Contents

LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................................................3
WEEK 1: CONCRETE LABORATORY...............................................................................................................4
1.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATES........................................................................................4
1.2 FLAKINESS INDEX TEST.......................................................................................................................5
1.3 LOS ANGELESS ABRASSION TEST.......................................................................................................6
1.4 AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST.....................................................................................................8
1.5 AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST.................................................................................................9
1.6 TEN PERCENT FINES.........................................................................................................................11
1.7 SILT AND CLAY CONTENT TEST ON QUARRY SAND..........................................................................11
1.8 PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF CEMENT.....................................................................................................12
1.9 MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE..............................................................................................................14
1.10 SLUMP TEST...................................................................................................................................15
Principle of Slump test....................................................................................................................16
Types of Concrete Slump.......................................................................................................................16
Slump Test Apparatus............................................................................................................................16
Procedure of Concrete Slump test:........................................................................................................17
1.11COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF CONCRETE CUBES...................................................................18
Concrete Strength Overtime................................................................................................................18
...........................................................................................................................................................18
Procedure..........................................................................................................................................18
Calculation............................................................................................................................................19
1.12SODIUM SULPHATE SOUNDNESS....................................................................................................20
WEEK 2: BITUMEN LABORATORY..............................................................................................................21
2.1 TYPES OF BITUMEN..........................................................................................................................21
2.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CUTBACK BITUMEN........................................................................22
2.3 VISCOSITY AT 60℃...........................................................................................................................23
2.6 DUCTILITY TEST................................................................................................................................26
2.7 SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN (ball and ring test)........................................................................28

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 2.8 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST OF BITUMEN..............................................................................................29
2.9 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATES......................................................................................30
2.10 MARSHALL METHOD OF ASPHALT COMCRETE MIX DESIGN..........................................................32
WEEK 3: SOIL LABORATORY.......................................................................................................................36
3.1 PROCTOR TEST.................................................................................................................................36
3.2 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST...................................................................................................37
3.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................39
3.4 ATTERBERG LIMITS..........................................................................................................................40
WEEK 4: FOUNDATION LABORATORY........................................................................................................43
4.1 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF ROCK.................................................................43
4.2 POINT LOAD TEST OF A ROCK..........................................................................................................44
4.3 FULL GRADING: DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY HYDROMETER AND SIEVE
ANALYSIS...............................................................................................................................................45
4.3.1 Hydrometer method of analysis...............................................................................................45
4.3.2 Wet sieve analysis.....................................................................................................................47
4.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS.................................................................................47
4.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST.................................................................................................................48
4.6 DIRECT SHEAR TEST.........................................................................................................................51
APPENDIX..................................................................................................................................................53

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1 L.A.A test balls..........................................................................................................................6
Figure 1. 2 compressive machine...............................................................................................................11
Figure 1. 3 slump cone...............................................................................................................................16
Figure 1. 4 150mm cube mould.................................................................................................................17

Figure 2. 1 Penetrometer...........................................................................................................................26

Figure 3. 1 CBR moulds…………………….….………………………………………………………………………………………………..39

Figure 3. 2 CBR testing machine................................................................................................................39

Figure 4. 1 A loading machine...................................................................................................................44

Figure 4. 2 Point load test machine...........................................................................................................45
Figure 4. 3 A loading device.....................................................................................................................50

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 WEEK 1: CONCRETE LABORATORY
1.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATES
Coarse aggregates are those particles that do not pass sieve 2.36mm. Particle size determinations
on large samples of aggregate is necessary to ensure that aggregates perform as intended for their
specified use. A sieve analysis or gradation test determines the distribution of aggregate particles
by size within a given sample. This information can then be used to determine compliance with
design and production requirements.

Objective

To determine the particle size distribution in the given sample.

Apparatus

 Sieves sizes 28mm, 20mm, 14mm, 10mm and 6.3mm and pan.
 Sieve shaker
 Electric balance accurate to 0.01g
 Riffle box
 Trowel
 trays

Preparation of sample

The aggregate sample was passed through a riffle box which divided into two portions,
where one was discarded. The retained portion was passed again through the process until the
sample was reduced to the required size.

Procedure.

 The sieves were arranged in a descending order having the largest size on top and the pan
at the bottom.
 The nested sieves were placed in a sieve shaker.
 The sample was poured into the topmost sieve and the shaker turned on. They were
shaken for about 3 minutes in a rotating manner. After shaking is complete, the operator
weighed the material retained on each of the sieves using the cumulative method.

 Each sieve fraction, beginning with the coarsest, was placed in a previously tarred pan
and weighed. This process was repeated until all fractions and the bottom pan had been
added and weighed.

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 Results and calculations

Class 20/14

Total mass =1594g

Sieve size in mm Mass retained in g Cumulative % passing

retained
28 Nil nil 100
20 68 1594-68=1526 1526/1594*100=95.73
14 622 1526-622=904 904/1594*100=56.71
10 702 904-702=202 202/1594*100=12.67
6.3 202 202-202=0
1594

The cumulative method was used to calculate whereby as each retained fraction is added, divide
the cumulative mass by the total mass of the sample and multiply by 100 to calculate percent
retained. Subtract the cumulative percent retained on a given sieve from 100 to calculate percent
passing.

1.2 FLAKINESS INDEX TEST

This is a shape test on coarse aggregates done to determine its flakiness index. The Flakiness
Index of aggregates is the percentage by weight of particles whose least dimension (thickness) is
less than three- fifths (0.6times) of their mean dimension. This test is not applicable to sizes
smaller than 6.3mm.

Apparatus

 A weighing balance.
 Flakiness index gauges for different sieve sizes.
 Sieve shaker, sieves 6.3mm, 10mm, 14mm, 20mm and 28mm.
 Trays
 Trowel.

Procedure.

 The aggregates samples were sieved through a set of the nested sieves.
 Aggregates retained on each sieve were weighed, recorded and passed through a flakiness
index gauge. The material passing through each set of gauge was weighed and recorded.

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 Results and calculations

Class 20/14

Sieve size mm Weight retained in g Flaky material passing in

g
28 Nil nil
20 68 32
14 622 125
10 702 146
6.3 202 38
Total 1594 341

Class 10-14

Sieve size mm Weight retained g Flaky material passing g

20 Nil Nil
14 24 Nil
10 666 208
6.3 1008 131
<6.3 22 Nil
Total 1720 339

Flakiness index = total flaky material passing/total weight of retained material *100

F.I =341/1594 *100= 21.39% in class 20/14

F.I =339/1720*100=20.25% for class 10/14

The maximum limit for F.I values to be used in road construction should not exceed 30%.

1.3 LOS ANGELESS ABRASSION TEST

The Los Angeles test is a measure of degradation of coarse aggregates of standard grading
resulting from a combination of actions including abrasion or attrition, impact, and grinding in a
rotating steel drum containing a specified number of steel spheres. The Los Angeles (L.A.)
abrasion test is a common test method used to indicate aggregate toughness and abrasion
characteristics. Aggregate abrasion characteristics are important because the constituent
aggregate in HMA (hot mix asphalt) must resist crushing, degradation and disintegration in order
to produce a high quality HMA.

Principle

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To find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between aggregate and steel balls used
as abrasive charge.

Objective

To determine the aggregate abrasion value on coarse aggregates.

Equipment

 Steel Spherical Balls

 L.A.A Machine (The machine is equipped with a counter and consists of hollow steel
cylinder closed at both ends. An opening in cylinder is provided for introducing the
sample
 Weighing balance
 Sieves 20mm, 10mm, 14 mm and
1.7mm.

Figure 1. 1 L.A.A test balls

Procedure

 The oven dried aggregates were poured into arranged in the nested sieves (20mm, 14mm,
10mm and pan) and shaken.
 The aggregates retained at sieves 10mm and 14mm sieves were each weighed 2500g
totaling to 5000g.
 The aggregates were placed in a L.A.A machine where 11 balls were used since method
B was used. The machine made 500 revolutions.
 Afterwards, the aggregates were removed and sieved through 1.7mm sieve. The retained
material was recorded.

Results and calculations.

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The percentage loss due to Abrasion is obtained by calculating the difference between the
retained material (larger particles) compared to the original sample weight. The difference in
weight is reported as a percent of the original weight and called the "percent loss".

Original sample weight=5000g

Final sample weight (retained on sieve 1.7mm) =4174mm

5000-4174=826g

826/5000*100=16.52%. The material was very hard. Percent loss for coarse aggregates for road
construction should not exceed 30%.

1.4 AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST

The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to movement of vehicles
on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting in their breaking down into smaller
pieces. The aggregates should therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration
due to impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test. The aggregate impact value
is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock.

Apparatus

 Impact testing machine

 Sieves 10mm,14mm and 2.36mm and a sieve shaker
 Weighing balance
 Steel tamping rod cylindrical metal cup

Procedure

 The oven dried sample was sieved through the arranged stack of sieves 14 mm and
10mm and those retained in sieve 10mm considered for the test.
 The cylindrical steel cup was fitted with 3 layers of aggregates and each tamped 25 times
by the rounded end of tamping rod and the excess aggregate struck off using a tamping
rod as a straight edge.
 The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup was weighed.
 The cup was firmly fixed into position on the base of the machine and the whole testing
sample placed in it and compacted by a single tamping rod.

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  The hammer (13 to 14kg in weight) was raised until its lower face was 380mm above the
surface of the aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregate 15 times
at intervals of not less than 1 second.
 The crushed aggregate was removed from the cup and sieved on sieve 2.36mm. The
retained material was weighed and recorded.

Results and calculations

The AIV value is obtained as follows;

Sample 1

Total weight of dry sample (W1 g) =335g

Weight of retained material on sieve 2.36mm (W 2 g) =280g
AIV= [(W1 –W2)/W2]* 100
= [(335-280)/335]*100

= 16.42%

Sample 2
W1=320g
W2=276g
AIV= ([320-276)/320]*100
=13.75%

An AIV of <20% is exceptionally strong and recommended for road construction.

1.5 AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST

Aggregate crushing value test on coarse aggregates gives a relative measure of the resistance of
an aggregate crushing under gradually applied compressive load. Coarse aggregate crushing
value is the percentage by weight of the crushed material obtained when test aggregates are
subjected to a specified load under standardized conditions. Crushing value of aggregates
indicates its strength. Lower crushing value is recommended for roads and pavements as it
indicates a lower crushed fraction under load and would give a longer service life and a more
economical performance. The aggregates used in roads and pavement construction must be
strong enough to withstand crushing under roller and traffic. 

Apparatus
 Steel cylinder.
 Sieves 14mm, 10mm, 2.36mm and a sieve shaker.
 Cylindrical metal measurer

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 Tamping rod
 Weighing balance oven
 Compression testing machine (3000KN).

PROCEDURE

 The oven dried sample was sieved through sieve 14mm and those retained at sieve 10mm
considered for the test.
 The cylindrical steel cup was filled with 3 layers of aggregates and each layer tamped 25
times by the rounded edge of the tamping rod and the surplus aggregate struck off using
the tamping rod as a straight edge.
 The net weight of the cylindrical steel cup was weighed.
 The aggregated were then poured in thirds to the ACV molds having a base.
 Each third was subjected to 25 strokes of tamping rod and the surface leveled. The
plunger was inserted that it rested horizontally on the surface. The whole assembly was
then between the platens of testing machine and loaded at a uniform rate a load of 400KN
for 10 minutes.
 The load was released and the aggregates removed then sieved through sieve 2.36 mm
until no significant amount passed through.

Results and calculations.

The original weight of aggregates retained at sieve 10mm= W1

The weight of materials retained at sieve 2.36mm=W2

A.C.V= [(W1-W2)/W1]*100

Sample 1

W1=2614, W2= 2144g

ACV1= [(2614-2144)/2614]*100

=17.98%

Sample 2

W1=2620g

W2=2178g

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 ACV2= [(2620-2178)/2620]*100

=16.87%

Both aggregates are strong enough to be used in pavement construction.

1.6 TEN PERCENT FINES

This is a measure of resistance of aggregates crushing subject to loading and it’s
applicable to both strong and weak aggregate. The test aims at looking for forces required
to produce 10% of fines (weight of fines/weight of all aggregates =10%). It’s similar to
ACV test where a force of 400 KN is applied gradually and expressed as a percentage of
the original mass.

10% fines = (14N/Y+4)

Where N=400KN and Y=ACV obtained.

For our samples tested for ACV

Sample 1

10% fines= (14*400KN/17.98 +4) = 254.78KN

Sample 2

10% fines = (14*400KN/16.87+4)=268.33 KN

These are the theoretical forces at which10% fines will be obtained from the coarse
aggregates.

If the aggregate crushing value is 30 or higher’ the result may be anomalous and in such cases
the ten percent fines value should be determined instead.

1.7 SILT AND CLAY CONTENT TEST ON QUARRY SAND

Silt content is a fine material which is less than 150 microns. It is unstable in the presence of water.
Excessive quantity of silt, not only reduces the bonding of cement and fine aggregates but also
affects the strength and durability of work.

Apparatus

 Weighing balance
 Sieve 75 µm
 Oven

11
Procedure

 500g of the quarry sand was weighed

 It was washed under running water through sieve 75µm until the water passing through
was clean.
 Silt and clay passed through the sieve.
 The retained material was then oven dried for 24 hours.
 After 24 hours, the retained material was allowed to cool and was weighed.

Results and calculations

The final weight of the retained material was 475g. the silt and clay contents are calculated as
follows;

[(initial weight –final weight)/initial weight]*100

= [(500g-475g)/500g]*100

=5%

The values for quarry sand should be (0-17%) while for river sand should be (0-3.5%).

1.8 PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF CEMENT

In this particular test, the compressive test of cement was investigated.  This test method
provides a means of determining the compressive strength of hydraulic cement and other mortars
and results may be used to determine compliance with specifications.

Apparatus and equipment

 Automatic mixer
 Electric compactor
 Compressive machine
 Cabinet
 Weighing balance( electric)
 Measuring cylinder.

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 Figure 1. 2 compressive machine
Procedure

 There were 3 samples. Each was weighed as follows

Cement Water Standard soil

Sample 1,Mombasa 450g 225 ml 1350 g
cement 42.5
Sample 2, Bamburi 450g 225 ml 1350 g
cement 42.5
Sample 3, Savannah 450g 225 ml 1350 g
cement 42.5

 Each sample (one at a time) was mixed in the automatic mixture in a bowl. Water and
cement were first mixed, then sand was added into the mixer. At a point the mixer
pauses, where one mixes with a hand then it will continue until the test is complete.
 At the compacting machine, each mortar sample was placed in three 50mm cube
specimen. The first layer is about ¾ full, which was locked and compacted 60 times for 1
minute The rest ¼ mortar was added and compacted again in a vibrating manner for 60
times for 1 minute. The surface was smoothened. This was done for each mortar where a
total of 9 50 mm cubes were obtained. The cubes were placed in a cabinet at a room
temperature for 24 hrs.
 After 24 hours, the cubes were placed in water for curing for 2 days, 7 days and 28 days.
 After 2 days, 3 cubes for each cement mortar were removed from the water and tested for
strength. The machine was reset and run. Each cube was cut into 2 and placed in the
compressive machine. Each force read was recorded.

Results and calculations.

13
 The loads for each half were recorded as follows.

Sample Stress in KN Average stress KN

1 ½ 15.0 14.75
½ 14.56
2 ½ 21.5 20.75
1/2 20.0
3 ½ 19.24 19.12
1/2 19.00

The cube strengths at 2 days vary between 10 KN-20 KN. The difference between two halves
of the same cube should not exceed 5 KN.

1.9 MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE

Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregates and water and when fresh forms a paste which sets
and hardens by means of hydration reactions to form a solid stone like material. Additives and
reinforcements are added to modify the mixture properties.

Cement: performs as a binder for the ingredients

Aggregates: extend and strengthen the mixture

Water: lubricates and starts the hydration process

Reinforcement: increase the strength of the member

Additives: modify the properties of fresh mixture.

Concrete can be-mass concrete: plain mixture without steel skeleton.

-reinforced concrete: the mixture with some steel skeleton

Trial mixes done with variations of water content from 180 L to 240 L. cement used was
Savannah cement42.5 N.

TEST 1

Material Relative density Mass per m3 Quantity in Kg

Cement CEM 1 3.12 400 12.0
Water 1.00 180 5.4
Course aggregates 2.53 950 28.5
River sand :50% 2.74 433 13.0
Rock sand :50% 2.80 443 13.3

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TEST 2

Material Relative density Mass per m3 Quantity in Kg

Cement CEM 1 3.12 467 14.0
Water 1.00 210 6.3
Course aggregates 2.53 950 28.5
River sand :50% 2.784 363 10.9
Rock sands:50% 2.80 371 11.1

TEST 3

Material Relative density Mass per m3 Quantity in Kg

Cement CEM 1 3.12 533 16.0
Water 1.00 240 6.2
Coarse aggregates 2.53 950 28.5
River sand:50% 2.74 293 8.8
Rock sand :50% 2.80 299 9.0

Procedure

Three tests were done individually.

For each test, the following procedure was followed:

 The 150mm cube molds were cleaned and oiled.

 The course aggregates were weighed 28.5 Kg for each test.
 The mixer was moisturized
 Course aggregates were poured into the mixture.
 River sand was weighed and poured into the mixer (13 Kg, 10.9 Kg and 8.8 kg).
 Rock sand was weighed and poured into the mixer (13.3 Kg, 11.1 Kg and 9.0 Kg).
 Cement was weighed (12 Kg, 14 Kg and 16 Kg) and poured into the mixer.
 The sand, curse aggregates and cement were mixed
 Water was added into the mixer in small amounts, mixed, then added the remaining water
and mixed until a uniform mixture was formed. Once the mixer was switched off, the
mixture was mixed uniformly using a spade.
 When the amount of water is enough and the concrete uniformly mixed, a slump test was
conducted. Test 1 was too dry for a slump test while test 3 was too watery for a slump

15
 test. Only test 2 qualified for a slump test. Test 1 and test 3 concrete was directly put in
the cube moulds, vibrated and leveled. They were left to set at room temperature. Test 2
was placed in the cubes after the slump test.

1.10 SLUMP TEST

Slump test is a laboratory or at site test used to measure the consistency of concrete. Slump test
shows an indication of the uniformity of concrete in different batches. The shape of the concrete
slumps shows the information on the workability and quality of concrete.  

Principle of Slump test

The slump value of concrete is just a principle of gravity flow of surface of the concrete cone
that indicates the amount of water added to it, which means how much this concrete mix is in
workable condition.

Types of Concrete Slump

The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the
slump is termed as;

1. Collapse Slump
 A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability
mix for which slump test is not appropriate. It means the water-cement ratio is too high.
2. Shear Slump
In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways
3. True Slump
In a true slump the concrete simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape. This is the only
slump which is used in various tests.

Slump Test Apparatus

 Slump cone,
 Scale for measurement,
 Tamping rod (steel)

16
  Baseplate
 Trowel

Figure 1. 3 slump cone

Procedure of Concrete Slump test:

1. The mold for the concrete slump test is a frustum of a cone, 300 mm of height. The base
is 200 mm in diameter and it has a smaller opening at the top of 100 mm.
2. The base was placed on a smooth surface and the container is filled with concrete in three
layers, whose workability was to be tested.
3. Each layer was tamped 25 times with a standard 16 mm diameter steel rod, rounded at the
end.
4. When the mold was completely filled with concrete, the top surface was struck off
(leveled with mould top opening) by means of screening and rolling motion of the
tamping rod.
5. The mould was firmly held against its base during the entire operation so that it could not
move due to the pouring of concrete and this can be done by means of handles or foot -
rests brazed to the mold.
6. Immediately after filling was completed and the concrete was leveled, the cone was
slowly and carefully lifted vertically, an unsupported concrete will now slump.
7. The decrease in the height of the center of the slumped concrete is called slump.
8. The slump was measured by placing the cone just besides the slump concrete and the
tamping rod is placed over the cone so that it should also come over the area of slumped
concrete.
9. The decrease in height of concrete to that of mold is noted with scale usually measured to
the nearest 5 mm

Results and calculations

The slump was recorded as 60mm. This falls under medium workability.

1.11COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF CONCRETE CUBES

Concrete Strength Overtime

Days after Casting Strength Gain

17
 Day 1 16%

Day 3 40%

Day 7 65%

Day 14 90%

Day 28 99%

Apparatus

 150 mm Cube Moulds (with IS Mark)

 Electronic Weighing Balance
 Compressions Testing Machine

Figure 1. 4 150mm cube mould

Procedure

Cube Casting
 Measure the dry proportion of ingredients (Cement, Sand & Coarse Aggregate) as per the
design requirements. The Ingredients should be sufficient enough to cast test cubes
 Thoroughly mix the dry ingredients to obtain the uniform mixture
 Add design quantity of water to the dry proportion (water-cement ratio) and mix well to obtain
uniform texture
 Fill the concrete to the mould with the help of vibrator for thorough compaction
 Finish the top of the concrete by trowel & tapped well till the cement slurry comes to the top of
the cubes. 

Curing
 After some time, the mould should be covered with red gunny bag and put undisturbed for 24
hours at a temperature of 27 ° Celsius ± 2
 After 24 hours remove the specimen from the mould.

18
 Keep the specimen submerged under fresh water at 27 ° Celsius. The specimen should be kept
for 7 or 28 days. Every 7 days the water should be renewed.
 The specimen should be removed from the water 30 minutes prior to the testing.
 The specimen should be in dry condition before conducting the testing.

Testing
 Place the concrete cubes into the testing machine. (Centrally)
 The cubes should be placed correctly on the machine plate (check the circle marks on the
machine). Carefully align the specimen with the spherically seated plate.
 The load will be applied to the specimen axially.
 Slowly apply the load at the rate of 140kg/cm2 per minute till the cube collapse.
 The maximum load at which the specimen breaks is taken as a compressive load

Calculation
Compressive Strength of concrete = Maximum compressive load / Cross Sectional Area
Surface area =150*150 cm2

Sample no Mass (g) Maximum Compressive

strength in KN strength in KN/cm2
710 8940 226 10.0
711 8630 1147.9 51.0
712 7930 362.2 14.50
713 8040 257.7 11.5
714 8190 183.7 8.2
715 8160 233.8 10.39
716 7830 341.7 15.2
717 9040 461.8 20.5
718 7880 374.4 16.7
719 7620 368.2 16.4

1.12SODIUM SULPHATE SOUNDNESS

The soundness test determines an aggregate's resistance to weathering of the aggregates.
Aggregates have the resistant to weathering are less likely to degrade in the field and cause
premature HMA pavement distress and potentially, failure.
Lab apparatus:
 Sulphate’s tank
 Sieves
 Wire basket

19
  Drying oven
 Wire baskets
 Hydrometer
 Coarse aggregates

Procedures:
1. The prepared coarse aggregates were placed in the suitable wire basket to prevent the
loss of some of the aggregates.
2. The aggregates were placed in different wire baskets.
3. The test specimens were then immersed in the prepared solution of the sodium
sulphates for 16 hours.
4. The specimens were then removed and then dried in the oven for about 8 hours.
5. The process of immersing and drying the specimens was repeated for 4 consecutive
days.
6. In the last day, the changes in the mass of the samples were then determined.
7. The flakiness index of the materials was then carried out to determine the change in
shapes.

20
 WEEK 2: BITUMEN LABORATORY
Introduction

Bitumen is the liquid binder that holds asphalt together. It is a semisolid hydrocarbon product

produced by removing the lighter fractions (such as liquid petroleum, gas petrol and diesel) from
heavy crude oil during refining process.

2.1 TYPES OF BITUMEN

 Straight run bitumen/ penetration grade

This is the bitumen produced by petroleum refining whose viscosity has not been adjusted by
blending with other materials or by softening with any other solvents or any other methods.
Examples include 80/10, 40/50, 60/70 and 150/200. The first number is the minimum penetration
while the second number the maximum penetration. Tests done on straight run bitumen include
penetration at 25º C, ductility at 25ºC, softening point, specific gravity, aging tests, flashpoint
and fire point and solubility. Penetration grade bitumen forms the basis of other road binders
such as cutbacks, emulsions, and polymer-modified binders.

 Cutback bitumen

Bitumen that is dissolved into a solvent i.e., petroleum, kerosene and diesel. The type of solvents
control the curing time while the amount applied controls the viscosity of the cutback. When the
solvent has evaporated, the binder returns to its original penetration grade to tie the particles
together Petroleum blend is rapid curing, kerosene blend medium curing while diesel blend small
curing. The viscosity of the cutback bitumen is determined by the proportion of solvent added:
the higher the proportion of solvent, the lower the viscosity of the cutback.

Examples of rapid curing- RC 30, RC 70.

Examples of medium curing –MC 30, MC 70, MC 250, MC 800, MC 3000

21
Examples of small curing-SC 30, SC 70, SC 250, SC 800 and SC 3000.

Petroleum has the highest volatility followed by kerosene then diesel.

The numbers 30, 70, 250, 800, and 3000 denote the minimum viscosity of the binder at 600 C of
that bitumen.

Tests done on cutback bitumen include fractional distillation and viscosity test at 600C.

Applications; prime sealing, spray sealing and surface dressing.

 Emulsion bitumen

This is an aqueous continuous phase stabilized by the addition of an emulsifier. They are
prepared at high temperature but applied in solid dispersions at ambient temperatures. The
negative emulsifying agent has an anion while the positive emulsifying agent has a cation.

Curing types include- rapid set/quick set, medium set and slow set.

Rapid set is denoted by number 1, it takes 1 minute to set. Medium set takes 2 or 3 minute to set
while slow set takes 4 minutes. The suffix 60, 70, 65 denote the penetration ranges.

Example of cationic- K 1-60, K 1-70, K 3-65.

Example of anionic – A 1-50, A 4-60 and A 3.

 Slow setting emulsion is primarily used with high fine content aggregates, tack coats,
fog seals and dust palliatives.

 Medium setting emulsion is formulated not to break immediately upon contact with
aggregate and it will remain workable for a few minutes to several months depending
upon the formulation. Primarily used in pug mills.
 Quick setting emulsion Designed specifically for slurry and micro surfacing emulsions. Allows
quicker opening to traffic times.

2.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CUTBACK BITUMEN

Objective

To obtain the percentage of binder for cutback bitumen and determine water and binder contents
for emulsion bitumen.

Apparatus
 Thermometer

22
 Condenser
 Volumetric beaker
 Distillation flask
 Source of heat
 Weighing balance
 Litmus paper

Procedure

 190.80 g of West line MC 70 bitumen was weighed and poured into a distillation flask.
 The distillation flask together with the content was fixed into a condenser and a thermometer
put into the flask.
 The source of heat was put on and the temperature at which the first dropped was observed
recorded, a record of volumes of distillate under standard temperatures; 182℃, 217 ℃, 257
℃, 306 ℃and 349℃.
 At the maximum standard temperature, the source of heat was put off and the volumetric
flask removed to determine the kerosene content for the sample.

Results and calculations

Weight taken – 190 .8 g

First drop temperature - 191℃

Temperature (℃) Volume of distillate (mL) % volume

182
217 21 32₌(21÷65 ×100)
257 48 73 ₌(48÷65×100)
306 60 92 ₌(60÷65×100)
349 65 100₌(65÷65×100)
̳

% binder = (190.8-65) ÷190.8 ₌0.6541

0.6541×100= 65.41% of binder

The distillate is the kerosene while the residue bitumen.

23
2.3 VISCOSITY AT 60℃
Viscosity determines the fluid property of bitumen and it is a measure of resistance of flow. At
the application of temperature, viscosity influences the strength of resulting paving mixes. At
high viscosity, it resists the compactive effort and the resulting mix is heterogeneous, hence low
stability values. At low viscosity, bitumen will lubricate the aggregate particles instead of
providing a uniform film over aggregates.

Objective.

To determine the viscosity of MC 30 cutback bitumen at 60℃.

Apparatus

 Orifice type viscometer

 Source of heat
 Beaker
 Thermometer
 Stopwatch

Procedure

 The sample was poured into a beaker.

 The sample in a beaker was heated up to 60℃.
 The sample was poured into a viscometer maintained at 60 ℃ and the time taken by 50 ml of
the sample to pass through the orifice of a cup was recorded.

Results

The time taken by 50 ml of the sample to drop into the cup was 32 seconds

The viscosity is therefore 32×2₌64 centistokes

2.4 FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT TEST

At high temperatures, depending on the grades of bitumen, materials leave out as volatiles. These
volatiles can catch fire, that’s why it is essential to qualify this temperature. Flashpoint is the safe
temperature with which one can work with bitumen. It is the temperature at which the vapor of
bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form of a blue flash under specified test conditions. Fire
point is the lowest temperature under specified conditions at which the bituminous material gets
ignited and burns for at least 5 seconds.

24
Objective

To determine the flashpoint and fire point of Helaine MC 70.

Apparatus

 Pensky –Martens apparatus

 Thermometer- low range (-7 ℃ to 110 ℃, gradation 0.5 ℃), high range (90 ℃ to 370℃ ,
gradation 2℃)

The sample should be just sufficient to fill up the cup up to the mark given on it.

Procedure

 The bitumen was softened between 75 ℃ and 100℃. It was stirred thoroughly to remove air
bubbles.
 The cup was filled with the sample to the filling mark, placed on the bath and the clip opened
the thermometer was inserted and the sample stirred.
 The test flame was lit and adjusted. The heat was supplied as such a rate that the temperature
increase recorded was not less than 5 ℃ or more than 6℃.
 The flash point was taken as the temperature when a flash first appeared at any point on the
surface of the material in the cup. Care was taken not to consider the bluish halo surrounding
the test flame. Stirring was discontinued during the application of the test flame. The flash
point was read as the temperature at which the flash occurred.
 Fire point was read as the temperature at which a flame appeared in the sample.

Results

The flash appeared at 42℃

The fire point was read as 50 ℃

2.5 PENETRATION TEST

It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter
to which a standard loaded needled (will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds at 25 ℃.

Grade 80-100 means that the bitumen will have a penetration ranging from 8-10mm. Other
grades include 40-50, 50-60, 60-70, 70-80, 80-100,100-120,120-150, 150-200

Apparatus

25
 Penetrometer-contains 100g penetration carrier and graduated scale (1 in 10 mm) and a spirit
lever at the base to maintain the even surface
 Penetration needle (stainless steel).
 Sample container -55mm diameter and 35 mm deep
 Water bath at 25℃
 Thermometer

Figure 2. 1 Penetrometer

Sample preparation

The sample was melted at 90℃ in uniformity ensuring no bubbles.

Procedure

 The sample was allow to reach the sufficient melting point then poured into the container and
allowed to cool in the air for 1 hour.
 The sample in the containers were taken into a 25℃ water bath and set for an hour.
 The container with the samples was place d on the base of the penetrometer. The steel needle
was wiped clean and fixed to the weight carrier.
 The needle had to touch the surface of the bitumen sample. The automatic timer was
switched on for 5 seconds while the needle penetrates the bitumen slowly and stops
automatically after 5 seconds,
 A minimum of 4 points (10 mm from each other and from the end of the container) of each
sample were penetrated. The closest 4 values were considered.

Results

average₌ (Σ the readings ÷4) ₌ Average penetration

Sample 1 readings- 81.8, 87.9, 78.7, 83.9,

Avg ₌ 82.88mm

Sample 2 readings-89.0, 86.0, 100.5, 86.3

Avg ₌ 90.45mm

Sample 3 readings- 77.2, 75.1, 80.7, 87.7

26
Avg ₌80.17mm

The sample had a penetration grade of 80-100

2.6 DUCTILITY TEST

Ductility is the property of bitumen that allows it to undergo deformation or elongation, ductility
is the distance in centimeters to which a standard sample of briquette of the material will be
elongated without breaking. The dimension of the briquette is 1 cm 2. The ductility test gives a
measure of adhesive property of bitumen. In flexible pavement design, it is necessary that the
binder should form a thin ductile film around aggregates so that the physical interlocking of
aggregates is improved. Binder material having insufficient ductility gets cracked when
subjected to repeat traffic loads and it provides a pervious pavement surface.

Apparatus

 Briquette mould: it is made of brass. Circular holes are provided at ends (clips) to grip the
fixed and movable ends of the testing machine. The mould when properly assembled form a
briquette specimen of the following dimensions: Total length 75mm, distance between clips
30mm, width at minimum cross section (halfway the clips) 10mm, width at mouth of slip
20mm, thickness throughout 10.0mm
 Water bath: a bath maintained at 25℃ with 10 litres of water, the specimen being submerged
to a depth of not less than 10 cm and supported on a perforated shell and less than 5 cm from
the bottom of the bath.
 Testing machine: for pulling of the briquette of material apart, any apparatus may be used
which is constructed that the specimen will continuously be submerged in water while the
two clips are being pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed.

Procedure

 The bitumen was heated to a temperature of 100℃ above the approximate softening point
until it was thoroughly fluid and stirred
 The bitumen was poured into the mould assembly and placed on a brass plate coated with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerin and dextrin to prevent it from sticking.
 After an hour, the plate assembly together with the sample was immersed in a water bath
maintained at ℃ for an hour.
 The sample and the mould was removed from the water bath and the specimen trimmed by
levelling the sample with a hot knife.
 The mold assembly was replaced in water bath for 80 minutes.
 The sides of the mould were removed. The clips were hooked on the ductility machine
carefully without causing any strain.

27
 The ductilimeter was maintained at 25℃. The pointer was adjusted to read 0. The machine
was started and it pulled horizontally at a speed of 50mm per minute.
 The distance up to the point of breaking of the bitumen thread was noted as the ductility
value in cm.

Results

The mean of two observations rounded off to the nearest whole number is the ductility value.
The minimum value is 100cm.

Both samples exceeded 100 cm. Sample 1 broke at 115cm while sample 2 broke at 125 cm.

The average is 120 cm which is the ductility value of the bitumen.

Precautions

 The plate assembly upon which the mould is placed should be perfectly flat and level so that
the bottom surface of the mould touches it throughout
 In filling the mould, care should be taken not to distort the briquette and to see that no air
pocket is within the molded sample.

2.7 SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN (ball and ring test)

Softening denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of softening
under the specifications of the test. The test measures the consistency of bitumen (the
temperature at which bitumen starts to be soft).

Apparatus

 The ring and ball consisting of;

- 2 steel balls each having a diameter of 9.5mm weighing 4.5g
- 2 brass rings 6.4mm deep, the inside diameter at bottom being 15.9mm and top 17.5mm
- Ball guides to guide movement of steel balls centrally
- Support that can hold rings in position and also allow for suspension of thermometer. The
distance between the bottom and the top surface of the bottom plate of support is 25mm
 Thermometer that can be read up to 100℃
 Bath heat resistance beaker, not less than 85mm in diameter and 1220mm deep.
 Stirrer

Procedure

28
 Preparation of sample: the material was heated at a temperature between 75-100℃, above its
softening points. It was stirred thoroughly until it was completely fluid and free from air
bubbles and water. The rings were also heated to a temperature similar to that of molten
bitumen. After cooling for 30 minutes in air, the material in the ring was leveled by removing
excess material using a warm sharp knife.
 The apparatus with rings, thermometer and ball guides was assembled and placed in the glass
beaker.
 The water bath (glass beaker) was filed with distilled water to a height of 50mm above the
upper surface of the rings. The starting point was 5℃
 As the temperature increased, bitumen softened and the ball sunk carrying a portion of the
material with it,
 The temperature at which the ball touched the bottom plate was noted and recorded.

Results

1st temperature recorded-51℃

2nd temperature recorded-54℃

The average of the two is the softening point of the sample ₌ 52.5 ℃

Nb: if the softening point is expected to be over 80℃ glycerin is used instead of water.

2.8 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST OF BITUMEN

The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of a given volume bitumen of
known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 25℃. In paving jobs, to classify a binder,
density property of bitumen is vital. The density of bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical
composition. Increase in the aromatic type mineral impurity causes an increase in the specific
gravity. The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97-1.02

Objective

To determine the specific gravity of semi-solid bitumen

Principle

The ratio of mass of an equal volume of bitumen to the mass of an equal volume of water both
taken at a specific temperature.

Apparatus

 Pycnometer- 50 ml specific gravity bottles

29
 Weighing balance
 Water bath

Procedure

 The pycnometer was cleaned, dried and weighed along with a stopper. this was recorded as
weight A
 The pycnometer was filled with water at 25℃ and the stopper inserted firmly. They were
weighed and recorded as weight B
 The pycnometer was half- filled with sample, stopper inserted and weighed. It was recorded
as weight C
 The rest half was filled with water and the stopper inserted firmly. They were weighed and
recorded as weight D

Results and calculations

A- 67.7g
B- B-134.5g
C- 99.2g
D- 135.0g

Specific gravity¿ ( C− A ) ÷ ¿

S. G₌ (99.2-67.7) ÷ [(134.5-67.7) -(135.0-99.2) ⦌ ₌1.02

2.9 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATES

Sieve analysis was conducted in 3 samples of different sizes to grade the material. The samples
were obtained by quartering of the coarse aggregates until a required size was obtained.

Objective

To obtain the required grade of aggregates for a hot asphalt mix such that size of 0-6 is 65%, 6-
10 15% and 10-14 20 % of the sample.

Apparatus

 Sieves sizes 20, 14,10,6.3, 4, 2.36, 1, 0.425,0.3 and 0.15mm

 Sieve shaker
 Trays
 Scooper and trowel
 Electric weighing balance accurate to 0.1g

30
Procedure

 The stack of sieves was neatly arranged in a descending order of size

 The oven dried samples (0-6, 6-10 and 10-14) were put into the neatly arranged stack of
sieves one at a time.
 The weight of aggregates retained in each sieve was taken and recorded
 The results were recorded in a table and calculated as follows.

Results and calculations

0-6 6-10
Sieve Weigh %retain Cumulati % Weigh % cumulative %
size t ed ve % passin t retaine % retained passin
retaine retained g retaine d g
dg d
(total (g)tota
2225 l 1315g
g)
20mm 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 100
14mm 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 100
10mm 0 0 0 100 5 0.38 0.38 99.62
6.3mm 1 0.56 0.56 99.4 546 41.5 41.9 58.1
4.0mm 171.5 9.72 10.28 89.72 639.5 48.63 90.53 9.47
2.36m 399 22.6 32.88 67.12 70.5 5.30 95.89 4.11
m
1.18m 427 24.19 57.07 42.93
m
425µm 363 20.56 77.63 22.93
300µm 110.5 6.26 83.89 16.11
150µm 85 4.81 88.7 11.3
75µm 70 3.97 92.67 7.33
pan 138 7.82 100 0 54 4.11 100 0

10-14

Sieve size mm Weight % retained Cumulative % passing

31
 retained g(total %retained
1011g)
20 157.5 15.58 15.58 84.42
14 494.5 48.91 64.49 35.51
10 298 29.48 93.99 6.03
6.3 57.5 5.69 99.66 0.34
4.0 1.0 0.10 99.76 0.24
2.36 1.5 0.15 99.91 0.09
Pan 2.5 0.25 100 0

The results were computed in an excel sheet and compared against the standard desired curve. It
was found that at sieve 14mm and 300µm the grades were not fitting to the standard curve. The
proportions need to be added in order to fit into the curve.

2.10 MARSHALL METHOD OF ASPHALT COMCRETE MIX DESIGN

The objective of Marshall Method of A.C mix design is to design asphalt concrete

Marshall Method of mix design

In this method, the resistance to plastic deformation of a compacted cylindrical specimen of

bituminous mixture is measured when the specimen is loaded diametrically at a deformation rate
of 50mm per minute.

Design

 Select aggregate grading to be used

 Determine the proportion of each aggregate size required to produce the design grading
 Determine the specific gravity of the aggregate combination and asphalt cement
 Prepare the trial specimens with varying asphalt contents (e.g. 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 5.5% and 6%)
 Determine the specific gravity of each compacted specimen
 Perform stability tests on the specimens
 Calculate the percentage of voids, and percent voids filled with bitumen in each specimen
 Select the optimum binder content from the data obtained
 Evaluate the design with the design requirements

Apparatus

 Mould assembly: cylindrical moulds of 10cm diameter and 10 cm height

 Sample extractor: for extruding the compacted specimen from the mould
 Compaction and pedestal hammer

32
 Breaking head
 Loading machine
 Flow meter, water bath, thermometers
 Towels
 Weighing balance
 Ultimate vacuum

Three compacted samples are prepared for each binder content. At least 3 binder contents are
tested to get the optimum binder content. The compacted specimen are subjected to the following
tests

 Bulk density determination

 Stability and flow test
 Density and voids analysis

Preparation of test specimen

The coarse and fine aggregates were proportioned by sieve analysis so as to fulfill the
requirements of the relevant standards, the required quantity was taken so as to produce
compacted bituminous mix specimens of thickness 63.5 mm. 1200g of aggregates and filler are
required to produce the desired thickness. The bitumen carries varying proportions from 5% with
a variation of ±0.5% while aggregates take the rest % of weight (50%-60% of dust and 35% of
course aggregates). Heated aggregates were put in a pan and weighed. A hot binder (heated at
121℃-138℃) was also added to the required weight. The contents were put in an oven and
heated at 90℃-150℃ for 2 hours. The compaction mould assembly and the rammer were
cleaned, oiled and kept warm at a temperature of 100℃-145℃. The binder with the aggregate
were mixed while being heated in a gas until they were thoroughly mixed. The mix was divided
into 3 portions where 2 portions were weighed and compacted and the third portion left on a
board.

Marshall Compaction

33
After an hour, the hot mix was placed in the cylindrical moulds using a cone and compacted with
75 blows on each side.

The briquettes were labelled to avoid mixing and cooled in a fan to avoid distorting the mix.

The sample was taken out of the mould after some time using a sample extractor.

Results and calculations

The samples were weighed in air and recorded.

The samples were immersed in water at 23℃-25 ℃ for 5 minutes and weighed. Any voids in
the sample would be filled with water.

The samples were wiped with a towel and weighed in air again (saturated surface dry condition)
they were recorded in the table below.

Serial A B C D E F G H
number
Weight in 1121 1111 1126 1148 1082 1119 1130 1037
air (g)
Weight in 604 587 604 614 574 595 611 587
water(g)
Saturated 1125 1124 1135 1168 1119 1151 1152 1117
surface
dry(g)
Volume 521 537 531 554 545 556 541 530
Flow 4.4 4.9 5.3 4.3 3.9 4.0 4.4 4.5
Density 2.15 2.07 2.12 2.07 1.99 2.01 2.09 2.07
Stability 335 318 440 360 240 223 395 430
Correction 1.00 0.93 0,93 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.93 0.96
factor
Corrected 335 295.7 409.2 320.4 213.6 198.47 367.35 412.8
stability
Specific 2.17 2.12 2.16 2.15 2.13 2.14 2.18 2.30
gravity

Volume ₌ saturated surface dry –weight in water

Flow is read from the lower gauge of the Marshall Stability machine while stability is read from
the upper gauge. The flow denotes how the sample will behave under load.

34
Density is weight in air ÷ volume

Correction factor is read directly from a table

Corrected stability ₌ stability ×correction factor

After being tested for the above, the samples were taken to a hot water bath for 30 minutes at 60
℃ which is the highest temperature that can occur on the ground. The samples were then
subjected to a load. The samples were disintegrated, cooled and taken to the ultimate vacuum to
suck all voids. The samples were then weighed without voids.

Bulk density of the compacted specimen

It is determined by weighing the sample in air and in water. The specific gravity Gbcm of the
specimen is given by

Gbcm ₌Wa÷ (Wa-Ww)

Where;

Gbcm- specific gravity

Wa- weight of sample in air (g)

Ww- weight of sample in water (g)

Percent air voids in compacted mixture (Pav)

Percent air voids is the ratio expressed as a percentage between the volume of the air voids
between the coated particles and the total volume of the mixture

Pav₌100 (Gmp-Gbcm)÷Gmp

Where;

Pav –percent air voids in compacted mixture

Gmp-maximum specific gravity of the compacted paving mixture

Gbcm – bulk specific gravity of the compacted mixture

35
 WEEK 3: SOIL LABORATORY
Soils tested in this laboratory are the disturbed soils for pavement construction such as base
material, sub base, top and bottom subgrade.

Tests done here are;

 Proctor test
 Grading
 Atterberg limit tests
 California Bearing Ratio

3.1 PROCTOR TEST

The proctor compaction test is a laboratory method of experimentally determining the moisture
content in which a soil sample will achieve its maximum dry density. This method covers the
determination of the relationship between the moisture content and density of soils compacted in
a mould of a given size with a 2.5 kg/4.5kg rammer dropped from a height of 30 cm. T99 (2.5kg)
is used when the soil is sieved through sieve 10mm and 5mm. T 180 is used when the soil is
sieved through sieve 20mm.

APPARATUS

 Proctor mould having a capacity of 944cc with an internal diameter of 10.2 cm and a
height of 11.6cm. The mould has a detachable collar assembly and a detachable base
plate.

36
  Rammer- a mechanically operated rammer either T 99 (2.5 kg) or T180 (4.5 kg). The
rammer should be equipped with a suitable arrangement to control the height of drop to a
free fall of 30cm.
 Sample extruder
 A weighing balance
 A straight edge
 Graduated cylinder
 Mixing tools: mixing pan, spoon, trowel, and spatula.
 Moisture tins
 Oven at 105℃
 Pan

PROCEDURE

 A soil sample of oven dried base material was sieved through sieve 20mm and retained
on sieve 4.75g until 5 kg was obtained
 A portion of the sample was put in a weighed moisture tin, weighed and recorded. The
moisture tin with the soil was taken to an oven at 105℃ for 24 hours to obtain the present
moisture content.
 The mould and the base was weighed and recorded-
 2500g of sample was weighed. 200 ml of water was weighed
 The soil was put in a tray and mixed thoroughly with the water.
 The proctor mould and the base plate were placed on a solid base and the collar fixed.
The wet soil was filled into the assembled mould and compacted in 5 layers each
receiving 27 blows using the T180 rammer.
 The collar was removed and the excess soil removed over the edge and the weight of the
mould +base+ compacted soil taken and recorded.
 The apparatus was remolded, the compacted soil removed and the mould with base
cleaned and oiled
 The experiment was repeated with 150 ml, 250 ml and 300 ml of water and weights
taken.

Results and calculations

Moisture content (w) = (mass of water/mass of dry soil) ×100

(See attached data and graph)

The optimum moisture content was found to be 10.2% from the graph and the maximum dry
density 2110 Kg/m3.

37
3.2 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
The CBR is a penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of natural ground,
subgrades and base courses beneath new carriageway construction. It is the ratio of force per unit
area required to penetrate in a soil mass with a circular plunger 50mm in diameter at a rate of
1.25mm/min corresponding to penetration to a standard material.

Apparatus

Automatic CBR machine (for neat soil sample)

 Steel and cutting collar

 Spacer disc
 Surcharge weight
 Dial gauges
 BS sieves

Figure 3. 1 CBR moulds Figure 3. 2 CBR testing machine

 Moulds( 2500cc capacity with a base plate, stay rod and wing nut)
 Metal rammer
 Expansion measuring apparatus with adjustable stem, perforated plates and tripod

Procedure

 The soil sample on which proctor test was conducted is the same here. The proportions of
the soil and water needed were calculated from the proctor results. (see attached sheet
with the calculations)
 The soil sample was sieved through sieve 20 and retained on sieve 4.75 mm until the
required amount was obtained.
 Water was measured in a graduated cylinder
 The soil sample was put in a tray and mixed thoroughly with water.

38
  The required wet mass of the mixture was weighed
 The mould was cleaned, dried and oiled
 A filter paper was placed in the mould and soil filled in three layers. Each layer was
compacted with a spacer disc. A 5cm displacer disc was placed on the specimen.
 The mould was compacted by pressing in between the platens of the compression testing
machine until the top of the spacer disc comes flush with the top of the mould.
 After compaction, the collar was removed, excess wet soil trimmed and the weight and
height of the specimen taken.
 The surcharge weights were put over the specimen and immersed in water.
 After 4 days, the mould was removed from water .it was allowed to drain for 15 minutes
and then placed on the automatic CBR test machine
 Penetration of the needle was read and recorded at 2.5mm and 5.0 mm only.

Results

The CBR at 2.50mm was read as 0.345 while the CBR at 5.00 mm was read as 0.752

3.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS

Also known as particle size distribution of particle size analysis. The test is carried out to
determine the proportion of different sizes of the particles in the material, in this case soil.

Apparatus

 Drying oven maintained at 105 ℃

 Mechanical sieve shakers
 Weighing balance accurate to 0.1g
 Sample splitter, quartering machine or riffle box
 BS sieves
 Pans and trays
 Sodium hexametaphosphate
 Running water

Procedure

I) DRY SIEVING
 The soil sample was obtained by quartering, where the soil was divided into 4 parts.
Diagonally opposite sides were taken, combined, quartered again until the representative
sample was obtained
 The air died soil was taken and sieved though sieve 20mm, 10mm, 5mm and retained at
sieve 4.75mm. Any lumped soils were crushed by a rammer.
 The soil obtained in dry sieving was used in proctor test in this lab

39
 II) WET SIEVING
 The representative soil sample was obtained by a riffle box. The soil sample was poured
into the riffle box, and one half taken.
 The soil samples were put in trays, weighed and 2 g of sodium hexametaphosphate added
to disperse the soil. 1000ml of distilled water was then added to the soil and soaked for
24 hours
 After 24 hours, the soil samples were washed though sieves 2.26mm and sieve 75µm in
running distilled water until no significant amount passed through. The soils retained in
the sieves were then taken into an oven maintained at 105℃ for 24 hours.
 The soil samples were removed from the oven and allowed to cool before sieving.
 Stack of sieves was arranged in a descending order from sieve 20mm, 14mm, 10mm,
6.3mm, 5mm, 2.36mm, 1.0mm, 600µ, 425µm, 300µ, 212µm, 150µm,75µm and pan
 The soil sample was poured into the top sieve and placed on the sieve shaker. The soils
were shaken. The retained soils in each sieve were weighed and recorded.

Results and calculations

(See data sheet with results attached).

3.4 ATTERBERG LIMITS

Albert Atterberg was the first to define the limits of soil consistency for the classification of fine-
grained soils. The limits are liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. As moisture content
increases, fine grained soils (clays and silts) undergo through four distinct stages; solid, semi-
solid, plastic and liquid. Each stage exhibits difference in strength, consistency and behavior.
Atterberg limits accurately define the boundaries between these stages using moisture contents as
the points where the physical changes.

Liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes from plastic to liquid state when the soil
specimen is just liquid enough for a groove to close when jarred in a specific manner

Plastic limit is the water content at the change from plastic to semi-solid state.

Shrinkage limit is the water content that the further loss of moisture content does not cause a
decrease in specimen volume.

Plasticity index is the plastic limit subtracted from the liquid limit and indicates the size of the
range between two boundaries. Soils with high P.I have a higher clay content. Stabilizing soil
with lime or cement reduces the plastic limit.

Apparatus

 Cone penetrometer
 Glass plate
 Lubricating oil

40
  Shrinkage trough
 Moisture tins
 Spatula
 Sieve 425µm
 Water bottle
 Steel cup
 Oven maintained at 105℃
 Weighing balance

Determination of the Atterberg limit of soil using the cone penetrometer method

Liquid limit (LL) is the moisture content that gives a penetration of 20 mm in the cone
penetrometer after 5 seconds. Plastic limit (PL) is the moisture content at which the soil rolled
with fingers starts to crack when it forms a thread 2mm in diameter. Linear shrinkage (LS) is the
change in the length of a wet specimen after drying in percentage

Procedure

 The air dried soil was sieved through 425µm and the passing soil was considered for the
test
 The soil sample was placed on a flat glass and mixed thoroughly with distilled water
using a spatula.
 A portion of the mixed sample was put in a steel cup, stamped to fill voids and levelled
off parallel to the edge of the cup.
 The cup was placed at the cone penetrometer. The cone was lowered until it just touched
the surface of the soil. The cone was released for 5 seconds, and then locked in position.
 The value at the cone was read
 Four sets of reading are required: 16mm, 20mm, 18mm and 22 mm.
 If the reading was low, water was added to the soil sample and mixed again and placed
on the cone penetrometer until the required values were obtained. The cone was lifted,
the soil removed from the cup and placed on the flat glass to be remixed. If the sample is
too wet (having a high value) the wet soil was spread to loose moisture to the air.
 For each wet soil in a cup, three readings were taken at different points
 At reading 16mm, the soil paste was rolled into a thread and put into two moisture tins to
obtain the plastic limit. The threads were about 6mm long and 2mm in diameter. The
weight of empty moisture tins was taken, and then the weight of moisture tins with the
rolled threads taken and recorded. The tins were taken to the oven for 24 hours
 At reading 20mm of the cone penetrometer, the wet soil is put in an oiled trough (140mm
in length). The soil sample was filled into the trough stamped to get rid of air voids and
leveled using a knife. The trough was put into the oven for 24 hours.
 Points 18mm and 22mm are important to know the consistency of the soil.

41
  Moisture content was determined at each point. The empty moisture tins were weighed
and recorded. The moisture tins with the wet soil was weighed too and recorded. the
moisture tins with soil were taken into the oven for 24 hours
 After 24 hours, the weights of the moisture tins with dried soils were taken. The length of
the soil in the trough was also measured with a ruler.

Results and calculations

Average moisture contents are calculated and a graph of cone penetration in mm against
moisture content on a linear scale and the line of best fit joined.

The linear shrinkage (at 20mm penetration) was calculated as follows;

Initial length of wet soil in the trough-140mm

Final length of dry soil in the trough-123mm

Difference in lengthy-17mm

Linear shrinkage = (17/140) ×100 =12.1%

The moisture content at 20mm penetration is read as the liquid limit. - 53.3 % and 53.0%

Plastic limit is the moisture content from the rolled threads. – 29.2% and 29.0%

Plasticity index is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit.

P.I=L.L-P.L

P.I=2 ×linear shrinkage

P.I= 53.3-29.2= 24.1%

P.I=53.0-29.0=24.0%

(See attached calculations and graph)

42
 WEEK 4: FOUNDATION LABORATORY
4.1 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF ROCK
The objective is to determine the unconfined compressive strength of rock specimen

Apparatus

 Loading machine of 500 KN

 Steel ruler with accuracy of 0.1 mm

Figure 4. 1 A loading machine

Procedure

 The length/diameter ratio was determined, preferably 2:3

43
  The diameter of the specimen must be greater than 10 times the diameter of the largest
grain size. The diameter of the core sample should not be less than 35mm.
 The specimen was prepared in a manner such that the cylindrical surface was smooth and
free from abrupt irregularities.
 The diameter of the core specimen was measured to the nearest 0.1mm by averaging two
diameters measured at right angles to each other at about the upper height, the mid
height, and the lower height of the specimen.
 The surface of the two bearing discs was cleaned and the test specimen. The specimen
were placed on the lower disc.
 Carefully, the axis of the specimen was aligned with the center of thrust of the spherical
seat.
 Load was applied continuously at a constant rate of 0.5 Mpa/s.
 The maximum load on the specimen was recorded at failure in KN within 1% accuracy.

Calculations

The UCS of the specimen is calculated by dividing the maximum load carried by the specimen
during the test by the cross sectional area.

The U.C.S is reported for each specimen in the sample, together with the average result of the
sample.

(See attached sheet with data)

4.2 POINT LOAD TEST OF A ROCK

This test helps to determine the point load strength index of rock

Apparatus

Point load test machine, 100mm scale attached with the loading frame and pressure gauge
(capacity 50 KN)

If the length to diameter ratio is greater than 1, do a diametrical test, otherwise, axial test.

44
 Figure 4. 2 Point load test machine
Axial test procedure

 The axial test is conducted on a rock core sample of small length.

 The test is conducted on a core specimen which is completely dry
 Measure the total length (l) and diameter (d) of the core specimen. specimen of l/d
between 0.3 to 1.0 are suitable for this test
 Place the specimen vertically between two platens. Measure the distance between the two
platens contacts points (D) with the help of the scale attached with the loading of the
frame. Measure the specimen width (W) which is equal to the diameter of the specimen
 Apply load to the core specimen such that the failure occurs within 10-60 seconds.
Record the failure load (P)

Calculation

Uncorrected point length strength index (Is) = (P×1000)/De2 Mpa

Where De= equivalent core diameter

De2= (4A)/π

A is calculated as follows

A=W×D

W is the specimen width in mm. D is the distance between platens in mm. P is the breaking point
in KN

Corrected point load strength index for the standard core size of 50mm (ls50) diameter is given
by

Ls50= (P×1000) /(De1.5√50) Mpa

45
Uniaxial compressive strength of rock may be predicted by

qc= 22×ls50 MPa

4.3 FULL GRADING: DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY

HYDROMETER AND SIEVE ANALYSIS
Full grading involves the following tests;

 Hydrometer analysis of soil

 Wet sieve analysis

4.3.1 Hydrometer method of analysis

Hydrometer is used to measure relative density of a liquid, and in this case of fine-grained soils,
sieve analysis does not give reliable test results. This is because fine grained soils consist of
different sizes of particles from 0.0075 mm to 0.0002mm and it is not practical to design sieves
having very small screen size. This is done to determine the grain size distribution of fine-
grained soils.

Apparatus

 Hydrometer, dispersion cup with mechanical stirrer

 Glass jars of 1 litre capacity
 Deflocculating agent(sodium hexametaphosphate solution prepared by dissolving 33g of
sodium hexametaphosphate and 7g of sodium carbonate in 1 litre of water)
 Stopwatch, weighing balance , thermometer

Procedure

 Soil sample was sieved through sieve 6.3 mm then sieve 2.0mm and 60g weighed.
 The soil sample was placed in a beaker and 150 ml of dilute hydrogen peroxide added to
burn all organic matter and soaked overnight. The hydrogen peroxide was prepared by
diluting 200 ml of concentrated hydrogen peroxide with 800ml of water.
 100ml of sodium hexametaphosphate dispersing agent solution was added and the
content transferred into a mechanical mixer using a jet of distilled water to wash all traces
of soil.
 The soil suspension was stirred for about 15 minutes,
 The soil suspension was transferred to a hydrometer jar with 1000ml distilled water to
store the hydrometer in between consecutive reading of the soil suspension to be
recorded.
 The soil suspension was mixed roughly by placing the palm of the right hand over the
open end and back,

46
  Immediately after shaking, the hydrometer jar was placed into the water bar maintained at
20℃ and the stop watch started. The hydrometer was inserted carefully and hydrometer
readings taken at ¼, ½, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240 minutes and 24 hours.

Part 1. Calibration of the hydrometer

 Take about 800 ml of water in one measuring cylinder. Place the cylinder on a table and
observe the initial reading.
 Immerse the hydrometer in the cylinder. Take the reading after immersion
 Deter mine the volume of the hydrometer which is equal to the difference between the
final and initial readings. Alternatively, weigh the hydrometer to the nearest 0.1g. The
hydrometer is approximately in ml approximately equal to its mass in grams.
 Determine the cross sectional area of the cylinder. It is equal to the volume indicated
between any two graduations divided by the distance between them. The distance is
measured with an accurate scale.
 Measure the distance between the neck and the bottom of the bulb. Record it as the height
of the bulb (h)
 Measure the distance between the neck to each of the mark.

Part 2: Meniscus correction

 Insert the hydrometer in a measuring cylinder containing 700ml of water.

 Take the readings of the hydrometer at the top and of the meniscus.
 Determine the meniscus correction, which is equal to the difference between the two
readings.
 The meniscus correction is positive and constant for the hydrometer.
 The observed hydrometer reading is corrected to obtain the corrected hydrometer reading.

(See attached hydrometer form with data)

4.3.2 Wet sieve analysis

This is done to determine the particle size distribution of fine-grained soils

Apparatus

 Set of sieves. Mechanical sieve shaker

 Trays
 Graduated measuring cylinder
 Weighing balance

Procedure

 Air dried soil was sieved through 6.3mm and weighed 250g. it was put in a metallic tray

47
  2g of sodium hexametaphosphate was added and 1 litre of water.
 The soil was soaked overnight.
 After 24 hours, the soil was washed thoroughly through sieves 75 µ and 150µ.
 The retained soil in sieve 75 µm was then put in an oven for about 16 hours.
 The soil sample was removed and sieved through sieves 5, 3.35, 2, 1 mm, 600, 425, 300,
212, 150 and 75 µm
 The weight retained on each sieve was weighed and recorded.

Results

(see attached data, calculations and graph)

The soil sample was described as clayey sand. It had 34% of clay, 25% of silt and 41 % of
gravel.

4.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS

This test is done to determine the specific gravity of fine-grained soil by use of a density bottle.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of a material at a standard
temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at the same stated
temperature.

Apparatus

 Density bottles approximately 50 ml with stoppers

 Constant water temperature bath (20℃)
 Vacuum desiccator
 Oven (105℃)
 Weighing balance , accurate to 0.001g
 Spatula

Preparation of sample

The soil samples were ground and passed through sieve 2.0mm until 50 g was obtained in it by
riffling and oven dried at 105℃.

Procedure

 The density bottles along with the stoppers were dried in the oven, cooled in the
desiccator and weighed and recorded
 The oven dried samples were put into the density bottles and weighed
 The soil was covered with free distilled water and left for a period of three hours. The
water had filled the bottle to about a half
 Entrapped air was removed by heating the density bottle in a water bath

48
  The bottle without the stopper was kept in a vacuum flask for one hour until no further
loss of air.
 Gently, the soils in the density bottles were stirred with a clean glass rod, carefully
washing off the adhering from the rod with some drops of distilled water. The process
was repeated until no more air bubbles were observed in the water soil mixture
 The constant temperature in the bottle was observed and recorded
 The stopper was inserted in the density bottles, wiped and weighed.
 The density bottles were emptied and filled with distilled water at the same temperature.
The stoppers were inserted and the bottles wiped, they were weighed.

Results

(See attached data with results and calculations)

4.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST

The objective of this test is to determine the settlements due to primary consolidation of soil by
conducting dimensional test. Consolidation of saturated soils occurs due to expulsion of water
under static, sustained load. The consolidation characteristics of soils are required to predict the
magnitude and the rate of settlement. This test is conducted to determine the settlement due to
primary consolidation to determine:

 Rate of consolidation under normal load

 Degree of consolidation anytime
 Pressure- void ratio relationship
 Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures
 Collapse index

Apparatus

 Consolidometer consisting essentially of; a ring of diameter 60mm and height 20mm. two
porous plates, guide ring, outer ring, water jacket with pressure pad and rubber jacket

49
 Figure 4. 3 A loading device
 Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing device
and weights
 Dial gauge to read to an accuracy of 0.002 mm
 Stop watch to red seconds
 Sample extractor
 Weighing balance, trimming tools, spatula, filter paper, sample container
 Shoe cutter

Consolidation test can be done on the following types of soils; undisturbed or disturbed soils. For
undisturbed soil consolidation, the sample is extruded from the shoe cutter into the consolidation
ring. The sample should project about 1 cm from the outer ring. Trim the sample smooth and
flush with top and bottom of ring by use of a knife. Clean the ring from outside and keep it ready
from weighing. For disturbed sample, the following is done to moulds a sample for consolidation
test;

- From proctor test, the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density
relationship is developed
- From the relationship, the quantity of soil and water required is calculated and mixed
thoroughly
- Compact the specimen using standard rammer in three layers
- Eject the specimen from the mould using a sample extractor

Our sample was undisturbed soil

Procedure

 The metal ring was cleaned and dried. Its diameter and height was measured. the mass of
the empty ring was taken too
 The ring was pressed into a large container with the soil sample by hands

50
  The soil around the ring was removed. The soil sample was ensured to have projected
10mm on either side of the ring. Any voids in the specimen due to removal of large
particles was filled back by pressing the soil lightly
 The specimen flush was trimmed on either side of the ring
 Any soil particles sticking to the outside of the ring were removed. The ring with the
specimen was weighed
 A small quantity of soil removed during trimming was taken for moisture content
determination
 The porous stones were saturated by boiling for 15 minutes
 The consolidometer was assembled. The bottom porous stone was put in place, bottom
filter paper, specimen, top filter paper and the top porous stone one by one.
 The loading block was positioned centrally on the top porous stone. The assembly was
mount on the loading frame. It was centered such that the load was applied axially. In the
case of the lever loading system, it was counterbalanced,
 The dial gauge was set in position. Sufficient margin was allowed for the swelling of the
soil.
 The mould assembled was connected to the water reservoir having a water level at about
the same soil specimen. The water was allowed to flow into the specimen until it was
fully saturated.
 The initial reading of the dial gauge was read
 An initial setting load was applied to give a pressure of 5(2.5 for very soft soils) to the
assembly so that there was no swelling. The setting load was allowed to stand there until
there was no change in the dial gauge reading for 24 hours
 The final gauge reading was taken under the initial setting load.
 The first load increment and a pressure applied. The stop watch was started to record dial
gauge readings at 1/8, 1 /4, ½, 1, 2, 4,8,15 and 30 minutes.
 Loads were increased from 0.5 kg, 1kg , 1.5 kg, 2 kg,3kg ,4 kg without being flooded
then after 24 hours when flooded 4 kg, 6 kg, 8kg, 12 kg, 18 kg, 18 kg and 40 kg. for each
load readings were taken from the dial gauge at the times in the point above.
 The assembly was dismantled. The ring with the specimen was taken out, wiped off
excess surface water using a blotting paper.
 The mass on the specimen of the ring was taken
 The specimen was oven dried for 24 hours and the mass of the dry specimen taken

Results

(See attached forms with data, calculations and graphs)

51
4.6 DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Used to determine the strength of soil using the direct shear apparatus. In many engineering
problems such as design of foundation, bridges, retaining walls and slab bridges, the value of
internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is
used to predict these parameters. The sample from the field was undisturbed soil

Apparatus

 Direct shear box apparatus

 Loading frame( motor attached)
 Dial gauge
 Proving ring
 Tamper
 Straight edge, spatula, extraction machine
 Balance to weigh up to 200mg

Strain controlled shear machine consists of a shear box, loading unit, proving ring, dial gauge to
measure shear deformation and volume changes. A two-piece shear box is one type of soil
container used. Proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by soil initiated in the
shearing plane.

Ring height- 2cm

Diameter- 6cm

Area-36 cm2.

The extruded sample is used to carry out three specimen on the same sample at pressures of 50
KN/m3, 100 KN/m3 and 200 KN/m3. The sample to be used can be flooded or un flooded. The
flooded. The flooded sample exhibits field characteristics better.

Procedure

 The inner dimensions of the soil container were checked

 The parts of the soil container were put together
 The volume of the container was calculated
 The container was weighed
 The soil was placed in smooth layers approximately 10mm thick.
 The weight of the soil in container was taken, where the difference of the two was the
weight of the soil. The density of the soil was calculated
 The soil surface was made plane
 The upper gratin was put on the stone and the loading block on top of the soil
 The thickness of the soil specimen was taken.

52
  The desired normal load was applied. The shear pin was removed. The dial gauge which
measures change of volume was attached,
 The initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values were taken
 The motor was stirred. The reading of the shear force was taken
 Volume change readings were taken until failure
 A load was added to produce 50 KN/m2 pressure and experiment continued until failure.
 All the readings were read carefully. The dial gauge was set 0 before starting the
experiment
 The procedure was repeated using a load to produce 100KN/m2 and 200 KN/m2

Results

Horizontal shear force =failure point ×factor, F

F=0.0013811 KN/DIV

Shear stress=horizontal shear/area

A graph of shear stress against normal stress is plotted to determine cohesion coefficient and
angle of internal friction from the equation below;

S= C+ δ tan θ

Where:

S- Shear stress

C- Cohesion of soil obtained from y-axis intercept

Θ- Angle of internal friction which is obtained by the slope of the curve

δ- Normal stress in KN/m2

APPENDIX

53
54