 해소 / 이 보상을 처벌 - (cognitive map: a visuospatial mental
이 상쇄x representation of an environment)
- physical punishment: inefficient - 실험: rats had to reach the goal box in the
-> poor parent/child relation, weaker moral complex maze. reward is food
values, mental health problems,... group⓵: traveled through the maze, but received
- positive reinforcement is better than physical no reinforcement
punishment for engaging in better behaviors group⓶: received reinforcement every trial
B. Behavior Modification group⓷: received reinforcement only after the
first 10 trials - we are not aware that our behavior are being
- result(the average errors rats made) altered
1. wandered maze slowly. slowest - “Adolescent smoking”
2. found the box faster and with fewer errors
each time they tried C. Learning through vicarious conditioning
3. before 10 days: slow like group1 - vicarious conditioning: learning the
after 10 days: suddenly the rats became very consequences of an action by watching others
quick and accurate being rewarded or punished for performing the
- 결론: the third group of rats had learned a action
cognitive map of the maze all along. but they a. “Bandura’s experiment”
did not use it until 10 days – latent learning - controled conditions (3 versions-childeren watch
------- them)
- latent learning: learning that takes place in the ⓵ adult experienced no consequences for the
absence of reinforcement aggressive behavior
- insight learning: without reinforcement/ a ⓶ rewarded
sudden understanding of how to solve a ⓷ punished
problem after a period of either inaction or - children watched three types of situation..
thinking about the problem -> ⓶번 본 아이들이 더 공격적 행동을 함
- learning is in the middle of acquisition and
4. How do we learn by watching others? performance. In this case, the children acquired
- learning by watching others: observational aggressive behavior, so if they can get reward,
learning, modeling, vicarious conditioning they’ll do aggressive behavior

(1) Three ways we learn through watching (2) Watching others results in cultural
a. observational learning: the acquisition or transmission
modification of a behavior after exposure to at - enormous cultural diversity in what people think
least one performance of that behavior and how they behave
- powerful adaptive tool - each piece of knowldege about a culture that
can be shared = meme
A. Bandura’s research reveals learning through a. meme
observation - learned by watching the behavior of other
a. Albert Bandura’s experiment - selectively passed on from one generation to the
- two groups of children next(just like genes)
- make them see violence to bobo(doll)/ playing - “Imo, the macaque monkey”
with bobo -> 한 원숭이가 고구마 바닷물에 씻어먹는 것을 본
- exposing children to violence is associated with 다른 원숭이도 그 행동을 따라했다.
acting aggressively
(3) Biology influences observational learning
B. Learning through modeling a. mirror neuron: activated when you observe
- modeling: the imitation of behavior through someone making a movement that has some goal,
observational learning such as reaching for a glass of water
- “Early modeling” : babies model others - similar neural circuits are firing in your brain
- we are likely to imitate the actions of models and in the other’s brain
who are attractive, have high status, and similar - may support observational learning but does not
to ourselves always lead that person to actually imitate the
 behavior being observed
- “neural basis for empathy”
-> ex. 다른 사람이 종이에 베이는 것을 볼 때 움찔하
는 것.