Original Research

Acute Effect of Eccentric Overload Exercises on

Change of Direction Performance and Lower-Limb
Muscle Contractile Function
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Marco Beato,1 Marc Madruga-Parera,2 Francisco Piqueras-Sanchiz,3 Victor Moreno-Pérez,4 and

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Daniel Romero-Rodriguez2
1
School of Health and Sports Science, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom; 2EUSES Health and Sport Sciences School,
University of Girona, Girona, Spain; 3Faculty of Sport Sciences, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain; and 4Sports Research
Center, Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, Alicante, Spain

Abstract
Beato, M, Madruga-Parera, M, Piqueras-Sanchiz, F, Moreno-Pérez, V, and Romero-Rodriguez, D. Acute effect of eccentric
overload exercises on change of direction performance and lower-limb muscle contractile function. J Strength Cond Res 35(12):
3327–3333, 2021—This study aimed to evaluate the postactivation potentiation (PAP) effects following eccentric overload (EOL)
exercises on change of direction (COD) performance and muscle contractile function. Thirty-one male soccer players (age 21 6 4
years; body mass 77.0 6 5.2 kg) were involved in a cross-sectional study. Dominant-leg (COD-5mD) and non-dominant-leg
(COD-5mND) shuttle tests were performed 4 minutes after the EOL exercises. Muscle contractile function was assessed by
tensiomyography (TMG) such as muscle contraction time (Tc), time delay (Td) and displacement of the muscle belly (Dm) of vastus
lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), and rectus femoris (RF). Eccentric overload exercises were: (a) cross-cutting step with inertial
conical pulley (INC 5 11 subjects), (b) flywheel leg extension (EXT 5 10 subjects), and flywheel yo-yo squat exercise (SQU 5 10
subjects). Differences baseline-post were found on COD-5mD (p , 0.001) and on COD-5mND (p , 0.001), but not between
groups (p . 0.05) following EOL exercises. Differences from baseline were found in VL Td (p , 0.001), VM Td (p 5 0.003), RF Tc
(p , 0.001), and RF Td (p , 0.001) with no significant differences between the EOL exercises. This study reported a significant
positive PAP response on COD-5mD and COD-5mND after 4 minutes of recovery after EOL exercises (INC, EXT and SQU) in
soccer players. For the first time, it has been reported that EOL exercises acutely affect TMG variables (e.g., Tc and Td) in lower
limbs. Such results related to changes in muscular contractile functions may contribute to explain the physiological mechanisms
(e.g., neuromuscular factors) associated with PAP effect.
Key Words: warm-up, power, flywheel, postactivation potentiation, training

Introduction Flywheel ergometers are innovative strength devices (11,31)

Postactivation potentiation (PAP) is a physiological phenomenon
related to acute neuromuscular and performance improvements
(15,16). The most recognized mechanism of PAP is the greater
sensitivity to calcium (Ca21) because of the myosin regulatory
light chain (RLC) phosphorylation (22,32), which increases the
rate and level of force generated by the myofilaments because of
the increase in the number of cross-bridges formed (8,30). Pre-
vious researchers have reported that PAP can be stimulated using
a preload exercise (3,5,30). Indeed, several traditional weight-
lifting exercises have been used for such purposes, e.g., hip-thrust
and back squat (3,18). Generally, a positive PAP response (after
a preload activity) is reported after a short recovery period
(around 3 minutes) and such beneficial effects may persist 10–12
minutes after the activity (2,3,30). Previous studies have reported
sport-specific improvements in sprinting and jumping activities
(3). Therefore, PAP may be used to increase the performance of
a sport-specific task by a preload strategy, which is its main ap-
plication in sport (18).
Address correspondence to Dr. Marco Beato, M.Beato@uos.ac.uk.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 35(12)/3327–3333
ª 2019 National Strength and Conditioning Association
and one of the most unique characteristics of such ergometers is
related to the high eccentric demand required of the athletes
during exercises (28,33). For this reason, such exercise methods
are defined as eccentric overload (EOL) (6,11). Eccentric overload
offers the opportunity to generate a peak eccentric muscular force
greater than the maximal force produced during the concentric
contraction (23,31). This is very difficult to achieve during tra-
ditional weightlifting exercises (e.g., squat) (34). Flywheel devices
have been used with positive results to stimulate PAP during
sprinting and jumping activities (6,15). Moreover, after an EOL
exercise some acute positive changes were reported in quadriceps
and hamstring concentric peak torque (60°·s21), and in hamstring
eccentric peak torque (60°·s21) during isokinetic tests (6). Despite
such practical advantages and strong physiological rationale, the
current knowledge on PAP response following EOL exercises is
limited (6,10). This is particularly important considering the
acute effects on change of direction (COD) tasks (5,15).
The critical importance of COD in multidirectional sports has
been frequently reported (4,24,37). COD ability is defined as the
capacity to decelerate quickly and accelerate in a new direction
(36). COD performance, especially the deceleration phase, turn-
ing, and acceleration is characterized by high eccentric and con-
centric force production (38,39). Therefore, considering the

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 Effect of EOL on COD and Contractile Function (2021) 35:12
specificity of COD, a PAP protocol induced by an EOL exercise
may be beneficial in positively influencing performance (15).
Moreover, the acute PAP effect may also be related to the EOL
exercise used. In a recent study, it was reported that PAP effect on
a movement is associated with the vector direction of the pre-
exercise performed relative to the athlete (17). For instance,
a specific horizontal preload exercise (e.g., cross cutting step) may
be more specific and, therefore, may offer a higher increment in
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performance in a horizontal test (e.g., COD) compared with
a vertical loading preload exercise (e.g., squat) (5,17). This is an
interesting hypothesis that has yet to be investigated.
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Muscle contractile function can be evaluated in vivo by
a noninvasive intramuscular pressure-detecting method known as
tensiomyography (TMG) (25,26). Tensiomyography has been
used to assess sports performance and muscle contraction prop-
erties (21). Previous studies reported that TMG permits the
evaluation of fluctuations in passive muscle stiffness, which is
related to fatigue and to a decrement in muscle tension after
exercises (40). Tensiomyography has reported a good-to-excel-
lent test-retest reliability for contraction time (Tc) and maximal
radial displacement of the muscle belly (Dm) (25); such in-
formation is critical for the use of TMG in sport. Piqueras-Sanchiz
et al. (25) recently observed some acute variations in contractile
functions following an EOL exercise. Therefore, TMG may be
useful to evaluate specific muscle acute changes (e.g., muscle
stiffness assessed by Dm and muscle contraction velocity at 10%
Dm [V10]) following an EOL exercise (21). For instance, an in-
crement in stiffness (decrement in Dm) in the musculotendinous
unit would induce a higher force-generation (19). Likewise, an
increment in muscle contraction velocity is associated with posi-
tive muscle performance enhancements (25). As previously
reported, EOL can be used to stimulate a PAP response (which is
associated with phosphorylation of myosin RLCs and augmented
H-reflex) (30); therefore TMG may help explain the acute per-
formance improvements found in sport tasks (e.g., COD). Further
knowledge on acute effects of EOL exercise on muscle contractile
functions and on COD performance is needed for practitioners to
optimize PAP strategies using flywheel devices.
Although EOL is a valid method to stimulate a PAP response in
sport specific tasks, information related to COD and TMG are
limited after such a type of protocol. Therefore, the aims of this
study were, first, to evaluate the acute effect of 3 EOL protocols
on a sport-specific short shuttle run involving a COD of 180°; and
second, to compare the PAP effects on TMG parameters in lower-
limb muscles. Such knowledge may play a critical role for strength
and conditioning practitioners.
Methods
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The acute effects of EOL on COD performance and muscle
contractile function were investigated in the present cross-
sectional study (Figure 1). Each subject attended the laboratory
on 4 separate occasions. In the first 2 sessions, subjects performed
the baseline tests (COD and TMG). After that subjects were
randomly assigned (balanced per group) to one of the following
conditions (EOL exercises): (a) cross-cutting step using an inertial
resistance conical pulley (INC 5 11 subjects); (b) flywheel leg
extension (EXT 5 10 subjects); or (c) flywheel yo-yo squat ex-
ercise (SQU 5 10 subjects). After 4 minutes of passive recovery,
each subject performed, randomly, COD and TMG (in 2 separate
sessions). This specific time window was used to minimize
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transient fatigue and was based on previous studies (3,6). Spe-
cifically, the onset of a PAP time window has been recently
identified at 3 minutes after a flywheel squat exercise (6). A
standardized warm-up was conducted at each session, including
10 minutes of standardized running (speed 5 9 km·h21) and
dynamic mobilization (static stretching was not permitted). Dy-
namic mobilization was performed immediately after the running
warm-up for a duration of 3 minutes and consisted of dynamic
movements such as squats and hip, knee, and ankle movements
(each group performed the same warm-up protocol) (5).
Subjects
Thirty-one male amateur soccer players were enrolled in this
study (mean 6 SD: age 21 6 4 years, range 17–26 years; body
mass 77.0 6 5.2 kg; and height 1.82 6 0.04 m). INC group had
the following characteristics: age 21 6 3 years, body mass 76.0 6
5.5 kg, height 1.83 6 0.03 m; EXT group: 21 6 5 years, 76.0 6
5.1 kg, height 1.81 6 0.04 m; and SQU group: 21 6 4 years, 78.0
6 5.2 kg, height 1.83 6 0.04 m. Body mass and height were
recorded by Stadiometer (Seca 286dp; SECA, Hamberg, Ger-
many). Inclusive criteria to participation were the absence of any
injury or illness (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire), and
regular participation in training activities (a minimum of 3
training sessions per week) as used in previous research (6).
Subjects were previously familiarized with EOL exercises and test
procedures as components of their soccer training and testing
routine. All subjects were informed about the potential risks and
benefits of the current procedures and gave written informed
consent (if under 18, written parental consent was obtained). The
Catalan Sports Council Ethics Committee approved this study
(Barcelona, Spain). All procedures were conducted according to
the Declaration of Helsinki for studies involving human subjects.
Procedures
Change of Direction Ability (COD-5m). COD ability was tested
using the 5-m shuttle run consisting of 2 3 5-m sprints separated by
a dominant leg (COD-5mD) or nondominant leg (COD-5mND)
180° turn as typical in many sports (9). The rationale of the use of
this COD test to evaluate acute PAP responses has been recently
reported (5). One pair of infrared timing gates (Microgate, Bol-
zano, Italy) was positioned at the common start and end locations
of the COD task. Tests started on the “Go” command from
a standing position, with the front foot 0.2 m from the photocell
beam (4). An excellent test-retest reliability was found in the present
study: intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) 5 0.93.
Tensiomyography. The TMG procedure used in the current study
followed that reported by Loturco et al. (20). The measurements
on the quadriceps were performed with the athletes in a supine
position. The procedure for electrode placement between con-
secutive measurements, and the description of electric stimulation
was previously reported (25). Maximum radial displacement of
muscle (Dm), contraction time (Tc), and time delay (Td) were
recorded for the vastus medialis (VM), rectus femoris (RF), and
vastus lateralis (VL) of the dominant leg using one TMG device
(TMG Measurement System; TMG-BMC Ltd., Ljubljana, Slov-
enia). Dm corresponds to the radial movement of the muscular
belly expressed in millimeters and is related to the rigidity of the
muscular belly. The Tc is obtained by determining the time in-
terval from 10 to 90% of Dm, whereas Td represents the time (in
milliseconds) from onset to 10% of Dm (25). Mean velocities of
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Figure 1. Experimental procedure. CODs 5 changes of direction; TMG 5 tensiomyography; INC 5 cross-cutting step; EXT 5
flywheel leg extension; and SQU 5 squat exercise.
muscle contraction (mm·s21) from the onset of electrical stimu-
lation until 10% (V10) and 90% (V90) of Dm were recorded.
TMG has reported an excellent test-retest reliability for Tc and
Dm such as 0.97 (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.92–0.99) and
0.96 (CI 0.89–0.98), respectively (12,25). The reliability in TMG
parameters in the current study (ICC 5 0.91–0.96, excellent) is in
line with previous research.
Inertial-Conic Cross-Cutting Step (INC). A cross-cutting step
(Figure 2A) using an inertial resistance produced by a conical
pulley was used in this study (11). Rotational inertia was pro-
duced by Eccotek Training Force (Byomedic System; SCP, Bar-
celona, Spain) consisting of a metallic disk (diameter: 0.42 m)
with 18 weights (0.421 kg and 0.057 m of diameter each). The
total moment of inertia was 0.194 kg·m2 based on a previous
pilot study. The subjects executed 4 sets of 6 repetitions with
each leg; the rationale for using a combination of multi-sets (29)
and repetitions for PAP have been previously reported (5,6). A
standard recovery time of 1 minute between sets and 2 minutes
between legs was used. The rationale for 2 minutes of recovery
between sets was based on the following article (6). The above
rationales for inertial load, sets, repetitions, and recovery time
were used for each exercise condition (EXT and SQU). A qual-
ified strength and conditioning coach gave feedback during the
cross-cutting step exercise and during flywheel leg extension and
squat exercise.
Flywheel Leg Extension (EXT). Flywheel leg extension
(Figure 2B) was performed with Eccophysic Training Force ma-
chine (Byomedic System; SCP) in this study. The moment of in-
ertia used during the exercise was 0.072 kg·m2. This value was
that which was based (and adjusted considered the unilaterality of
the exercise) on previous studies using an inertia between 0.06
and 0.1 kg·m2, which reported positive acute and chronic
responses after EOL exercises (5,25). The subjects sat on the
machine with a hip and knee angle of 90°. The leg extension
movement was performed unilaterally. The concentric power was
calculated during the knee extension phase, whereas eccentric
power was calculated during the knee flexion phase. The first 2
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repetitions were performed submaximally to acquire momentum,
whereas the 6 following repetitions were maximal. The subjects
executed 4 sets for each limb. The recovery time between each
unilateral set was 1 minute with 2 minutes between exercise using
the same leg (5,6).
Squat Exercise (SQU). The unilateral squat exercise (Figure 2C)
was performed using an Eccopower Training Force cylinder
(Byomedic System; SCP). The moment of inertia used to perform
the exercise was 0.072 kg·m2 (which was adjusted based on the
unilaterality of the exercise). The exercise was performed with
one foot on the flywheel platform and the other positioned pos-
teriorly to maintain balance during execution. The subjects were
instructed to perform the concentric phase with maximal velocity
and to control the eccentric phase until the knees were flexed to
approximately 90° (6). Each subject performed 4 sets with each
leg, with a recovery period of 1 minute between each set. The first
2 repetitions were performed in a submaximal way to acquire
momentum, whereas the 6 following repetitions were maximal.
Statistical Analyses
Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software version
20 for Windows 7 (Chicago, IL). Data were presented as mean 6
SD. The test-retest reliability was assessed using an ICC two-way
mixed model and interpreted as follows: $ 0.9 5 excellent; $0.8
5 good; $0.7 5 acceptable; $0.6 5 questionable; $0.5 5 poor;
,0.5 5 unacceptable (1). Shapiro-Wilk test was used for check-
ing the normality (assumption). Analysis of covariance, using
baseline values as covariate, was used to detect possible between-
groups differences (14). When significant F values were found,
post-hoc analysis was performed (with Bonferroni corrections
applied to the alpha value). Statistical significance was set at p ,
0.05. Robust estimates of 95% Confidence intervals (CI) of delta
difference were calculated using the bootstrapping technique
(1,000 randomly bootstrapped samples) (13). Effect size (ES)
based on the Cohen d principle was reported with 95% CI and
interpreted as: trivial ,0.2; 0.2 #small , 0.6; 0.6 # moderate ,
1.2; 1.2 # large , 2.0; very large . 2.0 (14).
 Effect of EOL on COD and Contractile Function (2021) 35:12
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Figure 2. Eccentric overload PAP: (A) cross-cutting step (INC); (B) flywheel leg extension
(EXT); (C) squat exercise (SQU). PAP 5 postactivation potentiation.
Results
No between-groups differences were found on COD-5mD (F 5
0.38, p 5 0.686) and on COD-5mND (F 5 0.99, p 5 0.382).
Groups (INC, EXT, SQU) and time (baseline and post) variations
on COD-5mD and COD-5mND are reported in Figure 3.
No statistically significant differences between groups for COD-
5mD (F 5 0.22, p 5 0.804) and COD-5mND (F 5 0.55, p 5 0.583)
data. Differences within (time) were found on COD-5mD (F 5
22.09, p , 0.001) and on COD-5mND (F 5 18.43, p , 0.001).
COD-5mD reported a significant difference after INC (p 5
0.024, ES 5 0.80, moderate), EXT (p 5 0.043, ES 5 0.74,
Figure 3. PAP time window on COD-5mD (A) and COD-
5mND (B) performance after INC (n 5 11), EXT (n 5 10), and
SQU (n 5 10). Data reported as mean 6 95% confidence
interval. Cross-cutting step (INC), flywheel leg extension (EXT),
and squat exercise (SQU). PAP 5 postactivation potentiation.
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moderate), and SQU (p 5 0.002, ES 5 1.42, large), and COD-
5mND reported a significant difference after INC (p 5 0.022, ES
5 0.81, moderate), EXT (p 5 0.030, ES 5 0.81, moderate), and
SQU (p 5 0.047, ES 5 0.72, moderate).
Statistically significant differences from baseline to post-EOL
exercises were found in TMG variables: VL Dm (F 5 22.24, p ,
0.001), VL Tc (F 5 1.49, p 5 0.232), VL Td (F 5 12.55, p , 0.001),
VL V10 (F 5 14.90, p , 0.001), VL V90 (F 5 17.93, p , 0.001),
VM Dm (F 5 1,020, p , 0.001), VM Tc (F 5 0.53, p 5 0.473), VM
Td (F 5 10.91, p 5 0.003), VM V10 (F 5 4.22, p 5 0.049), VM V90
(F 5 6.14, p 5 0.020), RF Dm (F 5 13.48, p 5 0.001), RF Tc (F 5
47.39, p , 0.001), RF Td (F 5 29.14, p , 0.001), RF V10 (F 5 6.11,
p 5 0.020), and RF V90 (F 5 8.74, p 5 0.006). A post-hoc analysis
within (time) on VL, VM, and RF, for groups (INC, EXT, and SQU)
were reported in Tables 1–3, respectively.
Statistically significant differences between groups (INC, EXT, and
SQU) were not found on VL Dm (p 5 0.686), VL Tc (p 5 0.212), VL
Td (p 5 0.219), VL V10 (p 5 0.607), VL V90 (p 5 0.74), VM Dm (p
5 0.096), VM Tc (p 5 0.474), VM Td (0.893), VM V10 (p 5 0.098),
VM V90 (p 5 0.113), RF Dm (p 5 0.654), RF Tc (p 5 0.258), RF Td
(p 5 0.969), RF V10 (p 5 0.610), or RF V90 (p 5 0.636). Therefore,
post-hoc analysis between groups was not performed.
Discussion
This study reported a significant positive PAP response on COD-5mD
and COD-5mND after 4 minutes of recovery after INC, EXT and
SQU exercises; a time effect has been found for TMG variables such as
Dm and Td in VM, VL, and RF; however, such COD and muscular
function changes are independent of preload exercise type (exercise
groups). This study reports that COD performance improvements
may be related to augmented muscle contractile functions and such
improvement is independent from the preload activity used; therefore,
researchers and practitioners should consider these new findings to
develop suitable conditioning methods and maximize PAP responses
before competitions and during training sessions.
The current study evaluated the PAP effect (after a recovery of 4
minutes) of 3 flywheel exercises (INC, EXT, SQU) showing significant
improvements in COD-5mD and COD-5mND. In detail, EOL
exercises reported a positive PAP (time) effect in COD-5mD after INC
(ES 5 0.80, moderate), EXT (ES 5 0.74, moderate), and SQU (ES 5
1.42, large), whereas in COD-5mND effects were reported after INC
(ES 5 0.81, moderate), EXT (ES 5 0.81, moderate), and SQU (ES 5
0.72, moderate). Such findings are commensurate with the current
literature that supports the positive EOL effect on acute performance
enhancements (6,27,35). A previous study has reported a PAP effect
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Table 1
Summary of baseline and postintervention (PAP) data for each group INC (n 5 11), EXT (n 5 10), and SQU (n 5 10).*†
Variable Baseline mean 6 SDs Post mean 6 SDs Delta difference (95% CI) p-level Effect size (95% CI) Qualitative assessment
Vastus lateralis
Dm INC (mm) 4.82 6 1.43 3.67 6 1.45 1.14 (0.83 to 1.62) ,0.001 1.90 (0.87 to 2.89) large
Dm EXT (mm) 4.46 6 1.71 3.14 6 0.80 1.32 (0.36 to 2.26) 0.012 0.99 (0.20 to 1.74) moderate
Dm SQU (mm) 3.72 6 1.13 3.71 6 1.18 0.01 (20.49 to 0.50) 0.989 0.01 (20.61 to 0.62) trivial
Tc INC (ms) 20.71 6 2.19 19.87 6 2.06 0.84 (20.65 to 1.84) 0.155 0.46 (20.17 to 1.07) small
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Tc EXT (ms) 19.95 6 1.37 18.72 6 1.29 1.22 (0.63 to 1.87) 0.010 1.03 (0.24 to 1.79) moderate
Tc SQU (ms) 18.77 6 1.70 19.70 6 1.33 20.93 (22.69 to 0.61) 0.197 20.44 (21.08 to 0.22) small
Td INC (ms) 22.30 6 2.40 20.71 6 1.33 1.58 (0.45 to 2.95) 0.019 0.84 (0.13 to 1.51) moderate
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Td EXT (ms) 21.71 6 1.65 20.86 6 1.73 0.84 (0.49 to 1.18) 0.004 1.23 (0.38 to 2.05) large
Td SQU (ms) 20.63 6 1.66 20.05 6 1.45 0.57 (20.41 to 1.58) 0.346 0.31 (20.33 to 0.94) small
V10 INC (mm·s21) 21.28 6 5.21 17.51 6 6.41 3.37 (1.64 to 5.89) 0.003 1.18 (0.38 to 1.95) moderate
V10 EXT (mm·s21) 20.02 6 14.31 14.31 6 3.34 5.70 (1.58 to 9.81) 0.012 0.99 (0.20 to 1.74) moderate
V10 SQU (mm·s21) 17.23 6 5.83 18.27 6 5.51 21.04 (22.88 to 0.79) 0.230 20.40 (21.04 to 0.25) small
V90 INC (mm·s21) 97.14 6 22.43 78.93 6 26.55 18.21 (9.64 to 26.79) ,0.001 1.42 (0.55 to 2.26) large
V90 EXT (mm·s21) 92.82 6 32.64 68.86 6 16.26 23.95 (4.39 to 4.51) 0.022 0.87 (0.12 to 1.59) moderate
V90 SQU (mm·s21) 80.93 6 28.39 81.44 6 26.12 20.50 (27.86 to 6.86) 0.880 20.05 (20.66 to 0.57) trivial
*PAP 5 postactivation potentiation; CI 5 Confidence interval; Dm 5 Maximum radial displacement of muscle; Tc 5 Time contraction; Td 5 Time delay; INC 5 Cross cutting step; EXT 5 Flywheel leg
extension; SQU 5 Squat exercise; V10 5 mean velocities until 10% of Dm contraction; V90 5 mean velocities until 90% (V90) of Dm contraction.
†Data are presented in mean 6 SDs.

on vertical jump height and vertical peak power after an EOL exercise
(6), and COD and short sprint time after a flywheel-based exercise
involving male soccer players (15). Furthermore, a recent study found
performance improvements after 3–6 minutes of passive recovery
after an EOL PAP protocol on jumping (vertical and long jump) and
COD performance (5), which confirm the results of the current study.
A proposal based on previous research is that the PAP response
may be specific to the preload protocol, because kinetic responses
and therefore COD performance may be associated with the spe-
cific directional loading nature of the preload exercises (e.g., hori-
zontal loading during INC vs. vertical loading during SQU) (17).
For this reason, INC exercise may be suggested to be more effective
than SQU or EXT exercise, whereas SQU may be more effective
than EXT (because this exercise is not movement specific) for
stimulating acute COD performance. However, there were no
significant differences among INC, EXT, and SQU exercises,
therefore each preload activity should be considered equivalent in
such circumstances. This is the first study analyzing this theory
using EOL protocols, thus a comparison with previous research is
not possible. Considering the current results, further research is
needed to investigate the effects of exercise modalities (specificity of
the conditioning exercises) on subsequent performance.
Skeletal muscle contractile properties (e.g., Dm and Td) of the
lower extremity (e.g., VL) can be determined using the noninvasive
TMG method (21). Dm has been proposed as a measure of muscle
belly stiffness, whereas Tc and Td are temporal TMG parameters
(26). In the current study, Dm, Tc, Td, V10, and V90 reported
variations following EOL exercises. Thus, muscle contractile
properties may contribute to explaining the PAP effect found in this
study. Previously, it was suggested that decreased stiffness (increase
in Dm) in the musculotendinous unit would induce a loss of force-
generation and muscle power; vice versa an increment in stiffness
should be associated with muscle contractile benefits (19). How-
ever, a decrement in Tc and Td has been found relating to the faster
reaction of muscles to the electrical stimuli (40) following a PAP
protocol. The lower Dm values found following the EOL protocol

Table 2
Summary of baseline and postintervention (PAP) data for each group INC (n 5 11), EXT (n 5 10), and SQU (n 5 10).*†
Variable Baseline mean 6 SDs Postmean 6 SDs Delta difference (95% CI) p-level Effect size (95% CI) Qualitative assessment
Vastus medialis
Dm INC (mm) 7.47 6 1.24 6.24 6 0.97 1.23 (0.31 to 2.16) 0.014 0.89 (0.17 to 1.58) moderate
Dm EXT (mm) 7.01 6 2.16 6.15 6 1.19 0.87 (20.60 to 2.34) 0.215 0.42 (20.23 to 1.06) moderate
Dm SQU (mm) 6.55 6 1.25 6.43 6 1.50 0.13 (20.80 to 1.06) 0.767 0.10 (20.52 to 0.71) trivial
Tc INC (ms) 21.94 6 22.33 22.33 6 1.78 20.38 (21.64 to 0.89) 0.520 20.20 (20.79 to 0.40) small
Tc EXT (ms) 20.91 6 1.60 21.42 6 2.12 20.50 (1.43 to 0.41) 0.244 20.39 (21.02 to 0.26) small
Tc SQU (ms) 22.05 6 2.29 21.85 6 2.50 0.20 (21.20 to 1.60) 0.751 0.10 (20.52 to 0.72) trivial
Td INC (ms) 21.92 6 1.24 20.33 6 1.43 1.59 (0.85 to 2.34) ,0.001 1.45 (0.57 to 2.29) large
Td EXT (ms) 21.22 6 1.03 21.31 6 1.53 20.08 (20.61 to 0.44) 0.726 20.11 (20.73 to 0.51) trivial
Td SQU (ms) 21.18 6 1.23 20.92 6 1.08 0.26 (20.52 to 1.05) 0.466 0.24 (20.39 to 0.86) small
V10 INC (mm·s21) 33.55 6 5.14 29.83 6 5.36 3.72 (0.031 to 7.42) 0.048 0.67 (0.01 to 1.32) moderate
V10 EXT (mm·s21) 28.14 6 10.70 23.78 6 6.46 4.36 (22.27 to 11.49) 0.200 0.43 (20.22 to 1.07) small
V10 SQU (mm·s21) 30.12 6 5.55 30.06 6 7.71 0.06 (24.45 to 4.58) 0.975 0.10 (20.61 to 0.63) trivial
V90 INC (mm·s21) 152.1 6 26.30 129.4 6 24.25 22.72 (3.56 to 41.87) 0.025 0.79 (0.09 to 1.46) moderate
V90 EXT (mm·s21) 126.1 6 45.06 105.7 6 25.45 20.38 (210.76 to 51.54) 0.173 0.46 (20.19 to 1.11) small
V90 SQU (mm·s21) 134.2 6 27.39 131.6 6 37.2 2.65 (218.16 to 23.47) 0.780 0.09 (25.33 to 0.71) trivial
*PAP 5 postactivation potentiation; CI 5 Confidence interval; Dm 5 Maximum radial displacement of muscle; Tc 5 Time contraction; Td 5 Time delay; INC 5 Cross cutting step; EXT 5 Flywheel leg
extension; SQU 5 Squat exercise; and V10 5 mean velocities until 10% (V10) and 90% (V90) of Dm contraction.
†Data are presented in mean 6 SDs.

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 Effect of EOL on COD and Contractile Function (2021) 35:12

Table 3
Summary of baseline and postintervention (PAP) data for each group INC (n 5 11), EXT (n 5 10), and SQU (n 5 10).*†
Variable Baseline mean 6 SDs Postmean 6 SDs Delta difference (95% CI) p-level Effect size (95% CI) Qualitative assessment
Rectus femoris
Dm INC (mm) 10.04 6 2.90 7.77 6 2.60 2.27 (1.48 to 3.06) ,0.001 1.93 (0.89 to 2.94) large
Dm EXT (mm) 9.45 6 3.24 8.36 6 2.56 1.09 (21.52 to 3.72) 0.368 0.30 (20.34 to 0.92) small
Dm SQU (mm) 8.73 6 1.63 7.48 6 1.65 1.24 (0.24 to 2.25) 0.020 0.88 (0.13 to 1.61) moderate
Tc INC (ms) 27.39 6 2.75 26.95 6 3.81 0.43 (22.77 to 3.64) 0.768 0.09 (20.50 to 0.68) trivial
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Tc EXT (ms) 28.15 6 3.77 27.63 6 4.63 0.52 (22.24 to 3.30) 0.677 0.14 (20.49 to 0.75) trivial
Tc SQU (ms) 28.68 6 3.54 28.93 6 5.02 20.25 (2.24 to 1.74) 0.782 20.09 (20.71 to 0.53) trivial
Td INC (ms) 25.66 6 1.54 22.39 6 2.09 3.27 (1.82 to 4.71) ,0.001 1.52 (0.62 to 2.38) large
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Td EXT (ms) 24.55 6 1.84 23.80 6 1.90 0.75 (20.03 to 1.53) 0.057 0.69 (20.02 to 1.37) moderate
Td SQU (ms) 24.47 6 1.37 23.91 6 1.94 0.56 (20.28 to 1.40) 0.167 0.47 (20.19 to 1.12) small
V10 INC (mm·s21) 38.58 6 10.61 33.81 6 10.06 4.77 (1.68 to 7.86) 0.006 1.03 (0.28 to 1.76) moderate
V10 EXT (mm·s21) 36.93 6 11.78 33.70 6 9.80 3.23 (26.76 to 13.22) 0.483 0.23 (20.40 to 0.85) small
V10 SQU (mm·s21) 34.64 6 7.07 30.69 6 6.21 3.95 (0.03 to 7.93) 0.049 0.71 (0.04 to 1.39) moderate
V90 INC (mm·s21) 163.4 6 40.30 137.30 6 39.97 26.05 (15.17 to 36.94) ,0.001 1.60 (0.68 to 2.50) large
V90 EXT (mm·s21) 154.8 6 56.46 143.30 6 50.62 11.49 (229.34 to 52.33) 0.540 0.20 (20.43 to 0.82) small
V90 SQU (mm·s21) 145.9 6 29.83 125.90 6 25.95 20.03 (3.98 to 36.07) 0.020 0.89 (0.13 to 1.61) moderate
*PAP 5 postactivation potentiation; CI 5 Confidence interval; Dm 5 Maximum radial displacement of muscle; Tc 5 Time contraction; Td 5 Time delay; INC 5 Cross cutting step; EXT 5 Flywheel leg
extension; SQU 5 Squat exercise; V10 5 mean velocities until 10% (V10) and 90% (V90) of Dm contraction.
†Data are presented in mean 6 SDs.

support an increment in muscle stiffness and therefore in force and
power generation (40), which could explain the enhancement in
COD performance. Moreover, the lower Tc and Td values repor-
ted may explain an increased (acute) muscle reactivity to signal
transmission. This rationale is supported by Zubac et al. (40), who
found a negative correlation between vertical jump changes and
both muscle Tc (r 5 20.56) and myosin heavy-chain type 1 fol-
lowing chronic training adaptations. The current study reports for
the first time that such acute variations related to muscle contractile
properties were muscle- and exercise-specific. For example, acute
changes in VL Dm and RF Dm were large after INC, whereas they
were trivial and moderate after SQU. Furthermore, RF V10 and RF
V90 changes were moderate after SQU, whereas they were small
following EXT. Nevertheless, the current study has reported a lack
of between-group differences in muscular contractile functions
(e.g., Tc, Td, Dm). Therefore, authors cannot speculate any PAP
exercise-based superiority in muscle contractile property varia-
tions. Notwithstanding this evidence, future research is necessary
to better understand the optimal PAP responses after different
exercises and its effect on TMG.
The current study is not without limitations. First, this study com-
pared 3 different EOL exercises without finding significant differences
among the exercises. Further research is needed to clarify the PAP
responses after different exercise modalities such as intensity (e.g., lower
vs. higher inertia) and modality (e.g., SQU vs. EXT). Second, this study
enrolled a sample of amateur male soccer players, therefore wider
generalization cannot be inferred to other samples such as professional
male and female athletes. This is a significant factor to take into con-
sideration because stronger athletes have reported a different PAP time
window and greater magnitude responses (7). Furthermore, this study
reported an increment in COD performance after 4 minutes of recovery.
Additional evidence is needed to better clarify the optimal PAP time
window related to these specific exercises. Moreover, further research is
required to better clarify the physiological factors that are related to (and
can explain) PAP during sport-specific tasks such as COD.
In conclusion, this study reported that INC, EXT, and SQU
exercises increase COD performance after 4 minutes of recovery
in male soccer players. Muscle contractile functions assessed by
TMG are acutely affected by EOL exercises, but as with COD
performance, such differences are not group-related. This study
did not find differences between exercises on PAP magnitude,
which has been a surprising result considering the specific di-
rectional loading nature of the preload exercises.
Practical Applications
Considering the results of this study, practitioners may use any of
the EOL exercises reported in this study to acutely stimulate their
athletes before competitions or during complex training meth-
odologies. This study supports the use of such EOL exercises 4
minutes before the sport-specific task. Considering the limited
knowledge related to the specific PAP time window, authors
suggest performing the sport-specific task (e.g., COD) between 4
minutes (supported by the current research) and 10 minutes
(based on previous research) after the EOL protocol. Each of the
exercises used in this study has been reported to be an effective
preload strategy to increase COD performance and considering
previous evidence, authors suggest to use such exercises also to
enhance jumping performance (5,6), although further research is
needed. The EOL exercises used in this study have each reported
similar time effects and muscle contractile function variations.
Thus, the authors cannot speculate any PAP exercise modality-
based superiority. Additional research is needed to better clarify
the differences in PAP magnitude between exercises, because this
study has not reported group differences. Furthermore, it has
been reported (for the first time) that EOL exercises acutely affect
TMG variables (e.g., Tc and Td) in lower limbs. These results are
particularly interesting, because muscle contractile functions are
acutely affected by EOL exercises and may contribute to
explaining the PAP effect. Further research is needed to better
clarify the contribution on PAP phenomenon of physiological
mechanisms such as cross-bridge attachments, increased sensi-
tivity of contractile proteins to Ca21, and neural factors.
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