3.

1 Definition of a Group 141

3. Each of e and b is its own inverse, and c and a are inverses of each other.
4. This multiplication is commutative.
This multiplication is also associative, but we shall not verify it here because it is a labori-
ous task. It follows that G is an abelian group. ■

Example 7 The table in Figure 3.5 defines a binary operation p on the set S 5
{A, B, C, D}.

* A B C D
A B C A B
B C D B A
C A B C D
D A B D D
■ Figure 3.5

From the table, we make the following observations:

1. S is closed under p.
2. C is an identity element.
3. D does not have an inverse since DX 5 C has no solution.
Thus S is not a group with respect to p. ■

Definition 3.3 ■ Finite Group, Infinite Group, Order of a Group

If a group G has a finite number of elements, G is called a finite group, or a group of finite
order. The number of elements in G is called the order of G and is denoted by either
o(G) or 0 G 0 . If G does not have a finite number of elements, G is called an infinite group.

Example 8 In Example 3, the group

G 5 5e, r, r2, s, g, d6
has order o(G) 5 6. In Example 5, o(Zn) 5 n. The set Z of all integers is a group under ad-
dition, and this is an example of an infinite group. If A is an infinite set, then S(A) furnishes
an example of an infinite group. ■

Exercises 3.1
True or False
Label each of the following statements as either true or false.
1. The identity element in a group G is its own inverse.
2. If G is an abelian group, then x!1 " x for all x in G.
142 Chapter 3 Groups

3. Let G be a group that is not abelian. Then xy 2 yx for all x and y in G.

4. The set of all nonzero elements in Z8 is an abelian group with respect to multiplication.
5. The Cayley table for a group will always be symmetric with respect to the diagonal
from upper left to lower right.
6. If a set is closed with respect to the operation, then every element must have an inverse.

Exercises
In Exercises 1–12, decide whether each of the given sets is a group with respect to the
indicated operation. If it is not a group, state a condition in Definition 3.1 that fails to hold.
1. The set of all rational numbers with operation addition.
2. The set of all irrational numbers with operation addition.
3. The set of all positive irrational numbers with operation multiplication.
4. The set of all positive rational numbers with operation multiplication.
5. The set of all real numbers x such that 0 , x # 1, with operation multiplication.
6. For a fixed positive integer n, the set of all complex numbers x such that x n 5 1 (that
is, the set of all nth roots of 1), with operation multiplication.
7. The set of all complex numbers x that have absolute value 1, with operation multipli-
cation. Recall that the absolute value of a complex number x written in the form
x 5 a 1 bi, with a and b real, is given by 0 x 0 5 0 a 1 bi 0 5 !a2 1 b2.
8. The set in Exercise 7 with operation addition.
9. The set E of all even integers with operation addition.
10. The set E of all even integers with operation multiplication.
11. The set of all multiples of a positive integer n with operation addition.
12. The set of all multiples of a positive integer n with operation multiplication.
In Exercises 13 and 14, the given table defines an operation of multiplication on the set
S 5 {e, a, b, c}. In each case, find a condition in Definition 3.1 that fails to hold, and
thereby show that S is not a group.
13. See Figure 3.6.
14. See Figure 3.7.

3 e a b c 3 e a b c
e e a b c e e a b c
a a b a b a e a b c
b b c b c b e a b c
c c e c e c e a b c
■ Figure 3.6 ■ Figure 3.7
 3.1 Definition of a Group 143

In Exercises 15–20, let the binary operation p be defined on Z by the given rule. Determine
in each case whether Z is a group with respect to p and whether it is an abelian group. State
which, if any, conditions fail to hold.
15. x p y 5 x 1 y 1 1 16. x p y 5 x 1 y 2 1

17. x p y 5 x 1 xy 18. x p y 5 xy 1 y

19. x p y 5 x 1 xy 1 y 20. x p y 5 x 2 y

In Exercises 21–26, decide whether each of the given sets is a group with respect to the
indicated operation. If it is not a group, state all of the conditions in Definition 3.1 that fail
to hold. If it is a group, state its order.
21. The set 5314, 3346 8 Z8 with operation multiplication.

22. The set 5 314 , 324, 334, 344 6 8 Z5 with operation multiplication.

23. The set 5 304 , 324, 344 6 8 Z8 with operation multiplication.

24. The set 5 304 , 324, 344, 364, 384 6 8 Z10 with operation multiplication.

25. The set 5 304 , 324, 344, 364, 384 6 8 Z10 with operation addition.

26. The set 5 304 , 324, 344, 364 6 8 Z8 with operation addition.

27. a. Let G 5 5 3a4 0 3a4 2 304 6 8 Zn. Show that G is a group with respect to multiplica-
Sec. 3.4, #11 # tion in Zn if and only if n is a prime. State the order of G.
Sec. 3.5, #17 # b. Construct a multiplication table for the group G of all nonzero elements in Z7,
Sec. 4.4, #13, 20 # and identify the inverse of each element.

28. Let G be the set of eight elements G 5 {1, i, j, k, 21, 2i, 2j, 2k} with identity ele-
ment 1 and noncommutative multiplication given by†

(21)2 5 1,
i2 5 j2 5 k2 5 21,
ij 5 2ji 5 k,
jk 5 2kj 5 i,
Sec. 3.3, #18a, 27a # ki 5 2ik 5 j,
Sec. 3.4, #2 # 2x 5 (21)x 5 x(21) for all x in G.
Sec. 3.5, #11 #
Sec. 4.4, #17 # (The circular order of multiplication is indicated by the diagram in Figure 3.8.) Given
Sec. 4.5, #10 # that G is a group of order 8, write out the multiplication table for G. This group is
Sec. 4.6, #3, 11, 16 # known as the quaternion group.

†
In a multiplicative group, a2 is defined by a2 5 a ? a.
144 Chapter 3 Groups

i
k

■ Figure 3.8 j

29. A permutation matrix is a matrix that can be obtained from an identity matrix In by
interchanging the rows one or more times (that is, by permuting the rows). For n 5 3,
the permutation matrices are I3 and the five matrices

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
P1 5 C 0 0 1S P2 5 C 1 0 0S P3 5 C 0 0 1S
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
P4 5 C 0 1 0S P5 5 C 1 0 0S .
1 0 0 0 1 0
Sec. 3.3, #18c, 27c #
Sec. 3.4, #5 # Given that G 5 {I3, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5} is a group of order 6 with respect to matrix mul-
Sec. 4.2, #6 # tiplication, write out a multiplication table for G.
30. Consider the matrices
0 21 1 0 21 0
R5 B R H5 B R V5 B R
1 0 0 21 0 1
0 1 0 21
D5 B R T5 B R
1 0 21 0
Sec. 3.3, #18b, 27b #
Sec. 4.1, #20 # in M2(R), and let G 5 {I2, R, R2, R3, H, D, V, T}. Given that G is a group of order 8
Sec. 4.6, #14 # with respect to multiplication, write out a multiplication table for G.
31. Prove or disprove that the set of all diagonal matrices in Mn(R) forms a group with
respect to addition.
32. Let G be the set of all matrices in M3(R) that have the form

a 0 0
C0 b 0S
0 0 c

with all three numbers a, b, and c nonzero. Prove or disprove that G is a group with
respect to multiplication.
 3.2 Properties of Group Elements 145

33. Let G be the set of all matrices in M3(R) that have the form
1 a b
C0 1 cS
0 0 1
for arbitrary real numbers a, b, and c. Prove or disprove that G is a group with respect
to multiplication.
34. Prove or disprove that the set G in Exercise 32 is a group with respect to addition.
35. Prove or disprove that the set G in Exercise 33 is a group with respect to addition.
36. For an arbitrary set A, the power set p(A) was defined in Section 1.1 by p(A) 5
{X 0 X 8 A}, and addition in p(A) was defined by
X 1 Y 5 (X c Y) 2 (X d Y)
5 (X 2 Y) c (Y 2 X).

a. Prove that p(A) is a group with respect to this operation of addition.

b. If A has n distinct elements, state the order of p(A).
Sec. 1.1, #7c @ 37. Write out the elements of p(A) for the set A 5 {a, b, c}, and construct an addition
table for p(A) using addition as defined in Exercise 36.
Sec. 1.1, #7c @ 38. Let A 5 {a, b, c}. Prove or disprove that p(A) is a group with respect to the operation
of union.
Sec. 1.1, #7c @ 39. Let A 5 {a, b, c}. Prove or disprove that p(A) is a group with respect to the operation
of intersection.

3.2 Properties of Group Elements

Several consequences of the definition of a group are recorded in Theorem 3.4.

Strategy ■ Parts a and b of the next theorem are statements about uniqueness, and they can be
proved by the standard type of uniqueness proof: Assume that two such quantities exist,
and then prove the two to be equal.

Theorem 3.4 ■ Properties of Group Elements

Let G be a group with respect to a binary operation that is written as multiplication.

a. The identity element e in G is unique.

b. For each x [ G, the inverse x21 in G is unique.
c. For each x [ G, (x21)21 5 x.