Sses-Helsinki-Report SURVEY - SOCIAL EMOTIONAL SKILLS

Survey on Social
and Emotional
Skills (SSES):
Helsinki
(Finland)
The OECD’s Survey on Social and Emotional Skills
Research shows that both cognitive, and social and emotional skills improve life outcomes at a societal and an individual
level. Considerable information exists on the development of cognitive skills but is lacking for social and emotional skills.
The OECD’s Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES) was established to fill this important information gap.
The SSES aims to:
• Provide participating cities with information on their students’ social and emotional skills.
•
Identify factors in students’ home, school and peer environments that promote or hinder the development of social
and emotional skills.
• Explore how broader policy, cultural and socio-economic contexts influence these skills.
•
Demonstrate that valid, reliable, comparable information on social and emotional skills can be produced across diverse
populations and settings.
What are social and emotional skills?

Social and emotional skills are individual abilities, attributes and characteristics that are important for academic
success, employability, active citizenship and well-being. They encompass behavioural dispositions, internal states,
approaches to tasks, and management and control of behaviour and feelings. Beliefs about the self and the world
that characterise an individual’s relationships to others are also components of social and emotional skills.
Educators and policy makers are increasingly seeking to complement the focus on academic abilities such as
mathematics, reading, or scientific literacy with attention to social and emotional capabilities in order to boost
students’ prospects as full participants in society and active citizens. Enhancing specific social and emotional skills
boosts students’ ability to develop their cognitive skills. But the benefits of developing children’s social-emotional skills
go beyond cognitive development and academic outcomes. They also improve mental health and other important
life outcomes. Inconspicuous yet significantly impactful, social and emotional skills help shape individuals’ behaviours
and lifestyles, which, in turn, shape their socio-economic outcomes. Together, social, emotional and cognitive skills
constitute a comprehensive toolbox, essential to students’ success at school and beyond.
The OECD Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES) focuses on 17 social and emotional skills ranging from curiosity
and creativity through to emotional control (see Figure 1). These skills have been selected according to three main
criteria. First, previous research shows that they are associated with individuals’ educational attainment, labour market
outcomes, health and well-being. Second, they can be improved through interventions and policy measures during
the years a student spends in school. Third, they are suitable for comparability across countries and age cohorts.
2
Figure 1. Description of the skills included in the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills
DOMAINS SKILLS DESCRIPTION
OPEN-MINDEDNESS CURIOSITY Interest in ideas and love of learning, understanding and

(Openness to intellectual exploration; an inquisitive mind-set.
experience)
TOLERANCE Is open to different points of view, values diversity, is appreciative
of foreign people and cultures.
CREATIVITY Generating novel ways to do or think about things through

exploring, learning from failure, insight and vision.
TASK RESPONSIBILITY Able to honour commitments, and be punctual and reliable.

PERFORMANCE
SELF-CONTROL Able to avoid distractions and sudden impulses and focus
(Conscientiousness)
attention on the current task in order to achieve personal goals.
PERSISTENCE Persevering in tasks and activities until they get done.
ENGAGING WITH SOCIABILITY Able to approach others, both friends and strangers, initiating
OTHERS and maintaining social connections.
(Extraversion)
ASSERTIVENESS Able to confidently voice opinions, needs, and feelings, and exert
social influence.
ENERGY Approaching daily life with energy, excitement and spontaneity.
EMOTION STRESS RESISTANCE Effectiveness in modulating anxiety and able to calmly solve
REGULATION problems (is relaxed, handles stress well).
(Emotional stability)
OPTIMISM Positive and optimistic expectations for self and life in general.
EMOTIONAL Effective strategies for regulating temper, anger and irritation in

CONTROL the face of frustrations.
COLLABORATION EMPATHY Understanding and caring for others and their well-being that
(Agreeableness) leads to valuing and investing in close relationships.
TRUST Assuming that others generally have good intentions and

forgiving those who have done wrong.
CO-OPERATION Living in harmony with others and valuing interconnectedness

among all people.
ADDITIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Setting high standards for oneself and working hard to meet
INDICES MOTIVATION them.
SELF-EFFICACY The strength of individuals’ beliefs in their ability to execute tasks

and achieve goals.
Source: Assessment Framework of the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (Kankaraš and Suarez-Alvarez, 2019[1])
SURVEY ON SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS (SSES): HELSINKI (FINLAND) | @ OECD 2021 3
HIGHLIGHTS FOR HELSINKI (FINLAND)
Helsinki (Finland)
Intellectual Curiosity,
Persistence, Intellectual Curiosity,
assertiveness and Persistence,
trust assertiveness and
trust
In Helsinki, intellectual curiosity, persistence, assertiveness and trust are the

In Helsinki, intellectual curiosity, persistence, assertiveness and trust are the
social and emotional skills most strongly related to 15-year-olds’ school
social and emotional skills most strongly related to 15-year-olds’ school
performance in reading, mathematics and the arts.
performance in reading, mathematics and the arts.
Overall, gender SKILLS
differences in students’ Helsinki (Finland)

social and emotional SKILLS SKILLS SKILLS
skills are slightly more
SKILLS
SKILLS
In Helsinki, social and emotional skills that matter for stu

pronounced in Helsinki Intellectual Curiosity, In H
current psychological well-being include optimism, self-c
Persistence, curr
than on average across
10-years-olds assertiveness and 15-years-olds stress resistance, trust, and energy.
participating cities. trust
15-year-olds exhibit lower social and emotional skills than 10-year-olds,

in Helsinki and on average across participating cities. The differences
are particularly pronounced when it comes to optimism, trust, energy
15-year-old boys exhibit higher skills and sociability.
in the domains of emotional regulation
15-year-old boys exhibit higher skills in the domains of emotional regulation
(stress resistance, optimism and emotional control) and engaging with others
(sociability, assertiveness, energy), in Helsinki and in all participating cities.
(sociability,
In Helsinki, intellectual curiosity, persistence, assertiveness andassertiveness,
trust are theenergy), in Helsinki and in all participating cities.
Likewise, 15-year-old girls exhibit higher levels of responsibility, empathy,
social and emotional skills most strongly relatedLikewise, 15-year-old
to 15-year-olds’ girls exhibit higher levels of responsibility, empathy,
school
co-operation, and tolerance.
performance in reading, mathematics and the arts. co-operation, and tolerance.
t matter for students’

optimism, self-control,
energy.
17%
14%
In Helsinki, social and emotional skills that matter for
current psychological well-being include optimism, se
stress resistance, trust, and energy.
10-year-olds 15-year-olds
In Helsinki, 17% of 10-year-olds and 14% of 15-year-olds have experie

In Helsinki, 17% o
bullying at least a few times a month or more. Students’ exposure to b
bullying at least a f
is negatively related to almost all social and emotional skills.
is negative
15-year-old boys exhibit higher skills in the domains of emotional regulation
(sociability, assertiveness, energy), in Helsinki and in all participating cities.
On average,15-year-old
Likewise, across all participating cities, socio-economically
girls exhibit higher advantaged
levels of responsibility, empathy,
students exhibit higher levels of every
co-operation, social and emotional skill
and tolerance.
measured by SSES than those less advantaged.
4
ds have experienced
SKI
elsinki, intellectual curiosity, persistence, assertiveness and trust are the 15-year-old
cial and emotional skills most strongly related to 15-year-olds’ school in Helsink
performance in reading, mathematics and the arts. are partic
SKILLS
SKILLS SKILLS SKILLS

SKILLS
In Helsinki, social and emotional skills that matter for students’

SKILLS
current psychological well-being include optimism, self-control,

10-years-olds 15-years-olds
15-year-olds exhibit lower social and emotional skills than 10-year-olds,

in Helsinki and on average across participating cities. The differences
are particularly
ear-old boys exhibit higher skills pronounced
in the domains whenregulation
of emotional it comes to optimism, trust, energy
and sociability.
s resistance, optimism and emotional control) and engaging with others
ciability, assertiveness, energy), in Helsinki and in all participating cities.
ewise, 15-year-old girls exhibit higher levels of responsibility, empathy,
co-operation, and tolerance.
In all participating cities

including Helsinki, students
On average, acro
who participate in after-school students ex
ter for students’ art activities report higher me
ism, self-control,
levels of creativity, particularly
gy.
among 15-year-olds.
17%
Helsinki (Finland) 14%
In Helsinki, 17% of 10-year-olds and 14% of 15-year-olds have experienced

bullying at least a few times a month or more. Students’ exposure
SKILLS to bullying
is negatively related to almost all social and emotional skills.
SKILLS SKILLS SKILLS

SKILLS
SKILLS
On average, across all participating cities, socio-economically advantaged

students exhibit higher levels of every social and emotional skill
measured by SSES than those less advantaged. 10-years-olds 15-years-olds
t are the 15-year-olds exhibit lower social and emotional skills than 10-year-old
school in Helsinki and on average across participating cities. The difference
Find
are more pronounced
particularly about the when
findings of the
it comes to optimism, trust, energ
and sociability.
Survey on Social and Emotional
Skills in the international report:
OECD (2021), Beyond Academic
ve experienced Learning. First Results from the Survey
sure to bullying
al skills. on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD
Publishing, Paris,
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en
In Helsinki, social and emotional skills that matter for students’
current psychological well-being include optimism, self-control,
egulation
th others
g cities.
mpathy,
The context of social and emotional learning in Helsinki (Finland)
Helsinki (Finland) is one of the 10 cities that took part in the OECD Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES) in 2019
(see Box 1 for demographic information about the city of Helsinki). Helsinki is the capital city of Finland. Although it
is the primary and most populous city in Finland with about 650,000 inhabitants, it is one of the smallest among the
cities participating in the SSES. It is bigger only than Sintra (Portugal), which has fewer than 400 000 inhabitants, but
smaller than all other participating cities. In comparison to the diverse pool of cities participating in SSES, Helsinki
(Finland) distinguishes itself through its high level of economic development, manifested through the educational
level and wealth of its population (in Helsinki, almost 50% of the population is tertiary educated and Helsinki exhibits
one of the highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita among the SSES-participating cities). Compared to the
rest of Finland, Helsinki singles out through its high share of immigrants (16% versus 7% for Finland as a whole).
Education is obviously one of the key areas of investment of Finland, with an estimated 6% of the GDP spent on
education (as of 2018), which is above the OECD average (5%).
A wealth of data has been accumulated on the knowledge and cognitive skills that Finnish students and adults
possess and how they compare around the world, thanks to OECD surveys such as the Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA) and the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC).
PISA consistently showed that 15-year-old students in Finland have greater cognitive skills than the OECD average
in reading, mathematics and science. Yet, mean reading, mathematics and science performance has started
to decline in Finland beginning in 2006 (OECD, 2019[2]). Adults in Finland have also ranked among the top skilled
across participating countries in PIAAC, with adults aged 16 to 65 showing above-average proficiency in literacy,
numeracy and problem solving in technologically rich environments (OECD, 2013[3]). Past OECD surveys have also
provided key information on equity in education in Finland in a cross-country comparative fashion. In the last PISA
cycle in 2018, the gender gap in reading in Finland was one of the widest of all participating countries and
economies. The gap was similar to that observed in 2009, as both girls’ and boys’ performance declined over the
period. In Finland, the gap in performance related to students’ socio-economic status is smaller than the average
difference between advantaged and disadvantaged students across OECD countries. However, in Finland, this gap
has widened since PISA 2009 while it remains the same on average across OECD countries (OECD, 2019[4]).
Box 1. Key information about Helsinki (Finland)

City: Helsinki
Location: Capital city of Finland
Population (2019): 650 000 inhabitants
Average age (2019): 41
Percentage of first- and second-generation immigrants (2018): 16%
Share of tertiary-educated people (2020): 43%
Average unemployment level among individuals aged 15 to 74 (2018): 8%
Sources: Information provided by the city of Helsinki.
However, little is known about students’ social and emotional skills and how these relate to key individual outcomes,
despite the attention paid to these skills in Finland and in the city of Helsinki. Helsinki has a strong focus on their
students’ social and emotional skills, which are embedded in the national curriculum and courses in both primary
and secondary education.
6
While there is no formal course for social and emotional learning, developing social and emotional skills is included
in the national curriculum for basic education (grades 1-9), which was introduced in Finland in 2016. This curriculum
includes social and emotional skills in all school subjects as part of the seven transversal competence areas: thinking
and learning to learn; cultural competence; interaction and expression; taking care of oneself and managing daily
life; multi-literacy; information and communications technology (ICT) competence; working life competence and
entrepreneurship; and participation, involvement and building a sustainable future. The transversal competence
area referred to as “taking care of oneself and managing daily life” particularly emphasises social and emotional skills.
In the first two grades of primary education in Finland, social and emotional skills are included in environmental
studies, which is a combination of biology, geography, physics, chemistry and health education. It is an integrated
subject with a sustainable development perspective. It combines perspectives from natural and human sciences. Its
goal is to direct students to practise group work skills and emotional skills and to strengthen respect of oneself and
others. Contents are chosen so that students form an understanding of the parts and function of the human body,
the life trajectory and the overall growth and development of this life phase. Students practise emotional skills and
mental well-being development and a respect for others that is appropriate for their particular life phase. Social and
emotional skills are also practised in religion classes (grades 3-6) with topics on children’s rights and responsibilities;
forming and justifying one’s own views; friendship, positive class and school society formation; and preventing
discrimination. Developing preparedness in social and emotional skills is also included in health education (grades
7-9) to support students’ capability to act in different conflict situations; acknowledge one’s own values and attitudes.
Students work on issues such as individualisation, communality, equality, and responsible decision-making. They also
work on expressing and regulating emotions in social interactions. Students learn to deal with conflicts, problematic
situations, stress and crisis in a constructive manner. Quite a few social and emotional skills are developed through
these programmes and tie in with the skills assessed in SSES – assertiveness, co-operation, empathy, persistence,
responsibility, self-control sociability, stress resistance, tolerance and trust.
Developing social and emotional skills is also embedded in all programmes of upper secondary education. Students
enrolled in vocational education programmes develop 8 lifelong learning key skills, including societal and citizenship
skills, which encompass social and emotional skills. The new national curriculum for general upper secondary
education implemented in 2021 is based on transversal (generic) skills. These include social and emotional skills to
support student well-being. In general upper secondary education, social and emotional skills are also embedded in
health education. Students can also opt for an optional course on learning skills, which includes 3 themes: studying;
social relationships; and emotions and the mind. The goal is that the student understands the meaning of feelings,
how feelings are formed and how feelings and thoughts affect each other. Students learn about the role of social
relationships for their well-being and acknowledge their responsibility in social relationships. At this upper secondary
level of education, emphasis is put on developing social and emotional domains and skills such as task performance
(responsibility, persistence and self-control), collaboration (empathy, trust and co-operation) and engaging with
others (sociability and assertiveness).
Assessment is at the core of the implementation of the basic education curriculum. In Finland, assessment focuses
on three dimensions: students’ learning, work and behaviour. Social and emotional skills are thus assessed as part
of students’ behaviour. Behaviour objectives are based on the educational objectives of the school and the school
policies that define the culture of the community.
In addition to embedding social and emotional learning into the national curriculum and education objectives, the
city of Helsinki (Finland) adopts a local curriculum emphasising a holistic approach to student development. Helsinki
also runs several city-level activities, under the umbrella of the “Ruuti” system, which contribute to the development of
social and emotional skills of young people. The Ruuti system in Helsinki aims to empower young people by creating
opportunities to promote issues they consider important. Ruuti aims to ensure that every young person in Helsinki
has at least one experience of making a difference each year. The activities are guided by five principles: learning the
skills of empowerment and participation; equality and equity; doing well by others; regionalism and collective work;
and diversity of participation. Ruuti includes a range of activities showcased in Box 2.
Box 2. The Ruuti system in Helsinki
The Ruuti system in Helsinki helps young people develop a wide range of social and emotional skills from
assertiveness, optimism and sociability through to responsibility, curiosity and creativity.
Student body
Every student at a school or educational institution belongs to a student body.
Student council
A group of students is elected by other students to represent them and help plan activities for the students.
Educational institutions’ own groups and teams

Based on learners’ suggestions and activity, educational institutions host various groups and teams that learners
can utilise to promote matters that they find important. Learners can also tackle any issues they observe
themselves and find groups to promote matters. Examples of such groups include environmental teams, food
juries, well-being groups, tutor activities, eco-supporters and peer mediators.
Participatory budgeting
The city of Helsinki offers three participatory budgeting models for youth: Ruuti funding (Ruuti-raha), Ruuti
Budget and OmaStadi. Ruuti funding consists of annual funds allocated to pupil and student councils to be
used for developing communality or improving the pleasantness of the study environment. In Ruuti Budget,
12- to 17-year-olds come up with ideas, vote and negotiate every year on what kind of leisure time activities and
services will be provided to young people in Helsinki. In OmaStadi, Helsinki residents can draw up proposals and
make plans that benefit everyone in Helsinki. Residents aged over 12 can vote and thus influence decisions.
Student council days

Student councils assemble every year to share experiences and develop activities.
Youth Council
The Youth Council is an influential group of 30 young people that ensures they have a voice in decision-making in
Helsinki. It is a youth lobbying body established by municipal law. Its members (aged 13 to 17) are elected every
two years to ensure that young people are involved in decision-making and in the planning, implementation and
monitoring of activities in Helsinki’s various departments. The Youth Council meets in working and small groups
to discuss different topics regularly, about twice a month.
Youth Initiatives
Thirteen- to 17-year-olds can submit initiatives to the City of Helsinki through a dedicated webpage. Young
people can submit initiatives such as requesting that a park next to their school be equipped with benches. They
can flag a dangerous intersection in their neighbourhood or request to have a basketball court in their area.
While submitting their suggestion, they are requested to build a case for this and explain how their proposal
can improve collective well-being.
Sponssi grants
Young people aged 7 to 28 can apply and receive grants for implementing their ideas and projects.
Young Voice Editorial Board

In the Young Voice Editorial Board, young people aged 13 to 19 can speak out and influence societal matters
in the media.
Source: https://ruuti.munstadi.fi/en/ruuti/
8
Lastly, each school in Helsinki or in Finland more generally is expected to endorse and implement an anti-bullying
programme (see more information on the KiVa programme, as an example, in Box 3).
Box 3. The KiVa Anti-bullying Programme
KiVa is an anti-bullying programme that was developed in the University of Turku (Finland) with funding from
the Ministry of Education and Culture. The programme is evidence-based, which means that the effectiveness of
KiVa has been proven scientifically. KiVa offers a wide range of concrete tools and materials for schools to tackle
bullying. It provides a thoughtful definition of what bullying is, emphasising that bullying takes many different
forms. That it is a group phenomenon in which not only the bullies but also their bystanders play a significant
role. It also provides helpful information in detecting bullying. These warning signs typically include changes
in child’s behaviour such as being suddenly afraid of walking to school or taking the bus; becoming stressed,
anxious, withdrawn, and easily irritable; being absent from school due to head or stomach aches; and visible
signs of physical aggression.
This programme hosts a website where students can look for recommendations of things they can do if they
are bullied. Students are advised to tell someone they trust either at school or at home; look for friends who
can support them; and be assertive. These recommendations tie in with social and emotional skills examined in
SSES such as trust, sociability, co-operation and assertiveness.
The programme also provides a guide targeted to parents. It offers information about bullying, what the current
research says and what can be done at home and at school. It strongly relies on the notion that co-operation
between home and school is important in addressing bullying.
The programme further includes a research component called “Challenge”, which aims to identify the
characteristics and conditions of youth who continue to be bullied or continue bullying despite targeted
interventions.
Source: https://www.kivaprogram.net/
While this overview provides some context within which to examine findings from SSES for the city of Helsinki
(Finland), no conclusion can be drawn from SSES as to how elements of this context influence social and emotional
learning in Helsinki.
Social and emotional skills matter for academic success
Students’ school achievement is one of the main drivers of success in life. It is linked to later educational attainment
but also to important life outcomes like employment, earnings, health and well-being. However, having the same
academic performance in school does not always lead to the same life outcomes. One potential reason why some
students are more likely to succeed than others is that they have developed specific social and emotional skills, which
intervene in the equation.
SSES collected information on students’ school grades in three subjects: reading, mathematics and the arts
along with the results of a short cognitive ability test administered to participating students1. SSES data from all
participating cities with available data show that students’ social and emotional skills are significant predictors of
school grades (Figure 2 and Figure 3). The strengths of the associations between certain social and emotional
skills and school grades are relatively weak but consistent across age cohorts and subjects and they remain
after accounting for gender and socio-economic differences across students. In particular, being intellectually
curious and persistent are the social and emotional skills most strongly related to school grades for both 10- and
15-year-olds in all three subjects. To a lesser extent, students who are more assertive and responsible also tend to
have better school grades. These findings stress the importance of not only pursuing objectives in the face of
difficulties but also to have an intellectual curiosity about a diverse set of topics and to love learning new things.
Fifteen-year-olds who reported being more stress-resistant (relaxed) and sociable have, on average, lower school
grades (Figure 2). This does not mean that calmness in face of adversity (a benefit of being stress-resistant) and
seeking support from peers are harmful to school achievement. Instead, this finding might be related to the fact that
older students who typically have more autonomy than younger students may prioritise their social interactions at the
expense of school work. Students who assess themselves as more stress-resistant might also be those who feel more
remote from school and school demands. In fact, among the younger cohort, which is typically more supervised by
parents and teachers, these relationships are not observed (Figure 3). In other words, younger students may have a
less demanding school environment and are surrounded by adults who help them contain and channel their energy
and desire to interact socially in ways that do not harm their school performance.
1
School grades were not collected in Ottawa (Canada).
10
Figure 2. Relationship between social and emotional skills, and school performance of
Figure 2. Average
15-year-old relationship
students between
(international social and emotional skills, and school performance
average)
of 15-year-old students
Coefficients of (standardised) grades in reading, mathematics and the arts on (standardised) scores on social and
Coefficients of (standardised) grades in reading, mathematics and the arts on (standardised) scores on social
emotional skills scales (international average)
and emotional skills scales (international average)
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
Responsibility
Persistence
Self-control
Stress resistance
Optimism
Empathy
Trust
Tolerance
Curiosity
Creativity
Sociability
Assertiveness
Energy
Co-operation
Emotional control
Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others
Reading Mathematics Arts
Note:Data
Note: Datafor
for Sintra (Portugal) did
Sintra (Portugal) didnot
notreach
reach student
student response
response raterate standards
standards andnot
and are areincluded
not included in international
in international averages. averages. The regressions
The regressions are are
city-specific
site-specificand
andcontrol
controlfor
for gender,
gender, socio-economic status,and
socio-economic status, andscores
scoresinin the
the cognitive
cognitive ability
ability test,test,
withwith
the the exception
exception of Houston
of Houston (United(United States), where
States),
where
the the cognitive
cognitive ability
ability test wastest
notwas not administered.
administered. OttawaOttawa (Canada)
(Canada) is excluded
is excluded fromfrom the analysis
the analysis of school
of school grades
grades as as students’
students’ gradeswere
grades werenot
notavailable.
available.
Coloured Coloured
bars barssignificant
represent represent significant
differencesdifferences
in at least in at cities,
five least five
barscities,
thatbars that outlined
are only are only outlined
represent represent significant
significant differences
differences in fewerinthan
fewerfive cities.
than five cities.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2021), Beyond Academic Learning. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris,
Source: Adapted from OECD (2021), Beyond Academic Learning. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en, Figure 2.1.
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. Figure 2.1.
Figure 3. Relationship between social and emotional skills, and school performance of
Figure 3. Average
10-year-old relationship
students between
(international social and emotional skills, and school performance
average)
of 10-year-old students
Coefficients of (standardised) grades in reading, mathematics and the arts on (standardised) scores on social and
Coefficients of (standardised) grades in reading, mathematics and the arts on (standardised) scores on social
emotional skills scales (international average)
and emotional skills scales (international average)
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
Responsibility
Persistence
Self-control
Stress resistance
Optimism
Empathy
Trust
Tolerance
Curiosity
Creativity
Sociability
Assertiveness
Energy
Co-operation
Emotional control
Note: Data for Sintra (Portugal) did not reach student response rate standards and are not included in international averages. The regressions
Note: Data for Sintra
are site-specific (Portugal)
and control did notsocio-economic
for gender, reach studentstatus,
response rate standards
and scores and are
in the cognitive nottest,
ability included in exception
with the international averages.
of Houston The regressions are
(United
city-specific andthe
States), where control for gender,
cognitive socio-economic
ability test status, and
was not administered. scores
Ottawa in the is
(Canada) cognitive
excludedability
from thetest,analysis
with the
of exception of Houston
school grades (United
as students’ States), where
grades
the cognitive
were ability test
not available. was not
Coloured barsadministered. Ottawadifferences
represent significant (Canada) is in excluded from
at least five thebars
cities, analysis of school
that are gradesrepresent
only outlined as students’ grades were not available.
significant
differences
Coloured barsin represent
fewer thansignificant
five cities. differences in at least five cities, bars that are only outlined represent significant differences in fewer than five cities.
Source: Adaptedfrom
Source:Adapted from OECD
OECD (2021),
(2021),Beyond
Beyond Academic
AcademicLearning.
Learning.FirstFirstResults
Resultsfrom
fromthetheSurvey
Surveyon onSocial
Socialand
andEmotional
EmotionalSkills, OECD
Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris,
Figure 4 provides an overview of the social and emotional skills that are most strongly related with 15-year-old students’
grades in all three subjects for the city of Helsinki (Finland). Being intellectually curious, persistent, assertive, and
trusting are the social and emotional skills most positively related to school grades for 15-year-olds in all three subjects
considered as part of SSES analysis: reading, mathematics and the arts. These findings emphasise the importance of
not only dedication in pursuing predetermined goals, even in the face of difficulties, but also cultivating an intellectual
curiosity for a diverse range of topics. Those students who are curious about a diverse set of topics and love learning
new things are better equipped to face difficulties and are more likely to reach their goals. Students who reported
being more trusting are those who feel that they can rely on their peers for support and confide in them. This appears
conducive to higher school performance. Being resistant to stress and having more energy are negatively related to
grades in all subjects. Students with higher stress resistance may not have anxiety about school performance and
therefore do not worry about their grades as much as other students. This finding about energy may be due to the
fact that educational assignments often require students to exhibit low energy (e.g. stay at their desks).
12
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Skills most strongly
Skills most stronglyassociated
associated with
with 15-year-olds’
students’ performance
performance in Sintrain(Portugal)
Helsinki (Finland)
Coefficients
Coefficients of
of (standardised) grades in
(standardised) grades inreading,
reading,mathematics
mathematicsand
andarts
arts
onon (standardised)
(standardised) scores
scores on on social
social andand
emotionalskills
emotional skills scales
scales (international
(international average)
average)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3 Co-operation
Responsibility
Persistence
Self-control
Stress resistance
Optimism
Empathy
Trust
Tolerance
Curiosity
Creativity
Sociability
Assertiveness
Energy
Emotional control
Note: Coefficients from regressions of 15-year-olds’ (standardised) grades in reading, mathematics and the arts on (standardised) scores on social
Coefficients
and emotional
Note: from
skills regressions
scales. of 15-year-olds’
Each regression (standardised)
controls for grades in reading,
gender, socio-economic mathematics
status, and and
scores in the the artsability
cognitive on (standardised) scores and
test. Only significant on social and
lasso-selected
emotional skillsrelationships
scales. Eachare reported.controls for gender, socio-economic status, and scores in the cognitive ability test. Only significant and lasso-
regression
Source: Adapted
selected from OECD
relationships (2021), Beyond Academic Learning. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing,
are reported.
Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2021), Beyond Tables A2.1, A2.2,
Academic A2.3, A2.4,
Learning. First A2.5 andfrom
Results A2.6.the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris,
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en, Tables A2.1, A2.2, A2.3, A2.4, A2.5 and A2.6.
Social and emotional skills matter for future educational and occupational
outcomes
Adolescence is a period when young people start to prepare for adult life. Teenagers have to make important
decisions relevant to their future lives such as what field of study or type of education they will pursue and what job
they will have. But young people often have a distorted perception of their cognitive, social and emotional strengths,
which is influenced by their immediate environment more than by objective information; and they may lack sufficient
knowledge about the breadth of educational opportunities and careers open to them. Importantly, past research
has argued and shown that social and emotional skills are an integral component of individuals’ employability,
i.e. individuals’ capability of getting and keeping fulfilling work (Pool and Sewell, 2007[5]).
Education systems can play a crucial role in channelling these skills into the labour market, and helping young people
develop a fair assessment of themselves and of their future educational opportunities. In doing so, they can
ensure that students’ skills, interests and aptitudes find a suitable match in the economy (Musset and Kurekova,
2018[6]).
Similar to educational expectations, students’ occupational expectations are related to specific patterns of social
and emotional skills. First, the relations between social and emotional skills and occupational expectations are
much stronger among 15-year-olds than 10-year-olds. This might signal the interdependence of these two factors –
students might develop job preferences adapted to their own cognitive, and social and emotional skills at the same
time as they improve their skills to meet the requirements of their personal job aspirations.
Looking at 15-year-olds’ job expectations, certain patterns of social and emotional skills emerge that are associated
with aspirations to work in certain occupational groups. A few exemplar cases illustrate this. For example, in Helsinki
(Finland) as well as in all other participating cities, 15-year-old students who reported aspiring to become health
professionals (i.e. medical doctors, nursing and midwifery professionals) are also more curious than peers aspiring
to other occupations (Figure 5). In Helsinki and nearly all other cities, these students also represent themselves
as less creative than other students. More specific to Helsinki is the fact that students aspiring to become health
professionals are more persistent, energetic, and less tolerant. This combination of social and emotional skills is not
surprising given that health occupations require curiosity for the sciences and health professionals often spend their
workdays on their feet moving from patient to patient.
Figure 5. Skills most strongly associated with expectations of working as health professionals
inFigure 6. Skills
Helsinki most strongly associated with expectations of completing tertiary education
(Finland)
in Sintra (Portugal)
Percentage-point change in the likelihood that a 15-year-old student expects to become a health professional
Percentage-point change in the likelihood that a 15-year-old student expects to complete a tertiary degree
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
Responsibility
Persistence
Self-control
Stress resistance
Optimism
Emotional control
Empathy
Trust
Co-operation
Tolerance
Curiosity
Creativity
Sociability
Assertiveness
Energy
Helsinki (Finland) International Reference
Note:
Note:The figure
The shows
figure thethe
shows percentage-point
percentage-point change
change in the likelihood
in the likelihoodthatthat
a 15-year-old student
a 15-year-old expects
student to become
expects a health
to complete professional
a tertiary degreethat
thatisisassociated
with a 100-point
associated with increase in the
a 100-point corresponding
increase skill score (the
in the corresponding standard
skill deviation
score. Only of theand
significant score distributionrelationships
lasso-selected of each skill was set to 100The
are reported. for the combined
dataset with equally
international weighted
reference is thecity data). Only
arithmetic significant
average of theand lasso-selected
coefficients across relationships aresignificant
the cities with reported. The
andinternational
lasso-selectedreference is the arithmetic
relationships only. All average
ofmodels
the coefficients across the
include controls forcities with significant
socio-economic and
status lasso-selected
and gender. Data relationships
for Helsinki only. All models
(Finland) are notinclude controls for socio-economic status and gender.
available.
Source: Adaptedfrom
Source:Adapted fromOECD
OECD(2021),
(2021),Beyond
BeyondAcademic
AcademicLearning.
Learning. First
First Results
Results from
from thethe Survey
Survey on on Social
Social andand Emotional
Emotional Skills,
Skills, OECDOECD
Publishing, Paris,
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en.
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en, Table A2.8. Table A2.7.
14
In all cities including Helsinki (Finland), students expecting to work in a creative occupation also represent themselves
as more creative (Figure 6). Creative occupations include, for example, artists, musicians, actors but also marketing
directors, professionals and associate professionals, architects, journalists, public relations officers, and software
professionals. In Helsinki, students expecting a creative occupation tend to be more optimistic and tolerant but less
resistant to stress – they are also less sociable, curious and energetic compared to the rest of the students.
Figure
Figure6.8.Skills
Skills most stronglyassociated
most strongly associated with
with expectations
expectations of working
of working in a creative
in a creative occupation In
Sintra (Portugal)
occupation in Helsinki (Finland)
Percentage-pointchange
Percentage-point change in
in the likelihood
likelihoodthat
thataa15-year-old
15-year-oldstudent expects
student to work
expects in aincreative
to work occupation
a creative occupation
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
Optimism
Emotional control
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Co-operation
Curiosity
Sociability
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Note:
Note:The figure
The figureshows
showsthe
thepercentage-point
percentage-point change
change in the likelihood
likelihoodthat
thataa15-year-old
15-year-oldstudent
studentexpects
expectstoto work
work in in a creative
a creative occupation
occupation thatthat
is is associated
associated
with with increase
a 100-point a 100-point increase
in the in the corresponding
corresponding skill scoreskill
(thescore. Only deviation
standard significantof
and
thelasso-selected relationships
score distribution of eachare reported.
skill was setThe international
to 100 for the combined
reference
dataset withisequally
the arithmetic
weightedaverage of the
city data). coefficients
Only across
significant andthe cities with significant
lasso-selected and are
relationships lasso-selected relationships
reported. The only.reference
international All models
is include controlsaverage
the arithmetic
for socio-economic status and gender.
of the coefficients across the cities with significant and lasso-selected relationships only. All models include controls for socio-economic status and gender.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2021), Beyond
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. Academic Learning. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris,
Table A4.20.
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en, Table A4.20.
Social and emotional skills matter for well-being

Well-being is an important measure of quality of life alongside other social and economic dimensions (OECD, 2013[7]).
Adolescence is a period of rapid physical growth and brain development, increasing demands and expectations
regarding school performance, changing relationships with parents and peers as well as increasing autonomy as
students start to make their own decisions and develop behaviours that can influence their current and future well-
being (Inchley et al., 2020[8]; Patton, 2016[9]). Education policies increasingly address student well-being as part of
a whole-child perspective to education. This has led to increased emphasis on social and emotional skills alongside
cognitive skills as drivers of future well-being.
The three aspects of students’ psychological well-being measured in the SSES (life satisfaction, current psychological
well-being and test anxiety) are strongly related to skills in the domain of emotional regulation: stress resistance,
optimism and emotional control. All three aspects of students’ psychological well-being are also only weakly related
to skills in the domains of task performance and engaging with others.
Life satisfaction
Students’ life satisfaction is an evaluation that students make of their perceived quality of life according to their
chosen criteria. This can be determined in part by the student’s current mood and memory, and by the immediate
context. In Helsinki (Finland) and in all other participating cities, 15-year-old students who are more optimistic also
reported higher levels of life satisfaction (Figure 7). This also holds true for 10-year-old students. Students who
are optimistic have a positive attitude and favourable outlook towards life. At the same time, students who have a
more privileged life might be more optimistic. Most importantly, higher levels of optimism are inversely related to
depressive disorders. Optimism confers resilience and coping skills in dealing with stressful events, and is related
to factors such as socio-economic status and social integration, which generally have protective effects for both
psychological and physical well-being (Carver, Scheier and Segerstrom, 2010[10]).
Helsinki (Finland) is similar to other participating cities in that optimism is the social and emotional skill that is strongly
related to 15-year-old students’ life satisfaction. There are other social and emotional skills that are also positively
related to students’ life satisfaction, although to a smaller extent than optimism. These are persistence, stress
resistance, energy, and trust among 15-year-olds and sociability among 10-year-olds.
Figure 9. Skills most strongly associated with students’ life satisfaction

Figure 7. Skills most strongly associated with students’ life satisfaction
Change in 15-years-olds’ life satisfaction associated with changes in social and emotional skills
Change in 15-years-olds’ life satisfaction associated with changes in social and emotional skills
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Optimism
Emotional control
Co-operation
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Thefigure
Note:The
Note: figureshows
showscoefficients
coefficients from
from aa regression
regression of of students’
students’ lifelife satisfaction
satisfaction onon (standardised)
scores onon social
social andand emotional
emotional skill
skill scales.
scales. Only
Only significant
significant and lasso-selected
and lasso-selected relationships
relationships are reported.
are reported. The international
The international referencereference is the arithmetic
is the arithmetic average ofaverage of the coefficients
the coefficients across theacross the
cities with
cities withand
significant significant and lasso-selected
lasso-selected relationships
relationships only. All modelsonly. All models
include controlsinclude controls for socio-economic
for socio-economic status and gender.
status and gender.
Source: Adapted
Source:Adapted from
from OECD
OECD (2021),
(2021), Beyond
Beyond Academic
Academic Learning.
Learning. First First Results
Results from from the Survey
the Survey on and
on Social Social and Emotional
Emotional Skills,
Skills, OECD OECD
Publishing, Paris,
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. Table A3.18.
16
Current psychological well-being
Students’ current psychological well-being is an evaluation of students’ feelings and experiences during the two weeks
prior to the survey. In Helsinki (Finland) and in all other participating cities, being optimistic is strongly related to one’s
current psychological well-being (Figure 8). This holds true for both cohorts of students. Other social and emotional
skills that matter for both 10- and 15-year-old students’ current psychological well-being in Helsinki are self-control,
stress resistance, trust, and energy. Students who are more optimistic generally respond differently to challenging
situations than students who are less optimistic. Optimists are more likely to experience less distress than
pessimists when dealing with difficulties in their lives (Scheier, Carver and Bridges, 2004[11]). This is not
necessarily because optimists have unrealistic expectations (though that may sometimes be the case) but because
they have more coping strategies to deal with challenging situations. Thinking that things will only get worse – even
if true – may disengage someone from confronting a situation while thinking that things can improve – even if false
– may motivate them to get the best out of a given situation. A recent study conducted on Finnish adolescents
found that “grit” (consistency of interest and perseverance of effort) can act as a resilience factor among
adolescents. Higher levels of reported grit reduces reported depressive symptoms when adolescents experience
high-school burnout (Tang et al., 2021[12]).
Figure
Figure8.10.
Skills most
Skills strongly
most stronglyassociated
associated with
with students’ currentpsychological
students’ current psychological well-being
well-being in in
Helsinki (Finland)
Sintra (Portugal)
Change
Changeinin15-year-olds’
15-year-olds’current
currentpsychological
psychological well-being
well-being associated with changes
associated with changesininsocial
socialand
andemotional
emotionalskills
skills
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
Optimism
Emotional control
Co-operation
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Note: The
Note: figure
The figureshows
showscoefficients
coefficientsfrom
from regressions of students’
regressions of students’current
currentpsychological
psychologicalwell-being
well-beingonon (standardised)
scores on social
on social andand emotional skill
scales. Only significant
emotional skill scales. and
Only lasso-selected
significant andrelationships
lasso-selectedare reported. The
relationships international
are reported. reference is the
The international arithmetic
reference is theaverage of average
arithmetic the coefficients
of across the
cities
the with significant
coefficients and
across lasso-selected
the relationships
cities with significant only. All models
and lasso-selected include controls
relationships for
only. All socio-economic
models statusfor
include controls and gender.
socio-economic status
and gender.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2021), Beyond
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en, Academic Learning. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD
Table A3.19.
Test Anxiety
Test anxiety can be described as “the set of phenomenological, physiological, and behavioural responses
that accompany concern about possible negative consequences or failure in an evaluative situation” (Zeidner,
2007[13]). It typically arises in educational settings where students believe their abilities are stretched or
exceeded by the demands of the test situation. In Helsinki (Finland), and all participating cities with available
data, students who indicated higher stress resistance reported a lower level of test anxiety. More specific to
Helsinki is the fact that both 10- and 15-year-olds who are more optimistic also reported lower levels of test
anxiety. This holds true for students aged 10 and 15 while accounting for students’ grades in both mathematics
and reading, which are typically correlated with a lower level of test anxiety (Figure 9). Among 10-year-olds in
Helsinki, higher levels of responsibility are also related to lower levels of test anxiety. For 15-year-olds, higher levels
of persistence are related to lower test anxiety while students with more curiosity are more likely to have higher
test anxiety.
Figure 11. Skills most strongly associated with test anxiety in Sintra (Portugal)
Figure
Change9.inSkills most strongly
15-year-olds’ associated
test anxiety associatedwith test anxiety
with changes in and
in social Helsinki (Finland)
emotional skills
Change in 15-year-olds’ test anxiety associated with changes in social and emotional skills
6
-2
-4
-6
Optimism
Emotional control
Co-operation
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Note:
Note: The
The figure
figure shows
shows coefficients
coefficients fromfrom a regression
a regression of students’
of students’ test anxiety
test anxiety on (standardised)
on (standardised) scoresscores on and
on social social and emotional
emotional skillOnly
skill scales. scales. Only
significant
significant
and and lasso-selected
lasso-selected relationships
relationships are are international
reported. The reported. Thereference
international
is the reference
arithmeticisaverage
the arithmetic average ofacross
of the coefficients the coefficients across
the cities with the
significant and
cities with significant
lasso-selected andonly.
relationships lasso-selected
All models relationships only.
include controls forAll models include
socio-economic controls
status for socio-economic status and gender.
and gender.
Source: Adaptedfrom
Source:Adapted fromOECD
OECD(2021),
(2021),Beyond
Beyond Academic
Academic Learning.
Learning. FirstFirst Results
Results fromfrom the Survey
the Survey on Social
on Social and Emotional
and Emotional OECD
Skills, Publishing,
Skills, OECD Paris,
18
Students’ social and emotional skills are related to students’
background characteristics…
SSES data and past research show that students’ social and emotional skills are important for students’ academic
success, employment outcomes and well-being as well as for the prosperity of societies in general. The United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Target 4.7 advocates:

“ensuring that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development,
including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles,
human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and
appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development”.
In this context, social and emotional skills such as co-operation, empathy and tolerance are key for citizens and
societies to achieve these goals and secure the basis for functioning democracies. However, students with different
background characteristics tend to possess different combinations of social and emotional skills.
In Helsinki (Finland), as well as on average across participating cities, boys exhibit higher skills in the domains of
emotional regulation (stress resistance, optimism and emotional control) and engaging with others (sociability,
assertiveness, energy). Likewise, 15-year-old girls exhibit higher levels of responsibility, empathy, co-operation,
tolerance and achievement motivation. Overall, gender differences in 15-year-olds’ social and emotional skills seem
slightly more pronounced in Helsinki than on average across the participating cities. A recent study conducted on
about two thousand 7th and 8th graders from Finland also indicated that social and emotional skills can play an
important role in students’ holistic development, depending on students’ gender. More specifically, this study found
that “grit” protects students from depressive symptoms and more so among boys than girls. When male adolescents
are at risk of school burnout, both consistency of interest and perseverance of effort protect them and they have
low levels of loneliness and depressive symptoms (Tang et al., 2021[12]). Data from SSES further show that, both in
Helsinki and on average across cities, gender differences in students’ social and emotional skills seem to increase
with age as they tend to be more pronounced among 15-year-olds than 10-year-olds (Figure 10).
On average across participating cities, socio-economically advantaged students exhibit higher levels on every social
and emotional skill measured by SSES. The difference in skills between students with low or high socio-economic
status is especially pronounced in skills related to the domain of open-mindedness such as tolerance, curiosity, and
creativity, as well as empathy, assertiveness and self-efficacy. This also generally holds true for Helsinki (Finland).
However, unlike what is observed for the international average, in Helsinki, there are a few social and emotional
skills for which no socio-economic difference is observed in the reported levels. Among 15-year-olds, socio-
economically disadvantaged students report similar levels to their advantaged peers on: persistence and self-control
(in the domain of task performance); optimism and emotional control (in the domain of emotional regulation); and
sociability and energy (in the domain of engaging with others). Among 10-year-olds, no socio-economic gap is found
for stress resistance and assertiveness. In Helsinki, there is even one social and emotional skill of which 15-year-old
students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes reported higher levels than their advantaged peers – stress
resistance. Of note in Helsinki as well as on average across cities, socio-economic differences in students’ social and
emotional skills tend to decrease between the ages of 10 and 15 (Figure 11).
In Helsinki (Finland), 15-year-old students with a migrant background exhibit higher levels of skills than students
without a migrant background in persistence, self-control, stress resistance, optimism, co-operation, tolerance,
sociability, assertiveness, energy, and self-efficacy. Fifteen-year-olds with a migrant background are also less likely to
trust others compared to students who are native-born.
Figure 12. Gender differences in social and emotional skills
Standardised gender differences in skill scores (15-year-old girls – 15-year-old boys)
Figure 12. Gender differences in social and emotional skills
Standardised gender differences
Figure 12. Gender differences in skill scoresand
in social (15-year-old girls skills
emotional – 15-year-old boys)
1.00
Figure 10. Gender
Standardised differences
gender differences inscores
in skill social and emotional
(15-year-old skills boys)
girls – 15-year-old
0.80
1.00 Girls report higher...
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.60
0.80
0.40
0.60
0.00
0.20
0.40
-0.20
0.00
0.20
-0.40
-0.20
0.00
-0.40
-0.60
-0.20
-0.60
-0.80
-0.40
-0.80 Boys report higher...
-0.60
-1.00
Boys report higher...
-1.00
Optimism
Emotional control
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Co-operation
Achievement motivation
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
-0.80
Energy
Optimism
control
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Co-operation
motivation
Empathy
TrustTrust
resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
-1.00
Optimism
control
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Co-operation
motivation
Empathy
resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Emotional
StressStress
Achievement
Emotional
Achievement
Task
Task performance
performance Emotional
Emotional regulation
regulation Collaboration
Collaboration Open-Mindedness
Open-Mindedness Engaging
Engaging with otherswithOther
others Other outcomes
outcomes
Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others Other outcomes
International
International average
average Helsinki
Helsinki (Finland)(Finland)
International average Helsinki (Finland)
Standardised
Standardisedgender
genderdifferences in skill
differences scores
in skill (10-year-old
scores girls –girls
(10-year-old 10-year-old boys) boys)
– 10-year-old
1.00
1.00
0.80
1.00
0.60
0.80
0.40
0.40
0.20
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.00
-0.20
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
-0.40
-0.80
-0.60
-0.60
-1.00
-0.80
-0.80
BoysBoys
report higher...
Optimism
control
report higher...
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Co-operation
motivation
Empathy
TrustTrust
resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
-1.00
-1.00
Optimism
control
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Co-operation
motivation
Empathy
resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Optimism
Emotional control
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Co-operation
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Emotional
StressStress
Achievement
Emotional
Achievement
Task performance Emotional regulation
International average
Collaboration
Helsinki (Finland)
Open-Mindedness Engaging with others Other outcomes

International average Helsinki
are (Finland)
Note:Data
Note: Data for Sintra(Portugal)
for Sintra (Portugal)did did not reach
not reach studentstudent
responseresponse rate standards
rate standards and are notand included not included inaverages.
in international international averages.
The figures report The figures report
standardised
standardiseddifferences, wherebythe
differences, whereby the
rawraw scale
scale points
points havehave
been been
divideddivided by the (city-specific)
by the (city-specific) standard standard deviation. differences
deviation. Significant Significantaredifferences are coloured,
Note: Datanon-significant
coloured, for differences
non-significant Sintra (Portugal) did not
differences arereach
are outlined. student response rate standards and are not included in international averages. The figures report
outlined.
standardised
Source: Adapteddifferences,
from OECD whereby
(2021),the raw scale
Beyond points have
Academic been divided
Learning. by thefrom
First Results (city-specific)
the Surveystandard deviation.
on Social Significant differences
OECD are
Source: Adapted
Note: Data from OECD
for Sintra (2021),
(Portugal) Beyond Academic Learning. First Results from
and the Survey on and Emotional
Social Skills,
and Emotional Skills,The
OECD Publishing,
report Paris,
coloured, non-significant
Publishing, Paris, differencesdidarenot reach
outlined.
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. student response
Tables rate
A1.4, A1.5. standards
and Figure 1.3. are not included in international averages. figures
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en,
standardised
Source: Adapted differences,
from OECD whereby Tables
the raw
(2021), Beyond A1.4,
Academic A1.5.
scale points and
Learning.Figure
have First 1.3.
beenResults
dividedfrom
by the
the(city-specific)
Survey on Socialstandard deviation.Skills,
and Emotional Significant
OECD differences are
coloured, non-significant
Publishing, differences are outlined. Tables A1.4, A1.5. and Figure 1.3.
Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en.
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. Tables A1.4, A1.5. and Figure 1.3.
20
Figure 13. Differences in social and emotional skills by socio-economic status
Figure 11. Differences in social and emotional skills by socio-economic status
Standardised differences in skill scores (high socio-economic status – low socio-economic status) among 15-year-olds
Standardised differences in skill scores (high socio-economic status – low socio-economic status) among 15-year-olds
0.80
Socio-economically advantaged students report higher...
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Socio-economically disadvantaged students report higher...

-0.20
Responsibility
Persistence
Self-control
Stress resistance
Optimism
Emotional control
Empathy
Trust
Co-operation
Tolerance
Curiosity
Creativity
Sociability
Assertiveness
Energy
Self-efficacy
Standardised differences
Standardised differencesininskill scores
skill (high
scores socio-economic
(high status
socio-economic – low –socio-economic
status status) among
low socio-economic status)10-year-olds
among 10-year-olds
0.80
Socio-economically advantaged students report higher...
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Socio-economically disadvantaged students report higher...
-0.20
Responsibility
Persistence
Self-control
Stress resistance
Optimism
Emotional control
Empathy
Trust
Co-operation
Tolerance
Curiosity
Creativity
Sociability
Assertiveness
Energy
Self-efficacy
Note: Data
Note: Datafor
forSintra
Sintra(Portugal) didnot
(Portugal) did notreach
reachstudent
student response
response rate
rate standards
standards and and areincluded
are not not included in international
in international averages.averages. Socio-economically advantaged
Socio-economically
advantaged
students students
are those aretop
in the those in the of
quarter topthe
quarter of the site-specific
city-specific distribution distribution of the
of the index index of socio-economic
of socio-economic status. status. Socio-economically
Socio-economically disadvantaged students are in the
disadvantaged students are in the bottom quarter of the site-specific distribution of the index of socio-economic status. The figures report
bottom quarter of the city-specific distribution of the index of socio-economic status. The figures report standardised differences, whereby the raw scale points
standardised differences, whereby the raw scale points have been divided by the (city-specific) standard deviation. Significant differences are
have been divided
coloured, by the (city-specific)
non-significant differences arestandard
outlined. deviation. Significant differences are coloured, non-significant differences are outlined.
Source:Adapted
Source: fromOECD
Adapted from OECD(2021),
(2021), Beyond
Beyond Academic
Academic Learning.
Learning. First Results
First Results from the from the on
Survey Survey
SocialonandSocial and Emotional
Emotional Skills, OECD Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris,
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en.
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en, Figures 1.8. and Figures
1.9. 1.8. and 1.9.
… But students’ social and emotional skills are malleable...
Inequalities in social and emotional skills among students are not set in stone. SSES data as well as previous research
support the notion that social and emotional skills are characteristics and abilities that are malleable and change with
biological and psychological maturation, environmental influences, individual effort and important life events
(Specht et al., 2014[14]; Kankaraš and Suarez-Alvarez, 2019[15]; OECD, 2015[16]; Roberts, Walton and Viechtbauer,
2006[17]).
In Helsinki (Finland) and on average across participating cities, 15-year-olds exhibit lower levels than 10-year-
olds for most social and emotional skills. Of note overall, the dip in students’ social and emotional skills
observed as students age is less pronounced in Helsinki (Finland) than on average across cities (Figure 12).The
differences are more pronounced when it comes to optimism, trust, energy and sociability but are smaller for
empathy. Tolerance and assertiveness, and, to a lesser extent, responsibility, are the only skills that are reportedly
higher among 15-year-olds than 10-year-olds. This suggests that schools might play a role in the development
of skills like tolerance, assertiveness and responsibility but possibly neglect or even impede other social and
emotional skills. Instruction on citizenship and citizen rights, for instance, may enhance tolerant and responsible
behaviour among students. And school assignments like oral presentations and written essays may encourage
students to develop more assertiveness. However, the longer one spends in school with its fixed learning
environments, the more students’ abilities to build and practice self-regulation skills, interpersonal skills and
creativity and curiosity may become inhibited.
Figure 14. Age differences in social and emotional skills
Figure 12.(15-year-olds
Differences Age differences in social
– 10-year-olds) andand
in social emotional skills
emotional skills
Differences (15-year-olds – 10-year-olds) in social and emotional skills
1.00
0.80
0.60
15-year-old students report higher...
0.40
0.20
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
-0.80
10-year-old students report higher...
-1.00
Optimism
Emotional control
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Co-operation
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Data for
Note: Data
Note: forSintra (Portugal)
Sintra did did
(Portugal) not reach student
not reach response
student rate standards
response and are notand
rate standards included in international
are not included inaverages. The figure
international reportsThe figure reports
averages.
standardised differences, whereby the raw scale points have been divided by the (city-specific) standard deviation. Significant differences are
standardised differences, whereby the raw scale points have been divided by the (city-specific) standard deviation. Significant differences are coloured,
coloured, non-significant differences are outlined.
non-significant
Source: Adapteddifferences
from OECDare outlined.
(2021), Beyond Academic Learning. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD
Source: Adapted
Publishing, from OECD (2021), Beyond Academic
Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. Learning.
Figure 1.3. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris,
22
Important age-related differences are also observed in other key outcomes examined in SSES. SSES data show that
10-year-old students enjoy higher levels of psychological well-being than 15-year-olds. Life satisfaction and current
psychological well-being dip as students get older while test anxiety increases from childhood to adolescence. Figure
13 shows, for example, that the share of students who reported being very satisfied with their life in Helsinki (Finland)
goes from nearly 65% among 10-year-olds down to less than 40% among 15-year-olds. This pattern is generally more
pronounced among girls than boys.
Figure 15. Students’ life satisfaction, by age cohort and city
Percentage of students, by level of life satisfaction
Figure13.
Figure 15.Students’
Students’ life
lifesatisfaction,
satisfaction,byby
age cohort
age andand
cohort citycity
Percentageof
Percentage ofstudents,
students, by
by level
level of
of life
life satisfaction
satisfaction
Average life satisfaction
Manizales (Colombia) 8.7

Average life satisfaction
Bogotá (Colombia) 8.6
Helsinki (Finland) 8.6
Sintra (Portugal) 8.5
Moscow (Russia) 8.3
10-year-olds

International Average 8.2
Moscow (Russia) 8.3
10-year-olds
Istanbul (Turkey) 8.1

Suzhou (China) 8.2
Daegu (Korea) 8.1
Suzhou (China) 8.2
Houston (United States) 7.6
Daegu (Korea) 8.1
Ottawa (Canada) 7.9
Ottawa (Canada) 7.9
Moscow (Russia) 7.4
15-year-olds
Moscow (Russia) 7.4

15-year-olds

Daegu (Korea) 7.0
Ottawa (Canada) 6.8
Daegu (Korea) 7.0
Suzhou (China) 7.0
Ottawa (Canada) 6.8
Suzhou (China) 7.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%
Very satisfied (9-10) Satisfied (7-8) Moderately satisfied (5-6) Not satisfied (0-4)
Very satisfied (9-10) Satisfied (7-8) Moderately satisfied (5-6) Not satisfied (0-4)
Note:
Note: Citiesare
Cities areranked
rankedinindescending
descending order
order of
of the
the percentage
percentageofofstudents
studentswho
whoreported being
reported very
being satisfied
very withwith
satisfied their life. life.
their
Data for Sintra (Portugal) did not reach student response rate standards.
Data for Sintra (Portugal) did not reach student response rate standards
Source:
Note: Adapted
Cities from OECD
are ranked (2021), Beyond
in descending order ofAcademic Learning.
the percentage First Results
of students from thebeing
who reported Survey
veryon Social and
satisfied their life. Skills, OECD
withEmotional
Source: Adapted
Publishing, from
Paris, OECD (2021), Beyond Academic
https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. Learning.
3.1. First Results from the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris,
Data for Sintra (Portugal) did not reach student responseFigure
rate standards.
Students’ educational and occupational expectations also change as they get older. In particular, older students
embrace more diverse occupational expectations than their younger peers. On average across participating cities,
48% of 10-year-olds expect to work in one of the 10 most frequently reported occupations for their age cohort. This
goes down to 37% for 15-year-old students. In addition, the relation between students’ social and emotional skills
and their occupational expectations is much stronger for 15-year-olds than 10-year-olds. This suggests reciprocal
influence between students’ social and emotional skills and their occupational aspirations.
… And students’ social and emotional skills can be influenced
by the school environment
The malleability of social and emotional skills enables them to be modified or developed for the better. Schools can
play a particularly important role in providing learning environments where skills can be developed, enhanced and
reinforced through practice and daily experiences. There are a number of studies that look at the effect of different
school-based interventions to enhance students’ social and emotional learning (Durlak et al., 2011[18]; Park et al.,
2008[19]; Sklad et al., 2012[20]; Smithers et al., 2018[21]). A meta-analysis by Durlak et al. (2011[18]) shows that social and
emotional learning programmes had significant positive effects on targeted social and emotional skills, and attitudes
about self, others and school. They increased pro-social behaviour, reduced behavioural problems and improved school
performance. A more recent meta-analysis of quality research studies (comprising randomised experimental, quasi-
experimental intervention studies and observational studies, controlling for relevant confounding factors) by Smithers
et al. (2018[21]) found that interventions aiming to improve social and emotional skills had more obvious positive effects
on academic achievement outcomes than on psychological, cognitive, language and health outcomes. These findings
suggest that people are not born with a fixed set of social and emotional skills. Instead, there is considerable potential
in developing these skills throughout people’s lives (Helson et al., 2002[22]; Srivastava et al., 2003[23]). Studies linking
data on teachers and students show that teachers have an impact on students’ social and emotional skills. Teachers’
interactions with students, classroom organisation, and emphasis on critical thinking in specific subjects were found to
support students’ development in areas beyond their core academic skills (Blazar and Kraft, 2017[24]).
SSES data shed light on teachers’ and schools’ roles in shaping students’ social and emotional skills. A first illustration
of this is that students with a greater sense of school belonging and better relations with teachers reported higher
social and emotional skills. This holds true for Helsinki (Finland) and for all other participating cities. Fitting in at school
is most strongly related to higher co-operation, optimism and sociability. A recent study conducted on 1 038 high-
school students from the Helsinki metropolitan area also found that students reporting higher curiosity, grit, academic
buoyancy and social engagement were more likely to be engaged in their school life, and less likely to suffer from
school burnout (Salmela-Aro and Upadyaya, 2020[25]).
Data from SSES further show that students who reported having positive relations with their teachers also view
themselves as more optimistic, curious and achievement-focused. These findings suggest that schools that are able to
provide a positive disciplinary climate, offer support from teachers and engage with parents in building a positive school
culture can help students develop their social and emotional skills. Indeed, all these factors are positively associated
with students’ sense of belonging at school in other research studies (Allen et al., 2018[26]; Crouch, Keys and McMahon,
2014[27]; Dotterer, McHale and Crouter, 2007[28]; Ma, 2003[29]; OECD, 2017[30]; Shochet, Smyth and Homel, 2007[31]).
Secondly, school climate and anti-bullying policies can be instrumental to students’ positive social and emotional
development. Bullying at school can affect any schoolchild in any country (Nansel et al., 2004[32]). This violent behaviour
can have severe long-term physical, social and emotional consequences for students. Teachers, parents, policy makers
and the media are increasingly drawing attention to bullying and trying to find ways to tackle it (Phillips, 2007[33]). A
Korean study established that being bullied in middle school causes the onset of symptoms of psychopathologic
behaviours to resurface later (Kim, Leventhal and Koh, 2006[34]). Yet, research suggests that a supportive and caring
school environment is linked to less bullying and, conversely, students’ willingness to seek help (Låftman, Östberg and
Modin, 2017[35]; Ma, 2002[36]; Olweus, 2012[37]). In schools where students perceive greater fairness; feel they fit in at
school; work in a more disciplined, structured and cooperative environment; and have understanding teachers,
students are less likely to engage in risky and violent behaviour (Gottfredson et al., 2005[38]; Kuperminc, Leadbeater
and Blatt, 2001[39]).
SSES data show that students’ exposure to bullying is negatively related to almost all social and emotional skills. In
Helsinki (Finland) as well as on average across participating cities, 10-year-old and 15-year-old students’ exposure to
bullying is most strongly related to lower skills in the domains of emotional regulation and collaboration. Students who
reported greater exposure to bullying tend to report lower levels of optimism, emotional control, stress resistance, and
trust in other people (Figure 14). These findings are worrying as, in Helsinki, 17% of 10-year-old students and 14% of
15-year-old students had experienced bullying at least a few times a month or more during the 12 months prior to the
2019 survey.
24
Figure 14. Relations between students’ exposure to bullying, and social and emotional skills
Figure 16.
Change Relations between
in 15-year-olds’ social andstudents’
emotionalexposure to bullying,
skills related and social
to a one-standard and emotional
deviation increase inskills
exposure
to bullying
Change in 15-year-olds’ social and emotional skills related to a one-standard deviation increase in exposure to bullying
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
Optimism
Emotional control
Co-operation
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others Compound skills
Change in
Change in 10-year-olds’
10-year-olds’social
socialand
andemotional
emotionalskills related
skills to atoone-standard
related deviation
a one-standard increase
deviation in exposure
increase to bullying
in exposure to bullying
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
Optimism
Emotional control
Co-operation
Creativity
Responsibility
Self-control
Curiosity
Sociability
Empathy
Trust
Stress resistance
Assertiveness
Self-efficacy
Tolerance
Persistence
Energy
Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others Compound skills
Note: Data for Sintra (Portugal) did not reach student response rate standards and are not included in the international average. Control
variables
Note: Datainclude gender,
for Sintra socio-economic
(Portugal) did notstatus
reachand immigration
student background.
response Significant
rate standards differences
and are are coloured,
not included non-significant
in the international differences
average. are variables include
Control
outlined.
gender, socio-economic status and immigration background. Significant differences are coloured, non-significant differences are outlined.
A third area where schools could make a difference in the holistic development of their students is in organising
extracurricular activities. Extracurricular activities at school do not only have an academic focus, they usually aim to
achieve a broader set of goals such as physical exercise and health; developing creativity and practice or appreciation
of the arts; and encouraging volunteering and involvement with the community. Participation in extracurricular
activities can also help students develop social and emotional skills (Farb and Matjasko, 2012[40]).
SSES data show that, in Helsinki (Finland) as well as in almost all participating cities, students who participate in
after-school art activities reported higher levels of creativity, particularly among 15-year-olds (Figure 15). This holds
true even after accounting for differences in socio-economic status and gender among students. In Helsinki, 62% of
10-year-old students participate in extracurricular art activities after school (e.g. playing a musical instrument, dancing,
drawing, etc.) – a share that drops down to 42% among 15-year-old students. The pattern of declining participation
in art activities as students age combined with wider differences in creativity levels suggests that students who think
of themselves as not creative are more likely to discontinue their participation in art activities during adolescence.
Conversely, it is possible that sustained participation in art activities helps students build confidence in their creativity.
While the nature of SSES data does not allow us to identify the direction of causality, the data suggest a strong
association between art activities at age 15 and creativity.
Figure 17. How participation in art activities relates to creativity

Figure 15. How participation in art activities relates to creativity
Mean scale differences after accounting for socio-economic status and gender
Mean scale differences after accounting for socio-economic status and gender
Creativity
Mean scale difference
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Students participating in extracurricular

activities rated themselves higher than others
International Average
Bogotá (Colombia)
Daegu (Korea)
Helsinki (Finland)
Houston (United States)
Istanbul (Turkey)
Manizales (Colombia)
Moscow (Russia)
Ottawa (Canada)
Sintra (Portugal)
Suzhou (China)
Note: Data for Sintra (Portugal) did not reach student response rate standards and are not included in international averages.
Note: Data for Sintra (Portugal) did not reach student response rate standards and are not included in international averages.
26
Box 4. Key features of the OECD’s Survey on Social and Emotional Skills
(SSES)
Target populations and samples
The SSES took a single snapshot of two cohorts of primary and secondary school students, at ages 10 and 15.
A sample of around 3,000 students was drawn for each of the two age groups in each participating city. The
sample design consisted of creating an initial random sample of schools, followed by a random selection of
students within sampled schools.
Ten cities participated in the first round of SSES in 2019: Bogotá (Colombia), Daegu (Korea), Helsinki (Finland),
Houston (United States), Istanbul (Turkey), Manizales (Colombia), Moscow (the Russian Federation), Ottawa
(Canada), Sintra (Portugal) and Suzhou (China).
In Helsinki (Finland), the school samples for both cohorts were drawn from the population of public schools. The
school samples were stratified by language of education (Finnish and Swedish).
Survey instruments
SSES assessed students’ social and emotional skills directly but also obtained information from their parents,
teachers and school principals.
SSES’s assessment instruments are self- (student) and others’ (parents and teachers) reports on assessed
students’ typical behaviours, thoughts and feelings. Questions/items are in the form of simple statements such
as “I like learning new things” (item assessing students’ curiosity) and “I stay calm even in tense situations”
(item assessing stress resistance). A 5-point Likert-type agree/disagree response scale was used with answers
ranging from 1 – completely disagree to 5 – completely agree. All of the 15 assessment scales used positively
and negatively worded items.
These methods are used the most frequently in social and emotional skills assessments. They provide a simple
and efficient way to collect information from a large number of respondents, are cost-efficient, simple to
administer and tend to produce consistent results.
SSES also collected information on students’ and their parents’ background characteristics as well as family,
school, and community learning contexts through four contextual questionnaires developed for: students,
parents, teachers and school principals.
SSES data of all participating cities were complemented with information on students’ school grades (except in
Ottawa [Canada]) and students’ scores via a short cognitive test (except in Houston [United States] and Ottawa
[Canada]).
Administration mode
The students filled out the questionnaires online through desktop or laptop devices. A trained study administrator
delivered the survey with school staff present. Parents, teachers and school principals also filled out questionnaires
online but in some participating cities, parents could choose a paper and pencil option in case of necessity or
personal preference. All instruments were provided using a centrally managed online platform.
Acknowledgements
This city note was prepared by Rachel Renbarger and Noémie Le Donné with the valuable contribution of Eva Feron.
Its development was guided by Andreas Schleicher, Dirk Van Damme and Marta Encinas-Martin. The authors
thank Mette Ranta, Marjo Kyllönen, and Katariina Salmela-Aro for their inputs. The report was edited by Clara Young.
The OECD thanks the Porticus foundation for the financial support provided for this report.
The publication was designed by DHA Communications.
References
Allen, K. et al. (2018), “What Schools Need to Know About Fostering School Belonging: a Meta-analysis”, [26]
Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 30/1, pp. 1-34, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8.
Blazar, D. and M. Kraft (2017), “Teacher and teaching effects on students’ attitudes and behaviors”, [24]
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 39/1, pp. 146-170,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0162373716670260.
Carver, C., M. Scheier and S. Segerstrom (2010), “Optimism”, Clinical Psychology Review, Vol. 30/7, pp. [10]
879-889, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.01.006.
Crouch, R., C. Keys and S. McMahon (2014), “Student-teacher relationships matter for school inclusion: [27]
School belonging, disability, and school transitions”, Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the
Community, Vol. 42/1, pp. 20-30, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2014.855054.
Dotterer, A., S. McHale and A. Crouter (2007), “Implications of out-of-school activities for school [26]
engagement in African American adolescents”, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 36/4, pp. 391-401,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9161-3.
Durlak, J. et al. (2011), “The Impact of Enhancing Students’ Social and Emotional Learning: A [18]
Meta-Analysis of School-Based Universal Interventions”, Child Development, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
8624.2010.01564.x, pp. 405-432.
Farb, A. and J. Matjasko (2012), “Recent advances in research on school-based extracurricular activities [40]
and adolescent development”, Developmental Review, Vol. 32/1, pp. 1-48, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
dr.2011.10.001.
Gottfredson, G. et al. (2005), “School climate predictors of school disorder: Results from a national [38]
study of delinquency prevention in schools”, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 42/4, pp.
412-444, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022427804271931.
Helson, R. et al. (2002), “The growing evidence for personality change in adulthood: Findings from [22]
research with personality inventories”, Journal of Research in Personality, Vol. 36/4, pp. 287-306.
Inchley, J. et al. (2020), Spotlight on adolescent health and well-being. Findings from the 2017/2018 [8]
Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey in Europe and Canada. International report.
Volume 1. Key findings., Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
Kankaraš, M. and J. Suarez-Alvarez (2019), “Assessment framework of the OECD Study on Social and [15]
Emotional Skills”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 207, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5007adef-en.
Kim, Y., B. Leventhal and Y. Koh (2006), “School bullying and youth violence: Causes or consequences [34]
of psychopathological behavior?”, Arch Gen Psychiatry, Vol. 63/9, pp. 1035-1041, http://dx.doi.org/
doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.9.1035.
Kuperminc, G., B. Leadbeater and S. Blatt (2001), “School social climate and individual differences in [39]
vulnerability to psychopathology among middle school students”, Journal of School Psychology, Vol.
39/2, pp. 141-159, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(01)00059-0.
28
Låftman, S., V. Östberg and B. Modin (2017), “School climate and exposure to bullying: a multilevel study”, [35]
School Effectiveness and School Improvement, Vol. 28/1, pp. 153-164, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2
016.1253591.
Ma, X. (2003), “Sense of belonging to school: Can schools make a difference?”, Journal of Educational [29]
Research, Vol. 96/6, pp. 340-349, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220670309596617.
Ma, X. (2002), “Bullying in middle school: Individual and school characteristics of victims and offenders”, [36]
School Effectiveness and School Improvement, Vol. 13/1, pp. 63-89, http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/
sesi.13.1.63.3438.
Musset, P. and M. Kurekova (2018), “Working it out: Career Guidance and Employer Engagement”, OECD [6]
Education Working Papers, No. 175, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/51c9d18d-en.
Nansel, T. et al. (2004), “Cross-national consistency in the relationship between bullying behaviors and [32]
psychosocial adjustment”, Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Vol. 158/8, pp. 730-736,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.158.8.730.
OECD (2019), PISA 2018 Results (Volume I): What Students Know and Can Do, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, [2]
https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5f07c754-en.
OECD (2019), PISA 2018 Results (Volume II): Where All Students Can Succeed, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, [4]
https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/b5fd1b8f-en.
OECD (2017), PISA 2015 Results (Volume III): Students’ Well-Being, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, [30]
https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264273856-en.
OECD (2015), Skills for Social Progress: The Power of Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Skills Studies, OECD [16]
Publishing, Paris, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264226159-en.
OECD (2013), OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well-being, OECD Publishing, [7]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264191655-en.
OECD (2013), OECD Skills Outlook 2013: First Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris, [3]
https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264204256-en.
Olweus, D. (2012), “Cyberbullying: An overrated phenomenon?”, European Journal of Developmental [37]

Psychology, Vol. 9/5, pp. 520-538, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2012.682358.
Park, H. et al. (2008), “The Evaluation of School-Based Violence Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analysis*”, [19]
The Journal of school health, Vol. 78, pp. 465-79; quiz 518.
Patton, G. (2016), “Our future: A Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing”, The Lancet, Vol. [9]
387, pp. 2423-2478, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00579-1.
Phillips, D. (2007), “Punking and bullying: Strategies in middle school, high school, and beyond”, Journal of [33]
Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 22/2, pp. 158-178, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260506295341.
Pool, L. and P. Sewell (2007), “The key to employability: Developing a practical model of graduate [5]
employability”, Education and Training, Vol. 49/4, pp. 277-289,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00400910710754435.
Roberts, B., K. Walton and W. Viechtbauer (2006), “Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits [17]
across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 132/1, pp. 1-25,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1.
Salmela-Aro, K. and K. Upadyaya (2020), “School engagement and school burnout profiles during high [25]
school – The role of socio-emotional skills”, European Journal of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 17/6, pp.
943-964, https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2020.1785860.
Scheier, M., C. Carver and M. Bridges (2004), “Optimism, pessimism, and psychological well-being.”, in [11]
Optimism & pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice., American Psychological Association,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10385-009.
Shochet, I., T. Smyth and R. Homel (2007), The impact of parental attachment on adolescent perception of [31]
the school environment and school connectedness, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/anft.28.2.109.
Sklad, M. et al. (2012), “Effectiveness of school-based universal social, emotional, and behavioral [20]
programs: Do they enhance students’ development in the area of skill, behavior, and adjustment?”,
Psychology in the Schools, doi: 10.1002/pits.21641, pp. 892-909.
Smithers, L. et al. (2018), “A systematic review and meta-analysis of effects of early life non-cognitive [46]
skills on academic, psychosocial, cognitive and health outcomes”, Nature Human Behaviour, Vol. 2/11,
pp. 867-880, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0461-x.
Specht, J. et al. (2014), “What Drives Adult Personality Development? A Comparison of Theoretical [14]
Perspectives and Empirical Evidence”, European Journal of Personality, Vol. 28/3, pp. 216-230,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.1966.
Srivastava, S. et al. (2003), “Development of Personality in Early and Middle Adulthood: Set Like Plaster [23]
or Persistent Change?”, Journal of personality and social psychology, Vol. 84, pp. 1041-1053.
Tang, X. et al. (2021), “School burnout and psychosocial problems among adolescents: Grit as a [12]
resilience factor”, Journal of Adolescence, Vol. 86/Jan, pp. 77-89,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.12.002.
Zeidner, M. (2007), Test Anxiety in Educational Contexts: Concepts, Findings, and Future Directions, [13]
Elsevier Inc.
30
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed
and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries.
This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,
to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Photo credits: Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova / Shutterstock.com
© OECD 2021
The use of this work, whether digital or print, is governed by the Terms and Conditions to be found at
http://www.oecd.org/termsandconditions.

Sses-Helsinki-Report SURVEY - SOCIAL EMOTIONAL SKILLS

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sses-Helsinki-Report SURVEY - SOCIAL EMOTIONAL SKILLS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Survey on Social

The SSES aims to:

What are social and emotional skills?

DOMAINS SKILLS DESCRIPTION

OPEN-MINDEDNESS CURIOSITY Interest in ideas and love of learning, understanding and

CREATIVITY Generating novel ways to do or think about things through

TASK RESPONSIBILITY Able to honour commitments, and be punctual and reliable.

PERSISTENCE Persevering in tasks and activities until they get done.

ENERGY Approaching daily life with energy, excitement and spontaneity.

EMOTIONAL Effective strategies for regulating temper, anger and irritation in

TRUST Assuming that others generally have good intentions and

CO-OPERATION Living in harmony with others and valuing interconnectedness

SELF-EFFICACY The strength of individuals’ beliefs in their ability to execute tasks

In Helsinki, intellectual curiosity, persistence, assertiveness and trust are the

Overall, gender SKILLS

differences in students’ Helsinki (Finland)

In Helsinki, social and emotional skills that matter for stu

15-year-olds exhibit lower social and emotional skills than 10-year-olds,

t matter for students’

In Helsinki, 17% of 10-year-olds and 14% of 15-year-olds have experie

SKILLS SKILLS SKILLS

In Helsinki, social and emotional skills that matter for students’

current psychological well-being include optimism, self-control,

15-year-olds exhibit lower social and emotional skills than 10-year-olds,

In all participating cities

In Helsinki, 17% of 10-year-olds and 14% of 15-year-olds have experienced

SKILLS SKILLS SKILLS

On average, across all participating cities, socio-economically advantaged

Box 1. Key information about Helsinki (Finland)

Educational institutions’ own groups and teams

Student council days

Young Voice Editorial Board

Box 3. The KiVa Anti-bullying Programme

Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others

Reading Mathematics Arts

Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others

Reading Mathematics Arts

Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others

Reading Mathematics Arts

https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en, Tables A2.1, A2.2, A2.3, A2.4, A2.5 and A2.6.

Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others

Helsinki (Finland) International Reference

Helsinki (Finland) International Reference

Social and emotional skills matter for well-being

Figure 9. Skills most strongly associated with students’ life satisfaction

Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others

Helsinki (Finland) International Reference

Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others

Helsinki (Finland) International Reference

Task performance Emotional regulation Collaboration Open-Mindedness Engaging with others

Helsinki (Finland) International Reference

International average Helsinki (Finland)

International average Helsinki (Finland)

Socio-economically disadvantaged students report higher...

International average Helsinki (Finland)

International average Helsinki (Finland)

International average Helsinki (Finland)

Manizales (Colombia) 8.7

Sintra (Portugal) 8.5

Istanbul (Turkey) 8.1

Moscow (Russia) 7.4

Sintra (Portugal) 7.2