E Book Bio English 02

Income Tax Inspector •CAT •GMAT •UPSC •SSC •BANK
NUTRITION
Nutrition is a process of intake of nutrients (such as carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water) by an organism as
well as the ultilisation of these nutrients for the maintenance of different life processes like growth, repair, reproduction.
Types of Nutrients
Macronutrients Essential Nutrients Micronutrients Non-essential Nutrients
Needed in large amount, Obtained from an external Required in small amount Synthesised in the body
contain carbon, hydrogen, source. It cannot be or traces, e.g., zinc, iron, and sometimes taken
nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, synthesised by the body. chlorine etc. from external source.
sulphur etc. they are 9 in They are 8 in number. e.g., Fe, They include Co, Si, Na, Al,
number. Zn, B, Mn, Cu, Mo, Cl on the Pb etc.
e.g., C, H, O, N, P, K, S, Mg and basis of synthesising ability of
Ca an organism.
Nutrition in Plants
Plants need essential nutrients for their growth and maintenance. They prepare their own food by using carbon dioxide, water
and sunlight by the process of photosynthesis.
Types of Nutrition in Plants

There are two main types of nutrition in plants
Autotrophic Nutrition
The word ‘auto’ means self and ‘trophe’ means nutrition.
Thus, autotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which an organism makes (synthesises) its own food by the utilization
of simple substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. This process is known as photosynthesis.
The organisms which are involved in this mode of nutrition are called autotrophs. e.g., all green plants, blue-green algae, some
bacteria and almost all unicellular organisms show autotrophic mode of nutrition.
Autotrophic nutrition can be further divided into two parts
(Director & Author) •CAT •GMAT •GRE •SSC •BANK
Autotrophic Nutrition
Photoautotrophic Nutrition Chemoautotrophic Nutrition

Organisms (photoautotrophs) prepare Organisms (chemoautotrophs) prepare
their food with the help of light energy. their food using chemical energy
e.g., all green plants, purple, red, green released during the oxidation of
bacteria, etc. inorganic chemical substances. e.g.,
nitritying bacteria, iron bacteria,
sulphur bacteria, etc.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
The word ‘heteros’ means others and ‘trophe’ means nutrition. Thus, heterotrophy means ‘nutrition obtained from others.
Heterotrophic nutrition is that mode of nutrition in which an organism depends on other organisms for food such organisms
are called heterotrophs.
Heterotrophic nutrition in plants is generally followed by those who lack chlorophyll and cannot utilize sun as a source of
energy.
These plants are further categorized into four types
(i) Parasitic Plants
These plants derive some or all of its nutritional need from other living plants. e.g. cuscuto, viscum etc.
(ii) Saprophytic Plants
These are the plants that grow and live on dead and decaying matter of animals and plants and take their nutrition by secreting
digestive juices on these matters and converting them into a solution. The plants that follow saprophytic mode of nutrition are
known as saprotrophs, e.g., fungi, bacteria.
(iii) Symbiotic Plants
These are the plants that show a mutual beneficial relationship with each other to fulfill their nutritional needs (between two
symbiotic plants) i.e. two partners (plants) are involved in the symbiotic relationship for nutrition and they together give
benefit to each but do not show any adverse or negative impact on each other.
e.g., a bryophyte
Lichens
Lichens are the organisms that are composed of fungi (mycobiont) and an algae.
They are usually found in hot deserts. Rocky coasts, toxic slag heaps, epiphytes, branches in rain forests. Lichens can reproduce
asexually, sexually or by vegetative reproduction on the basis of its occurrence.
Uses of Lichens
• Violet colour can be prepared by lichen Or Chile, Lecanora.
• Some lichens can accumulate several environmental pollutants such as lead, copper.
• Lichens Permelia sexitelis helps in the formation of the medicine of Epilepsy and such as Loberia, Irvenia, Remedia etc.
Usenea is used for making usenic acid (antibiotic).
• Some lichens are used in the manufacturing of perfumes.
• Lichens acts as an indicator of air pollution (mainly sulphur dioxide pollution), hence, called bioindicators.
(iv) Insectivorous Plants
These are the plants that obtain their nutrients by trapping or consuming animals (insects and other arthopods).
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis (photos-light; synthesis-formation) is an enzyme regulated anabolic process
It is defined as the process by which plants can convert light energy to chemical energy and store it in the form of sugars
(carbohydrate). The oxygen produced is considered as the waste product of photosynthesis.
The equation of photosynthesis is as follows
Chlorophyll, Enzyme
6CO2 + 12H2O   C6H12O6 + O2 ↑ + 6H2O
Radiant energy  686 kcal 
Site of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in leaves; hence leaves are called food factories of the cell.
• In plants, cell that have chloroplast containing chlorophyll participate in photosynthesis.
• Vascular bundles or veins in a leaf function help in the movement of water and nutrients around the plants.
Stomata are the tiny holes located on the outer skin layer of the plants allowing water and nutrients to travel through. This
movement is regulated by the guard cells located around the stomata. Apart from transpiration, the stomata also let O2, water
vapour and gases to move quickly in and out of the plant leaf.
Process of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process in which O2 (oxygen) is evolved from H2O (water) by the dissociation
reaction, while sugar (glucose), starch etc. are evolved, from CO2. This process always begins when energy from light is
absorbed by the portions, called reaction centers (that contain green chlorophyll pigments).
The photosynthetic process occurs under two main phases.
Photochemical Phase (Light or Hill Reaction)

It occurs inside the thylakoids. It is a light dependent phenomenon which involves the photolysis of water and production of
assimilatory power (i.e. NADPH and ATP).
Biosynthetic Phase (Dark Reaction or Blackman’s Reaction)

It occurs in the stroma or matrix of chloroplast. Dark reaction does not require the presence of light but requires assimilatory
power (i.e. ATP + NADPH) produced during the photochemical reaction. The two main pathways for the biosynthetic or dark
phase are Calvin cycle (C3 cycle) and dicarboxylic acid cycle (C4 cycle).
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Temperature Oxygen Carbon Dioxide

Temperature does not influence the Small quantity of oxygen is essential Increase in its concentration upto
photochemical part of for photosynthesis. At a very high 0.05% increases the rate of
photosynthesis (light reaction) but oxygen content, the rate of photosynthesis. But after a certain
affects the biochemical part (dark photosynthesis begins to decline in limit, the increase in its
reaction). The optimum temperature all plants. This phenomenon is called concentration does not affect the
is 10-25°C for C3 plants and 30 - 45°C Warburg effect. photosynthetic activity.
for C4 plants.
Light Water
The characteristics of light i.e., the intensity quality The amount of water used in photosynthesis is
and duration generally influences the rate of very small. Thus, due to the lack of water, the
photosynthesis. At low light intensity, the rate of photosyntheetic activity abruptly decreases (as
photosynthesis is reduced. While it increases with steep fall in the rate of evaporation occurs). In
the increase in the intensity of light. water stress conditions, stomata becomes closed
Photosynthesis occurs in the blue-violet and red which thereby reduces the availability of CO2 to
regions of the light spectrum. Red light favours plants. Thus, causes reduction in photosynthesis.
carbohydrate accomulation while blue light This cause leaves to will, which ultimately
stimulates protein synthesis. reduces the metabolic activity of the plants.
Visible light (having radiation of 380 to 760 nm) is used for the phenomenon of photosynthesis. The photosynthetic process
may also be done in artificial light sometime. Red (650 + 760 nm) and blue (470 to 500 nm) regions of visible light are the most
effective in photosynthesis while violet region of visible light is least effective.
Nitrogen-Fixation
This is a process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into different compounds by biological or Abiological processes. It
is a reduction process independent of respiration. In a biological nitrogen-fixation, nitrogen combines with oxygen in the
presence of electric discharge, resulting into nitrogen oxides.
Biological nitrogen-fixation occurs when nitrogen (N2) is converted to ammonia with the help of an enzyme nitrogenase. The
fixed nitrogen is then used by the plants.
The reaction involved in biological nitrogen-fixation is
N2 + 8H+ + 8e- → 2NH3 + 2H
Nitrogen as a Nutrient
Plants mainly need nitrogen for the synthesis of nucleic acid, protein and other nitrogenous compounds. Despite having 78%
  
nitrogen in atmosphere, plants cannot take it in the gaseous form and they obtain it in the form of nitrite NO2 , nitrate NO3 
and ammonium NO  
4  form. That’s why nitrogen-fixation in necessary for plants.
Microorganisms Involved in Nitrogen-Fixation

(i) Cyanobacteria
(ii) Legume
(iii) Lichens such as Loberia and Peltigera.
(iv) Mosquito, ferns, cycads and Gunnera.
Nutrition in Animals
The process by which animals use or absorb nutrients as basic material for the regulation of growth, development,
maintenance and almost all the other cellular and metabolic activities is called nutrition.
Types of Nutrition in Animals

Depending upon the nature of food and its composition, nutrition in animals is of following three types
(i) Holozoic Nutrition

Herbivorous are the animals (herbivores) that eat plants, parts or products of plants, e.g., cow, buffalo, horse, goat, deer, sheep
etc.
Carnivorous are the animals (carnivores) that eat other small animals.
e.g., fox, lion, tiger, leopard etc.
Scavengers are the animals that feed on dead remains of other animals.
e.g., ant, kite, vulture etc.
Omnivorous are the animals that can eat plants and animals e.g., human beings.
(ii) Parasitic Nutrition

In this type of nutrition, one animal is directly dependent upon another for its nutrition. Former is known as parasite and latter
is known as host.
External Parasite Those parasites which attaches to the outside of the host and obtain nutrition from it, are called external
parasites. e.g., bug, leech, mosquito etc.
Internal Parasite Those parasites that lives inside the body of the host for nutrition, are called internal parasites e.g.,
roundworm, ringworm.
(iii) Saprozoic Nutrition

In this type of nutrition, animals extract their food from decomposed and rotten non-living substances in the form of fluid
organic substances. e.g., insects existing on the dirty drainage, growing mushroom, on the heap of rotten and decomposed
lives, growing microbes on pickles, bread.
Nutrients in Animals
Nutrients required by the animals are
(i) Carbohydrates (monosaccharide’s, disaccharides, polysaccharide)

(ii) Fats (animal fat, vegetable fat), (saturated and unsaturated fatty acids)
(iii) Proteins
(iv) Vitamins (water soluble, fat soluble)
(v) Water
(vi) Roughage
(vii) Minerals
Water
It is the main component of the body. Human body contains about 65% water and about 70% of this water is protoplasm.
Water do not yield energy, yet it is so vital for the body that a person dies if he is deprived of water.
Functions of water are as follows
(i) To control the body temperature.
(ii) To act as an important medium in the excretional activities.
(iii) To regulate almost all biochemical reactions, which actually occur in aquatic environment (atmosphere).
Roughage
Indigestible fibrous material present in the food is called roughage. It provides bulk to the diet for satisfying appetite. Bulk
amount of roughage helps in expanding gut and also stimulates peristalsis to eliminate the fecal matter.
e.g., cellulose present in the cell walls of plant material such as vegetable, fruits and bran all contain roughage.
Note:
• Roughage is not digested in human intestine.
• Bacteria like E. coli etc. are considered by be beneficial because they synthesis Vitamin K in human body (in the
intestine or gut).
• Green vegetable contains folic acid-which is rich in folate required for DNA synthesis.
Carbohydrates
C:H:O
1:2:1
(60 – 80%) energy of our body

• required  350-450 gm
• 1 gm = 4.2 calorie
• Function: instant energy
increase working capacity
Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide
Glucose Sucrose
Fructose Lactose
Galactose Maltose
• Glucose
 instant energy
 honey, fruits
 present in wood
• Fructose
 By digestion of sucrose
 Sweetest Natural Sugar
 Fruits + Sugarcane
• Galactose
 By digestion of Lactose
• Sucrose
 Sugarcane, beetroot
 Table Sugar
 Glucose + Fructose
• Lactose
 Glucose + Galactose
 Milk
• Maltose
 Found in dry fruits
 glucose + Glucosel
• Polysaccharide
• Starch  Rice, Potato

Ptylene
Starch 
Saliva
 Maltose  Glucose
• Cellulose  digestion Plants
• In carbs, there is only digestion of starch.
• Ptyalin  Present in Buccal cavity.
• All other types of carbs are digested by amylase (Pancreatic Juice) in small Intestine.
• Lack of carbohydrates in body decrease the work capacity of the person.
Proteins
• Body building substance
• 20 Amino Acid  Peptone  Proteins
• Discovered by Mular
• Named by Berzelius
• Spinal structure  Pauling

13-14 years  Need of Proteins
Milk  Casein
Energy = 1 gm = 4.1 cal
Bones  Ossein
Blood  Albumin, Globulins and fibrinogen (in plasma only)
Pulses  Prolamins
Egg  Albumin
Wheat  Gluten
Keratin  = hair/nails
 = cobweb
• Highest amount of Protein  Mushroom, Soya bean.
Deficiency of Protein
Protein Energy Malnutrition
Protein + Energy Protein

 
1.5 years (+) 1.5 years (–)
• Kwashiorker • Marasmus
• Pitting edema  body becoming yellow • Physical + Natural development stops
• Extensive weakness • Body winkle
• Anorexia/Loss of apetite • Blood (–)
• Hair loss • Hair problem
FAT
1 gm = 9.2 Cal
Consumption  44.75 gm/day
Lipid  Biomolecules, which contain more energy.
Simple lipid
Fat
Tri-glyceride  Glyceral + Fatty Acid
• Function: Increase working capacity, staring energy.
• Protect our organ from damage.
• Makes body waterproof.
• Chemical messenger
Carbohydrate deficiency  Fat will cover the deficiency

Fat
Saturated Fat Unsaturated Fat

 
Oxidation  Take time Oxidation  Easily done
Temp (+)  Liquid Temp  Liquid
Temp (–)  Solid
Ex. – Ghee, Butter, Coconut oil, Dalda, Ex. – Olive Oil, Almond oil, Mustard oil,
Chicken Oil Refind, Fish oil
Excess amount of fat – Fat (+)  Addition of food on surface


added in coronary artery

Heart Attack
Body mass Weight

• Obesity (+) BMI Test  Body Mass Index = = = kg/mt2
 Height 
2 2
Height
BMI < 18  Underweight

18 to 25  Normal
25 to 30  Overweight
30 +  Obesity
Deficiency of fat  Dryness on body, Reduces working capacity.
Vitamins
• Named by C funk.
• doesn't provide energy, Protects us from diseases.
• Only 2 vitamins are synthesised  Vitamin D  Skin
{Make/Produced by Body}  Vitamin K  Large Intestine
• Water soluble – Vitamin B, Vitamin C.
• Fat Soluble – Vitamin A, D, E, K.
Vitamin A
• Scientific Name: Retinol
• Sources: Carrot, Apple, Mango, Green Leaf Vegetables
• Best for: Vision
Red Cell  Night Colour
• Deficiency: Night Blindness
Cone Cell  Colours
Xerophthalmia  Dryness of eyes
Vitamin D
• Scientific Name  Calciferol
• Also known as  Sunshine Vitamin & Hormone Vitamin
• Sources: Sunshine, Fish Oil, Milk Products, Non-Veg etc.
• Deficiency: Rickets  Child
Osteomalacia  Adult
Osteoporosis  Mass Density (–)
Bones can Break
Vitamin E
• Scientific Name: Tocopherol
• Reproductive Vitamin, Beauty Vitamin.
• Sources: Fish, Milk, sprouted grains, Dry fruits.
• Important for: Hair, Skin (Healthy & glowing skin)
• Deficiency: Skin Dull, Sterility.
Vitamin K
• Scientific Name: Phylloquinone
• Source Green leaf vegetables, Spinach, Maithi, Tomatoes
• Helpful Blood Clotting
Vitamin C
• Scientific name: Ascorbic Acid
• Sources  Amla, Citrus Acid fruits
Doctor's Plant
• Temp Sensitive Vitamin  Vitamin  if temp (+)
• Not present in  Milk, Egg, Chapati.
• Excretion  with Urine
• Alcoholic Person has deficiency of Vitamin C.
ADH – Anti Diuretic Hormone
Excretion; Pituitary Gland
Work: Controls water amount in urine
Alcohols/coffee  ADH work  Urination (+).
Deficiency of Vitamin C – Scurvy, Bleeding in gums.
Vitamin B
Vitamin B1 Thiamin
Sources: Peanuts, Coated Rice & Pulses Vegetables.
• Due to excessive wash  Vitamins gets washed with water
• Deficiency: Beri-Beri  Extensive weakness
Vitamin B2  Riboflavin
• Source: Milk, Non-veg, fruits, Eggs.
• Deficiency: Redness on tongue, Crack in lips & heels.
Vitamin B3  Niacin
• Source: Green Vegetables, Milk, fruits
• Deficiency: Pellagra  4 D diseases
Dermatitis (Skin Infection)
dementia (Loss of Memory)
Diarrhoea
Death
Vitamin B5  Pantothenic acid  Whitening of Hairs.
Vitamin B6  Pyridoxine  Skin disease, Anemia.
Sources: Milk, fruits, Vegetables, green vegetables
Vitamin B7  Also called Vitamin H  Biotin
Deficiency: Hair Loss
Vitamin B8  Folic acid
Deficiency Anemia  Pregnancy, Heart disease.
Work – Production of RBC fond (DNA)
Vitamin B12  Cyanocobalamin
Contains: Cobalt  Helps in treatment of cancer.
Deficiency: High Anemia.
Minerals:
Minerals control various metabolic activities in the human body. Minerals form about 4% of our body weight. Minerals are
needed in very small amounts, a gram or less per day by human body
Minerals Required Per Day
Minerals Daily Amount
Sodium 2-5 g
Potassium 1g
Calcium About 1.2 g
Phosphorus 1.2 g
Iron 25 mg (boy), 35 mg (girl)
Iodine 20 mg
Magnesium Extremely low
Zinc Extremely low
Cobalt Extremely low
Different Minerals and their Functions
Different minerals and their functions
Incomeare tabulated
Tax below.
Inspector •CAT •GMAT •UPSC •SSC •BANK
Macro Minerals
Name Source Function Deficiency Symptoms
Calcium Dairy products, eggs, Useful for the formation of bones and teeth, Rickets and muscle
wheatgerm. helps in blood clotting, keeps muscles and spasms.
nerve activity normal.
Chlorine Table salt, sea food, Maintains pH balance in body fluid, a Disturbs pH balance of
chlorinated water. constituent of hydrochloric acid in stomach. body fluid.
Magnesium Dairy products, cereals, green It helps in muscle relaxation and also keeps Convulsions and
leafy vegetables, sea food, nerve relaxed, synthesis of bones and teeth. hallucinations.
wheatgerm and chocolate.
Phosphorus/ Dairy products, eggs, fish, Important for the formation of bones, teeth Loss of bone minerals and
Phosphate meat, wheatgerm. and bio membranes, keeps muscle and many metabolic disorders
nerve activity normal. Synthesis of nucleic including cardiac muscle
acids (DNA, RNA) and synthesis of ATP. nerves disorders.
Sodium (in the Table salt, most food and It helps in muscle activity and transmission Cramps, diarrhoea and
form of NaCl) wheatgerm. of nerve impulses. dehydration.
Potassium Cereals meats, fruits and Needed with sodium, conduction of nerve
vegetables. impulse.
Sulphur Dairy products, eggs and Part of many proteins, essential for the Interfares with the
meat. synthesis of vitamin-B1, for healthy hair, healthy growth of hair
skin, nails. and nails.
Microminerals
Name Source Function Deficiency Symptoms
Chromium Black gram, bajra, barley, It promotes insulin action. Diabetes like symptoms.
groundnuts and meat. Cardioprotective.
Cobalt Milk and meat. Part of vitamin-B1, therefore, help in Anemia
the formation of RBCs.
Copper Pea nuts, barley and black grams Promotes utilisation of iron in Anemia
hemoglobin.
Fluorine Tea, fish, city water supply. Prevents dental caries. Weak teeth, prone to decay.
Iodine Iodinised salt, sea food. Constituent of thyroxine hormone, Goiter
which is secreted by thyroid gland.
Iron Most meats, dried nuts, banana, Constituent of hemoglobin and Anemia
honey, dates and green leafy myoglobin.
vegetables.
Manganese Nuts, legumes, wheatgerm, liver. For normal reproduction, function of Infertility, menstruation
mammary glands and synthesis of problems, impaired fat
hemoglobin. metabolism.
Molybdenum Nuts, wheat, black gram, peas, bajra Part of several enzymes essential for Disturbance in iron
and potatoes. synthesis of hemoglobin and metabolism, affect growth of
absorption of iron. the body.
Selenium Sea food, meats and cereals. Part of several enzymes function Premature ageing, cataract,
with vitamin-E. cancer, cardiovascular
diseases.
Zinc Soya beans, black gram, A cofactor for many enzymes, such as Poor growth, slow sexual
wheatgerm, barley, bajra, milk and carbonic anhydrase. Stimulates development, impairs wound
eggs. insulin action, cardioprotective. healing and immune function
• Minerals must be taken as compounds because if taken as such (i.e. sodium, potassium) they may prove to be fatal.
• Chocolates have high content of nickel in it.

• Fluoride acts as an ingredient in toothpaste because it helps teeth in becoming more resistant to bacteria that cause
cavities and also prevent tooth decay.
• Highly acidic food such as tomato source, orange juice, tea, coffee leaches lead from the plates and containers more than
any other foods.
• Consuming too much salts in daily diet can retain water and cause puffiness on face during morning time.
Balanced Diet
The diet in which all required nutrients are present in an appropriate amount to fulfill all the metabolic requirements of the
body such as energy, growth, replacement and physical regulation, is called a balanced diet.
A complete balanced diet must include energy or fuel, building food, minerals, green and yellow vegetable, vitamins, roughage
and water in an appropriate amount.
14
PLANT MORPHOLOGY
Morphology deals with the study of outer forms and features of different plant organs like roots, stems, leaf, flower, fruits etc.
Plant diversity
Plant shows great diversity in their form, size, life span, habit, habitats, nutrition etc.
There are different varieties of plants such as
Herbs Small plant with soft and pliable stems that usually grow at
height of less than two meters. e.g., wheat, buttercup, henbane,
canna, etc.
Shrubs Medium height plants with perennial woody stems. These

are also called bushes. e.g., Capparis, jasmine, rose.
Tress Plant of great height with a thick woody stem called trunk.
e.g., Palm, Pinus, Casuarina, Eucalyptus, Dahlbergian, Banyan.
Trailers Spread over the ground without rooting of prostrate stems.

e.g., Tribulus, Euphorbia.
Creepers With prostrate stems with root at intervals. e.g., grass.
Twiners Weak stemmed plants where stem twine around the

support, e.g., Ipomoea
Climbers Rise up their support by means of special clinging or

coiling structure. e.g., grape vine.
Epiphytes Plants that live on other plants for space, e.g., Vanda.
Different Parts of the Plant

Flowering plants consist of a long cylindrical axis differentiated into underground root
system and an aerial shoot system. The root system is comprised of roots and its lateral
branches. While, the shoot system has a stem, a system of branches and leaves. Root,
stem and leaves are known as vegetative plant organs. When flowering plant attain the
age of maturity, it produces flowers, fruits and seeds. These are known as reproductive
organs.
The Root
Roots are non-green parts of plants. it is always present underground, develops from
radicle and grows down into the earth.
Characteristics of Roots
(i) Photosynthesis does not occur in roots.
(ii) They have root hairs (unicellular) that help roots for the absorption of water by increasing surface area.
Root System of Plants
Plants have two types of root system.
1. Adventitious Root System
It develops from anywhere except the radicle. This is usually found in monocot plants.
Modifications of Adventitious Roots
Roots can be modified for storage of food
Tuberous Roots e.g., sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).
Fibrous roots e.g., Wheat, Maize, Grass etc.
2. Tap Root System

It develops from radicle and usually found in dicot plants.
Note: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium leguminosarum) to fix the atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
Respiratory Roots or Pneumatophores- These types of roots are special type that are found in plants growing in mangroves
or saline, swamps near the sea shore. They have minute breathing pores called pneumatophores or lenticels present on the
tips of vertical roots that help them in getting O2 for respiration.
e.g., Rhizophora, plant sundari.
Buttress Roots
They are horizontal roots that arise jointly from the base of the tap roots and the trunk. e.g. Almond, rubber tree, ceiba, peepal.
Roots Modified for Mechanical Support

(i) Prop Roots e.g., Ficus bengalensis (banyan).
(ii) Stilt Roots (Brace roots) e.g., maize, sugarcane, Rhizophora (a mangrove) plant.
(iii) Climbing Roots e.g., money plant, betel leaf.
Functions of Root
(i) Keeps the plant in a static form i.e., provides fixation to the plants with soil.
(ii) Absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil.
(iii) Transports water and mineral salts from the soil.
(iv) Stores food for the use of other plants and animals.
The stem
This is the ascending organ of a plant that develops from the plumule of the embryo of a germinating seed. In flowering plants.
It bears leaves, flowers, branches and fruits.
Characteristics of Stem
(i) It is usually erect and grows away from the soil towards light.
(ii) They have a terminal bud for growing in length.
(iii) In flowering plants, they show distinction into nodes (attach leaves to stem) and internodes (portion of stem between
the two nodes).
(iv) The young stem is green and photosynthesis able.
Different Forms of Stem

On the basis of the position of the soil, stems are of the following three types
(i) Aerial stem when stem grow above the soil, e.g., lemons, roses.
(ii) Subaerial stem when aerial stem in some plants trails or creeps on the ground, e.g., water plant, grass root.
(iii) Underground stem when stem grows inside the soil, e.g., banana, potato.
Modifications of stem
Stems of plant are modified to perform different functions such as nutrition, vegetative propagation, storage, etc.
These are classified into three main types
1. Under Ground Modification

Under ground stems are modified plant structures which exist under the soil surface and functions as storage tissues for food
and nutrients.
There are different forms of underground stems
(i) Sucker e.g., banana.
(ii) Rhizome e.g., Alcocasia indica, ginger (Zingiber officiuate), turmeric (Curcuma domestica), Saccharum.
(iii) Corm e.g., elephant foot (kachalu)
(iv) Tuber e.g., rose, stem tuber (potato).
(v) Bulb e.g., onion, tulip, nargis.
2. Subaerial Modification
The subaerial stems are weak and do not stand erect. They are mainly used for the purpose of vegetative propagation.
Various types of modifications found in such type of stem are
(i) Runner e.g., grass root, Merelia.
(ii) Stolon e.g., mint, jasmine, strawberry.
(iii) Offset e.g., water plant.
(iv) Sucker e.g., roses.
3. Aerial Modification
Aerial stems are modified to carry out certain functions
Various types of aerial modifications
(i) Stem Tendrils e.g., ghiatori, Cucurbita (kaddoo), Lagenaria (lauki), grape vine.
(ii) Stem Thorns e.g., pomegranate.
(iii) Phyoclade e.g., cactus
Functions of Stem
(i) It bears leaves and hold them in such a manner so that they can get maximum sunlight.
(ii) The stem conducts water and mineral nutrients from the roots to the leaves, flower and fruits.
(iii) It has also flower in suitable position so that pollination and fertilization takes place.
(iv) Stem branches help in providing support to its various parts.
The Leaf
Leaf is green, flat, thin, expanded lateral appendage born on the stem. It emerges at a node and
bears a bud in its axil. The mode of arrangement of leaves on the stem and its branches, is known
as phyllotaxy. Distribution pattern of the vein and veinlets in the lamina of a leaf, is called
venation. It called ‘kitchen of plant’.
Characteristics of Leaf
(i) There is always an auxiliary bud in the axil of a leaf.
(ii) The growth of leaf is always limited.
Modifications of Leaf
Leaves of plants are modified to perform different functions in addition to their main function, i.e., photosynthesis.
Leaf modifications are as follows
Leaf Tendrils These are thread-like sensitive structure which can coil around a support to help the plant in climbing. e.g., wild
pea, sweet pea, lentils.
Leaf Spines The leaf parts modified into spines in order to protect the plant from grazing animals e.g., Aloe, barberry.
Leaf Bladders They occur in the aquatic carnivorous plants, which modify their leaf segments to form small bladders in order
to trap insects present in the water.
Leaf Pitcher The leaf of the pitcher plant gets modified into tube like structures with hairs to trap insects. e.g., pitcher plant,
Venus flytrap.
Succulent Leaves The leaves are fleshy or swollen. They store water, food, etc. e.g., Aloe
Scale Leaves These are specialized leaves or bract that gets modified in order to protect a bud and other soft organs. It is small
having a colourless membrane e.g., garlic, onion.
Colourless Leaves or Bract In this type of modification, leaves get modified and become brightly coloured in order to
fascinate insects towards themselves, e.g., Poinsettia.
Floral Organs They are specialized leaves-sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
Functions of Leaf
(i) Its important function is to perform photosynthesis.
(ii) Leaves act as a site of transpiration.
(iii) They store food as in the leaf base of onion.
(iv) Leaves protect axillary and terminal buds from desiccation and mechanical injury.
Plant-Water Relations
Water plays a very important role in the living system and it is essential for all physiological activities of plants.
Functions of Water
(i) Water carries the nutrients from the soil to the plant.
(ii) Water acts as a major component of all living cells, e.g., protoplasm of cell is nothing but water containing several
different molecules or suspended particles.
(iii) It acts as an excellent solvent and also acts as cooling system in plants.
(iv) Every plant whether herbaceous or woody consists of water but its amount varies. e.g., watermelon has 92% of water,
while woody plants have relatively very little water.
(v) It acts as a major component of seeds (for their survival and respiration) although they appear dry.
(vi) It also acts as a limiting factor of growth and productivity of plants in agricultural and natural environment because of
high demands of water by plants.
Some key Processes:

(i) Imbibition: It is the special phenomenon of water absorption by the solid particle of an adsorbent without forming a
solution. The solid adsorbent is called imbibant and the imblied liquid is called imbibate.
e.g., dry piece of wood when placed in water, swells and increases in volume. In plant systems, absorption of water by
cell wall, swelling and rupture of seed coats during germination.
(ii) Osmosis: The movement of water molecules from high water concentration to low concentration is called osmosis. e.g.,
absorption of water by plant roots. This was discovered by Pfeffer.
Note:
If a cell is placed in sugar or salt solution
• If water concentration outside the cell is high, then cell will gain water by osmosis and the solution is called hypotonic
solution. Therefore, the cell is likely to get swelled up (become turgid).
• If the water concentration outside and inside is same then cell will remain same
in size and the solution, is called isotonic solution.
• If the concentration of water is lower outside the cell than inside then the cell
will shrink (become flaccid) and the solution, is called hypertonic solution.
(iii) Plasmolysis: It is the phenomenon used to define the shrinkage of plant cell
when water is lost from it due to osmosis. And when the same plasmolysed
(shrinked) cells are transferred back to water or hypotonic solution, the
condition is referred to as deplasmoysis.
Means of Transport
Diffusion It is the process by which the movement of ions or molecules of a solute or a solvent (may be solid, liquid or gas)
occur from higher concentration to lower concentration without expenditure of energy.
Active Transport This phenomenon uses the energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) to move ions/molecules
along a gradient (i.e., low concentration to high concentration).
Transport System in Plants
The long distances transport of materials that takes place through xylem and
phloem is known as translocation.
(i) Transpiration Plants do not utilize the total amount of water absorbed by them.
Only 5-10% is absorbed and rest 90-95% of water is lost from plants through aerial
parts (mainly from leaves) in the form of water vapors. Transpiration is the
evaporative loss of water by plants. The process of transpiration is carried out by
the special structure found in leaves of plants, called stomata. As the process of
transpiration occurs through stomata, it is also known as stomatal transpiration.
14
(ii) Guttation When the amount of root pressure is high and rate of transpiration is low, many
herbaceous plants tend to lose small quantities of water or liquid in the form of drops from the
hydathodes (small pores) or water glands. These are present on the margins of the leaves or where the
main vein ends and near the tips of blade of some vascular plants like grasses and small herbaceous
plants (rose, strawberry, tomato, etc.)
Plant Growth and Development

The life of a plant initiates from a single cell, called zygote. All the structures of plant such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
fruits, and seeds arise from a single cell in a very orderly sequence. The new cells continually produced by cell division occur in
meristem (open form of growth). Different phases of plant growth are cell division, cell enlargement and cell maturation.
Conditions or Factors for Growth in Plants
(i) Supply of nutrients
(ii) C/N ratio (ratio of carbohydrates and nitrogenous compounds regulate specific pattern of growth in plants).
(iii) Temperature
(iv) Water
(v) Light
(vi) Oxygen
Plant Growth Hormones

Plant hormones or phyto hormones are small, simple organic molecules of diverse chemical composition produced naturally in
higher plants that control the growth and other physiological functions. These are required in very small amount by plants.
Some plant hormones are
1. Auxins
The real plant auxin is chemically known as Indole 3-acetic acid (IAA). It is also known as natural auxin. Apart from this,
naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 2, 4 dichloro phenosyacetic acid (2, 4 D) are known as synthetic auxins.
Functions of Auxins
(i) Cell elongation and longitudinal growth.
(ii) Induces parthenocarpy, e.g., formation of seedless fruits without fertilization.
2. Gibberellins
It was discovered by Kurosawa. These are known as weakly acidic growth hormones.
Functions of Gibberellins
(i) Reversal of dwarfism in plants.
(ii) Delay senescence (ageing) in fruits like citrus fruits, apples etc.
3. Cytokines
It was invented by Miller. These growth hormones are basis in nature and have specific effects on cytokinesis.
Zeatin is the naturally occurring cytokinin isolated from maize grains
Functions of Cytokinins
(i) It acts on cell division but have little or no effect on growth.
(ii) It also delays senescence (ageing) of plant organs by controlling protein synthesis.
• Zeatin is the naturally occurring cytokinin isolated from maize grains.
4. Ethylene
It is a simple gaseous plant hormone synthesized from the amino acid methionine. It was invented by Burg and is also known
as ripening hormone.
Functions of Ethylene
(i) Inhibits growth.
(ii) Flowering in pineapple, mango and various other plants is induced by the application of ethylene.
(iii) Promotes the yellowing and senescence of leaves.

5. Abscisic Acid
It was discovered by Adicote and Corsin. It is slightly acidic growth hormone that functions as a growth inhibitor.
Functions of Abscisic acid
(i) Inhibits growth and metabolism.
6. Florigens It is also known as flowering hormone
7. Calines These hormones are secreted from plant organs and are used in controlling the growth of plant organs.
8. Traumatin It is a plant hormone produced in response to wound. Its formation occurs in damaged cells.
Plant Diseases
Plant diseases are the interruptions of the normal state or functioning of plants.
Abiotic or Non-Parastic Diseases
Abiotic Diseases Deficient Elements
Khaira disease of paddy Deficiency of zinc
Marsh disease of pea Deficiency of manganese
Little leaf disease of lemon Deficiency of copper
Little leaf disease of mango Deficiency of zinc
Tea yellow disease Deficiency of sulfur
Rough skin of guava and citrus Deficiency of boron
Marginal leaf drying in rice Deficiency of potassium
Little leaf in plant species Deficiency of zinc
Blossom end rot in tomato Deficiency of calcium
Fruit cracking in tomato Deficiency of boron
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is a biological process in which an organism give rise to young ones (offspring's). There is a continuous cycle of birth,
growth and death which enables the continuity of species generation.
Based on the involvement of organisms, reproduction occurs in two ways namely asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
When single parent produces offspring without gamete formation, similar to itself i.e. offspring produced are the exact copies of
their parents, the reproduction is called as asexual reproduction.
Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction/Somatogenic Reproduction
(i) Only one parent is involved.
(ii) It occurs by mitotic division.
(iii) Formation and fusion of gametes do not occur.
(iv) The offspring produced the exact copies, the parent and similar to each other and hence are called clones. e.g. plants,
protozoans and some lower organisms like Protista, sponges, coelenterates, Planaria etc.
Asexual reproduction is absent among the higher non-vertebrates and all vertebrates.
Sexual Reproduction
When two parents of opposite sex, participate in the reproductive process and involve the fusion of male and female gametes, it is
called sexual reproduction.
Characteristics of Sexual Reproduction
(i) It involves two participants of opposite sex-male and female.
(ii) It this, meiotic division occurs during gamete formation and mitosis during development.
(iii) The offspring produced are genetically different from parents.
(iv) It is a slow process in comparison to the asexual reproduction.
Events in Sexual Reproduction

The events that take place during the sexual reproduction are pre-fertilisation, fertilization and post-fertilisation.
Pre-Fertilisation Events
Here all the events sexual reproduction that occur before the fusion of gametes occurs. Two main pre-fertilisation events are
gametogenesis (formation of gametes) and copulation or gamete transfer (close association of male and female for the fusion of
gametes).
• When male and female gametes are similar in appearance, they are called homogametes or isogametes, while
morphologically distinct male and female gametes are called heterogametes.
Fertilization/Syngamy
The process of fusion of male gemmates with the female gametes is called fertilization or syngamy. It results in the formation of a
diploid zygote.
(i) External Fertilisation When process of fertilization taken place outside the body of an organism e.g. in aquatic organisms
like algae, fishes and amphibians.
(ii) Internal Fertilisation When process of fertilization takes place inside the body of an organism, e.g. in most terrestrial
organisms like fungi, higher animal and majority of plants such as bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
Post-Fertilisation Events
During the sexual reproduction, the events which occur after the fusion of gametes are called post-fertilisation events. These events
include the formation of a zygote and embryogenesis (i.e. the process of development of embryo from the zygote). Based on
whether the development of the zygote takes place outside or inside the body of the female parent, animals are divided into two
categories.
(i) Oviparous Those animals in which the development of zygote takes place outside the female parent are called oviparous.
They lay fertilized eggs covered with hard calcareous shell in a safe environment, e.g. reptiles and birds. After a period of
incubation, the young ones hatch out from the egg.
(ii) Viviparous Those animals in which the development of zygote takes place inside the body of the female parent are called
viviparous. After attaining a certain stage of growth, the young ones are delivered out of the female’s body, e.g. human,
monkeys and all other mammals (except egg laying)
• The chances of survival of young ones are greater in Viviparous animal because of proper embryonic care and protection.
Reproduction in Lower Plants
1. Asexual Reproduction
Fragmentation: It is the simplest form of asexual reproduction in which the
filamentous plant body breaks into pieces and each fragment results into a new
filament or plant body on maturing. e.g. Spirogyra (filamentous green algae).
Vegetative multiplication by fragmentation is considered as the common method
used by algae to grow in running water, e.g. Ulothrix.
Spore Formation: In many multicellular organisms, spore is the reproductive cell
which has the ability to germinate and give rise to a new colony. Algae ferns,
mosses and fungi reproduce through spore formation.
2. Sexual Reproduction:
In algae and fungi, sex organs are unicellular whereas in bryophytes, the sex organs are
multicellular and more developed.
These gametes fuse by the process called fertilization, to produce a product called zygote.
Reproduction in Higher Plants
(Angiosperms or Flowering Plants)
A flower is comprised of four main parts i.e. sepals, petals, stamen and carpel. Out of which stamen and carpel are the reproductive
parts of a flower.
Sticky terminal part of
carpel; helps in receiving
pollen during pollination.
Middle elongated part of carpel; helps

in the attachment of stigma to ovary.
Swollen bottom part of carpel; Male reproductive part of the

contains ovules having an egg cell. Stamens flower; single flower may
contain number of stamens.
Brightly coloured, protect inner
reproductive parts lying inside
the flower; functions to attract Leaf like structure present in the
insects for pollination; all petals outer most circle; provide protection
taken together are called corolla. to buds in the initial stages; all sepals
taken together are called calyx.
Reproductive Organs of a Typical Flower
The Female Reproductive Organ: The Carpel

The female parts of a flower consist of an ovary, which contains one or more ovules, a style and
the stigma. The ovary is at the base of the flower.
From the ovary, extends a tubular structure called the style and on the top of the style is a
surface receptive to pollen called the stigma.
The stigma can take many different forms, most of them designed to help trap pollen. There
are many variations on this basic structural theme.
After fertilization the ovule becomes the seed and the ovary becomes the fruit.
The Male Reproductive Organ: The Stamen

The male parts of a flower consist of one or more stamens. Each stamen is made up of paired anthers (sacs containing pollen) on a
filament or stalk.
The anthers are the orange/yellow structures often seen in the center of a flower.
Pollen from the anthers of one flower is transferred to the stigma of another usually either by wind or by animals, especially insects.
Petals, Corolla, Sepals, Calyx
The reproductive structures in higher plants are contained within flowers. Flowers have more than one petal and the flower petals
are collectively called the corolla. A flower bud is protected by green leafy structures called sepals. Collectively, all of the sepals
form the calyx.
The corolla or petals are often brightly coloured with markings attractive to insects. The flowers may also be scented. For instance,
Honeysuckle has showy, attractive flowers which attract insects by day. However, in the dark, their colourful show is not much use
and their heady scent then helps to attract night-flying moths.
In insect-pollinated plants, there are also usually nectaries which secrete sugary nectar, located within the flower. These provide an
incentive to insects to visit the flowers. In the search for nectar, the insects will often get pollen grains caught on their bodies. This
may then brush off onto the stigma of the next flower visited and in this way the flowers are pollinated. The receptacle is the place
on the stem where floral organs originate and attach.
Formation of Sex Cells

The sex cells of the flowering plant are called gametes. There are both male and female gametes thus the flower undergoes sexual
reproduction.
Pollen Formation: Development of A Pollen Grain Within the Pollen Sac of An Anther.
Fertilisation: It is the union of the male and female gametes to form a zygote. Since the male and female gametes are haploid (n)
when the two unite the zygote is diploid (2n).
Fertilisation starts when a pollen grain lands on the stigma. The pollen grain then grain germinates forming a pollen tube. The tube
nucleus controls the growth of the pollen tube. The pollen tube is an example of chemotropism since it is growing toward chemicals
produced from the ovule. The generative nucleus travels down the pollen tube. It undergoes mitosis forming two haploid male
gamete nuclei. The pollen tube enters the ovule by way of the micropyle. The two male gamete nuclei are released into the embryo
sac. The tube nucleus disintegrates.
Seed Formation
The fertilized ovule becomes the seed. The integuments become the wall of the seed called the testa. The micropyle closes. The
endosperm nucleus leads to the formation of triploid endosperm, a food tissue. The diploid zygote, by mitosis, develops into a plant
embryo. The developing embryo draws nourishment from the endosperm. The embryo ceases development and goes dormant. The
ovule becomes a seed, which contains a dormant plant embryo, food reserve, and the protective coat called the testa.
The Embryo
The embryo is made up of the radicle or future root and the plumule or future shoot. The endosperm cells divide many times and
absorb the nucleus. This is the nutrition (mainly fats, oils and starch) for the embryo.
Fruit Development
The ovary becomes a fruit. The wall of the ovary becomes the wall of the fruit called the pericarp. The fruit protects the developing
seeds and plays an important role in seed dispersal. This process is controlled by auxins produced by the seeds. Once the fruit
forms the rest of the flower parts die and fall away.
Dormancy
Dormancy is a period of inactivity. There is very little cellular activity and no growth. One or many of the following reasons bring
about dormancy:
Auxins that inhibit growth- Growth Inhibitors
The Testa is impermeable to water and oxygen- The Testa will eventually break down and allow water and oxygen into the seed.
The Testa may be too hard for the embryo to germinate.
An Auxin (Growth Regulator) may be absent until suitable environmental conditions develop.
Germination
The embryo will germinate from the seed if the proper environmental conditions are present. When this occurs, the embryo
resumes its growth.
In order for germination to occur the following conditions must be present: Water must be present. This allows the seed to swell
and enzymes to function. Oxygen must be present in the soil. The temperature must be suitable for the species of plant. Suitable
temperatures are usually between 5-30 degrees Celsius depending on the species. The dormancy period must be complete. Some
seeds need light and others need darkness.
Events of Germination
When germination begins the first thing that happens is water is absorbed by the seed through the micropyle and through the testa.
Enzymes in the soil now digest the foods stored in the seeds: Oils become fatty acids and glycerol Starch becomes glucose Protein
becomes amino acids These foods now are absorbed by the embryo. The glucose and amino acids make new structures such as cell
walls and enzymes. The fats and glucose are used in cellular respiration to produce energy. The stored food of the seed is being
used up as the embryo grows larger. The radicle grows larger and breaks through the testa. It becomes the roots of the new plant.
The plumule grows larger and emerges above the ground in Leaves form.
Angiosperms also reproduce both asexually and sexually

1. Asexual Reproduction
In this type of reproduction, flowering plants follow apomixes, i.e. producing young ones without involvement and fusion of sex
cells (pollen and ovule) or vegetative propagation.
Vegetative Propagation
In vegetative propagation, new plants are obtained from a part of the
parent plant without the involvement of reproductive organs, e.g.
vegetative plant parts like roots, stem, leaves or meristems develop into
new plants. This is known as natural vegetative propagation.
Vegetative propagation can also be practiced artificially for mass
production. There are usually four types of method for artificial vegetative
propagation such as cutting, layering, grafting and micropropagation.
Artificial Method Examples
Cutting Leaves (Bryophylum), roots (tamarind), stems (grapes, sugarcane, rose) etc.
Layering Jasmine, grape, vine, litchi, orange etc.
Grafting Rose, apple, plum, peach, mango.
Micro Propagation Banana, orchids, Coronation and ornamental plants.
Tissue Culture In Vitro Micropropagation

Here isolated cells or small pieces of plant tissues are kept under sterile in vitro conditions in nutrient cultures to grow new
disease-free plants. In vitro micro propagation takes place in a laboratory and the plants are transferred from the labs to the soil.
This is tissue culture.
Plant tissue culture is widely used for the rapid multiplication of plant species with superior qualities. In this method, small pieces
are cut from the plant. Flower buds, stem tissue, growing tips, leaves etc. are known as explants. These are transferred to artificial
medium where they divide rapidly to form a callus (undifferentiated mass of cells).
This technique is used for production of ornamental plants like carnations, orchids, Dahlia.
Various advantages of tissue culture are given below
• It is possible to produce large number of plants from single parent in disease-free environment.
• It helps to avoid various plant diseases through the sterile techniques.
• Rapid production of ornamental plants is possible.
• Climatic conditions do not hinder the plant growth.
2. Sexual Reproduction
Flowering plants are generally angiosperms which carry the reproductive parts within the flower and seeds enclosed in a fruit.
Most plants have both male and female reproductive organs in the same flower known as bisexual flowers, e.g. lily, rose etc. while
others have either male or female reproductive part in a flower known as unisexual flowers, e.g. papaya, watermelon.
Pollination
The transfer to pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of a flower is termed as pollination. In pollination, pollen
grains can be transferred by various agents like wind, water, insects and animals.
It can be of two types
(i) Self Pollination (Autogamy or Homogamy) When the transfer of pollen
grains occurs from the anther to the stigma of the same flower, it is called self
pollination. It occurs only in bisexual flowers.
(ii) Cross Pollination When the transfer of pollen grains occurs from the anther
of one flower to the stigma of another flower situated on the same or on a
different plant, it is called as cross pollination. It occurs in unisexual or
bisexual flowers.
• The smallest flower is Wolffia and the largest flower is Rafflesia.
• The National Flower of India is Lotus
• Rafflesia is pollinated by elephant.
Agents of Pollination
The process of pollination occurs by various pollinating agents. Some of them are
Pollination Process Pollination Medium
Anemophilous By air
Entomophilous By insects
Hydrophilous By water
Zoophilous By animals
Ornithophilous By birds
Malacophilous By shells
Chropteriphilous By bats
Fertilization
Soon after the completion of pollination, the process of fertilization begins. The pollination tube soon enters the ovule, passes
through nucellus and ends at the endosperm, leaving the pollen grains there.
Fruit
A fruit is formed as a result of cell division and differentiation in the ovary which transform it into a fruit.
Fruits are of the following two type
(i) True Fruits The fruit derived from an ovary of a flower not associated with any non-capillary part is called true fruit (e.g.
mango tomato etc.).
(ii) False Fruits The fruit derived from an ovary along with other accessory floral parts is called false fruit (e.g. apple, cashew
nut, strawberry etc.). Thalamus also contributes in fruit formation.
Seeds
Seeds is a fertilized mature ovule that possesses an embryonic part.
(i) Non-endospermic seeds/non-albuminous seed Endosperm is absent in this seed and stores their food material in
cotyledons, e.g. gram pea.
(ii) Endospermic or albuminous seed They possess endosperm and store their food in it, e.g. castor, maize, rice.
Reproduction in Animals
Animals reproduce by both asexual and sexual means.
Asexual Reproduction
It is the primary means of reproduction among the Protista, cnidarians and tunicates. The process of asexual reproduction can
occur through following methods
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
Gemmules: These are the asexual reproductive structure present in several sponges. These are oval in shape.
Regeneration: It is the formation of whole body of an organism from the small fragment of its body, e.g. planaria, Hydra etc.
Fission: The parent body is divided into two or more parts, which become new individual e.g. planarians, protozoans etc.
Budding: Small projection or outgrowths in protozoans and sponges. Projection is called bud later bud develops into new
organisms e.g. yeast and coelenterates.
Fragmentation: The parent body breaks into two or more fragments. Each fragment becomes new organism e.g. sponges and
echinoderms.
Strobilisation: In this, ring-like constrictions are developed and organisms look like a pile of minute saucers e.g. Aurelia.
Spore Formation: The propagule which germinates to new individual e.g. zoospore conidia etc.
Sexual Reproduction
In animals, the sexual reproduction occurs by the fertilization of haploid sperm and haploid egg, generating a diploid offspring. In
most individuals (i.e. dioecious), the female produces eggs, (e.g. large non-motile cells contain food reserve) and the male produce
sperms (i.e. small, motile cell and have almost no food reserve).
In other individual, (i.e. monoecious) such as earthworm and many snail, single individual produce both sperm and egg. These
individuals are called as hermaphrodite.
The union of sperm and egg occurs in variety of ways, depending on the mobility and the breeding environment of individual.
Sexual reproduction is of two types
Sexual Reproduction
Syngamy Conjugation
(Permanent fusion of male and (Temporary fusion of male and female
female gamete) gamete parents of same species for
exchange of nuclear material e.g.,
bacteria and Paramecuim)
On the basis of number On the basis of structure
of parents involved of fusing gametes
Isogamy
Exogamy Endogamy
Fusion of Morphologically similar
It is fusion of gametes produced It is the fusion of gametes
gametes, e.g., monocystis
by two different parents, e.g., produced by the same parent,
dioecious individuals. e.g., monoecious individuals.
Anisogamy
Fusion of two dissimilar gametes,
e.g., frog, rabbit, etc.
Reproduction in Humans
Humans are viviparous, unisexual and have specialized cells that take part in sexual reproduction, called gametes (sperms in male
and ova in females). These gametes are produced by organs called gonads.
Sperms and egg cell fuse to produce a zygote (fertilized egg) that results into a new multicellular organism by further development
(mitotic division) in it.
Note:
Puberty is the time phase in males and females when they become sexually mature. The puberty age in girls begins at 10-11 yrs and
completes at age of 15-17 yrs whereas, in boys, it begins at the age of 11-12 yrs and complete at 16-17 yrs.
Signs of puberty in males are hair growth in pubic area and armpits, muscle growth, voice deepening, facial hair development and size
increment of penis. Whereas, the signs of puberty that appear in girls are breast development, hair growth in the pubic area and
armpits and onset of menstruation cycle.
When a person reaches a puberty, certain hormones in the body affect the sweat glands especially those in the armpits that cause
odour.
Male Reproductive System

It consists of the following parts
Types Organ Paired/Unpaired Description and Location Function
Glands Testes Paired Primary sex organs: posterior to the Produce spermatozoa (gametes)
penis within the scrotum and testosterone (male sex
hormone).
Seminal Paired Club-shaped glands posterior to the Secrete alkaline fluid containing
vesicle prostate, attached to the ejaculatory nutrients fructose and
ducts. prostaglandins.
Cowper's Paired Pea-sized glands inferior to the Secrete fluid that lubricates
gland prostate; empty into the membranous urethra and end of penis.
urethra.
Supporting Scrotum Unpaired Pouch of skin, posterior to the penis. Encloses and protects testes.
Structures Penis Unpaired Pendant organ anterior to the scrotum Carry urine and seminal fluid to
and attached to the pubis, external outside of body; organ of coitus.
genitalia.
Testicular artery
Provide nutrition to the testis.
Sartoli Cells
Provide nutrition to the sperm.
• Size of sperm – 5u
Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive system consists of the following organs
Ovary
• Primary sex organ of female
• Ovum/egg produced in ovary
• It produced in ovary by graafian follicle
• Egg is the largest cell of human body
• Ovary connects with uterus by a membrane which called mesovarium.
• Female sex hormone also produced in ovary
(a) Estrogen
• It also called feminizing hormone
• It changes voice of girls
• Increase size of Breast
• Beginning of Menstrual cycle
(b) Progesterone
• It helpful in pregnancy & developed embryo.
Fallopian tube/ oviduct
• It is a cylindrical tube which connect ovary to uterus.
• Fertilization conducted in fallopian tube
• Length – 12 cm, diameter – 1 cm
Uterus
• It connects with pelvic wall by ligament
• Back side of uterus – Rectum is located
• Front side of uterus – urinary bladders are located

• Uterus develop – embryo and it has 3 layers
1. Perimatrium – Outermost Layer
2. Endometrium – Inner Layer
3. Myometrium – Middle Layer
• Uterus is also called womb
• Cell division occurred in lower part of uterus which caused the possibility of cancer.
Types Organ Paired/Unpaired Description and Location Function

Glands Ovaries Paired Primary sex organs: upper pelvic Production of ova (gametes) and
cavity on both lateral sides of uterus female sex hormones estrogen
and progesterone.
Mammary Paired Composed of lobes within the breasts. Produce and secrete milk for
glands nourishment of an infant.
Fallopian Paired Open-ended tubes that extend from Convey ova toward uterus; site of
tube the ovaries to the uterus. fertilisation.
Ducts Vagina Unpaired Hollow-positioned between the Conveys uterine secretion to
urinary bladder and urethra anteriorly outside of body; receives erect
and the rectum posteriorly. penis and semen; passage way for
foetus
Menstrual Cycle
It is the sequence of changes that start in female body at the age of puberty (13 to 15 yrs) in the uterus and ovary for the purpose of
sexual reproduction.
The start of menstrual cycle is known as menarche and it continues up to the age of 45-50 years. After that it ceases (stops) and this
phase is known as menopause.
The cyclic activity proceeds after every 28/29 days from the previous cycle.
Ejaculation
• Secretion of semen from penis
• pH value = 7.4
• Fructose is present in it.
• In 3 ml semen – 300 million sperm are found.
• The amount of sperm is less than 20 million per ml than it caused to sterile.
• 40% highly active in about 300 million
• Life span of sperm – 72 hrs after entered in female's body.
• Within 72 hours, if sperm gets an egg, it fuses to form zygote else it will deactivate.
Some processes are:

Gametogenesis
It is the process of formation of male and female sex cells or gametes e.g. sperms and ova in the male and female gonads (testes and
ovaries) respectively.
It is divided into two main types
(i) Spermatogenesis the process of formation of a sperm is called spermatogenesis. It occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the
testes. A spermatogonium (sperm mother cell) produces four functional spermatozoa.
(ii) Oogenesis it is the process of formation of a mature female gamete (ovum). It occurs in the ovaries (female gonads).
Female reproduction system Male reproduction system
Fertilization
It is the fusion of male gamete (spermatozoan) and a female gamete (ovum) to form a diploid cell, the zygote. It is an internal
process that occurs in the ampulla region of the female’s fallopian tube.
Embryonic Development
During embryonic development, different organs are formed
Parturition
It is the act of expelling the fully formed young one form the mother uterus at the end of gestation period. This process is induced
by both neural and hormonal system. Hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands of the mother. Oxytocin promotes the
contraction of the uterine muscles. It is also called birth hormone, while relaxing increases the flexibility of the pubis ligaments and
helps in the dilation of uterine cervix during labor pains (pains of child birth).
Lactation
Production of milk in the mammary glands is called lactation. It starts towards the end of pregnancy and after the birth of the young
one.
The first milk produced after the birth of baby is called colostrum. It is rich in proteins, Calories and antibodies (IgA). Milk synthesis
is under the control of prolactin hormone while its release is controlled by oxytocin hormone released by pituitary gland.
Reproductive Health
Note: Reproductive health is defined as a state of physical, mental and social well-being in all aspects of reproduction at all stages of
life. India was amongst the first few countries to initiate the programs at the national level to attain total reproductive health as a
national goal. These programs are called Reproduction and Child Health Care (RCH) programs.
According to this, all men and women should be informed about safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family
planning for their choice. And also, the right to appropriate health-care services should be provided to pregnant ladies that enable
them to safely go through pregnancy and child birth.
Birth Control (Contraceptive) Methods

A wide range of contraceptive methods are available to control the overgrowing population. Some of them are
Barrier Methods
Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Approximate Failure Rate

Condom A thin, strong rubber sheath, prevents the Placed over erect penis just 10-20% with experienced
sperm to enter the vagina. before sexual intercourse. use.
Femidom Female condom a thin rubber or Inserted before intercourse
polyurethane tube with a closed end and and removed any time later –
an open end.
Diaphragm/Cap A flexible rubber dome which fits over Inserted before intercourse 3-15%
the cervix and prevents entry of sperm to Must be left in place at least 6
uterus. hours after the intercourse
Spermicide Chemical which kills sperms Placed in vagina to cover the 10-25%
lining of vagina and cervix.
Effective for about 1 hour.
Hormonal Methods
Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Approximate Failure Rate
Pills Contains the female sex One taken orally each day 1%
hormones estrogen and during first 3 weeks of cycle.
progesterone. Prevent After week 4, mensuration
development of eggs and starts and the pill is started
ovulation. again.
Mini pills Contains progesterone only Must be taken within 3 hours 2%
Ovulation may occur, but after inter-course everyday
cervical mucus is thickened,
preventing entry of sperms.
Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)
Natural Methods (NFP, Natural method of family planning)
Methods Basis of Action Approximate
Failure Rate
Abstinence Avoid sexual intercourse 0%
Rhythm method Avoid sexual intercourse around the time of ovulation (total
20%
abstinence for about 7-14 days)
Temperature method Note the rise in temperature at ovulation (due to rise in
Ut to 20%
progesterone) and avoid sexual intercourse at these times.
Coitus interruptus (withdrawal) Penis is withdrawn from vagina before ejaculation 20%
Lactational amenorrhea Sucking stimulus prevents the generation of normal
–
preovulatory LH surge hence, ovulation does not occur.
Surgical Methods (Sterilization)

Methods Basis of Action Approximate
Failure Rate
Vasectomy Vas deferens are severed and tied. Less than 1%
Tubectomy Both oviducts are severed and tied. (now laparoscopic method
Less than 1%
are used).
Termination (it is not a part of contraception)

Methods Basis of Action Note on Use
Morning-after pill Contains RU486, an antiprogesterone. Taken within 3 days of sexual intercourse.
Abortion (discussed later Upto 24 weeks Premature termination of pregnancy by surgical
in this chapter as MTP) intervention.
Amniocentesis
It is an illegal foetal sex determination test based on the chromosome pattern in the amniotic fluid surrounding the developing
embryo. If the sex determined comes to be of a girl, then female foeticide is prone to happen.
So, this practice should be banned and once caught should be fined heavily and imprisoned. In this way, the female foeticide can be
prevented as much as possible in order to maintain the sex-ratio and its balance in the society.
Disorders of Human Reproductive System

Disorders and Diseases in Male Reproductive System
Sterility It is the inability of sperm to fertilise an ovum.
Disorders in Female Reproductive System

Oophoritis It is inflammation of ovary, usually due to an infection.
Cervical cancer It is slow-growth cancer. On detection, it can be cured by radiation or surgery.
Breast cancer It generally occurs in women after 30 years of age. Its incidence increases after women attain
menopause.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

These are the diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse. They are also called Venereal Diseases (VD)
or Reproductive Tract Infections (RTI).
Various STDs are:
Syphilis
Trichomoniasis
Gonorrhea
Chlamydiosis
Genital Herpes
Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

It is a fluid transmitted disease with possibility of transmission through body fluids like blood, semen.
Its transmission modes include blood transfusion, use of same syringes and needles etc. It is caused by Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV), which damages the immune system, causes weights loss, nausea, headache, rashes, pharyngitis. It is not a type of STD
rather sexual intercourse is a method through which this disease can spread.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The adult human body is approximately 57% water. Maximum mass of the human body is oxygen, but most of the atoms in the
human body are of hydrogen.
On the basis of mass, 99% of human body is composed of six elements namely (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and
phosphorus, arranged in decreasing order of percentage), 0.85% of five elements (potassium, sulphur, sodium, chlorine and
magnesium) and the rest of the elements are trace elements (fluorine etc.). These are essential elements in living organisms that
play many necessary roles in sustaining life and good health maintenance.
The system that helps in complete process of digestion by mechanical and biochemical methods is called digestive system.
Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal in human beings is a long tube (about 8 to 10 meters is
length) which begins with an anterior opening i.e., mouth and ends posteriorly
through the anus.
The various parts alimentary canal are
1. Mouth
It is a transverse slit bounded by two soft, movable lips which are covered with
skin on the outer side and lined with mucous membrane on the inner side.
2. Vestibule
3. Buccal Cavity
It is bounded by lips and cheeks. It contains teeth, tongue and salivary glands. Mouth (buccal) passes through both the jaws. The
uppermost portion of the buccal (mouth) cavity is called palate. The upper and lower jaws of the buccal cavity consist of two
separate sequences of teeth.
Teeth
These are hard structures present in the mouth and both the jaws (i.e., upper and lower jaw). Each tooth is embedded in a socket of
jaw bone. A tooth consists of 3 major parts, namely crown (upper part), neck (middle part) and root (lower part).
Types of Teeth
On the basis of their attachment On the basis of their appearance
Acrodont Pleurodont Thecodont

Attached to the crest Attached to the median Attached to the bony
of bone, e.g., snake. side of the bone, e.g., socket, e.g., aligator.
Lizard.
Homodont Monophyodont Diphyodont Polyphyodont Haterodont

All the teeth are Appear once in Appear twice in Appear many Different types of
of same type, lifetime, e.g., 3rd molar lifetime, e.g., incisors, times in lifetime. teeth are present,
e.g., fishes. and all premolars of canines, first and e.g., in most lower e.g., humans.
humans. second molars of vertebrates.
humans.
In human beings, the number of teeth present is 32, 16 teeth present in each jaw. The half teeth of the jaw is towards left while the
rest half is towards right. Arrangement of these teeth include two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three molars on each side
(half).
The function of teeth is to perform physical digestion.
(a) Incisors are outer mostly forward, flatten and extremely sharp, which help in biting or cutting the food.
(b) Canines are sharply pointed which crack and split or tear the food.
(c) Premolars and molars, crush, grind and chew food smoothly.
Teeth Topic
Heterodont Teeth:
Total 8 Incisors (2)  Cutting Teeth comes first
Total 4 Canines (1)  Used for shearing of food
Total 8 Premolars (2)  Chewing of food
Total 8 + 4 Molar (3)  Grinding of food
wisdom teeth
Dental Formula
The number and kinds of teeth in mammals are represented by an equation, called dental formula. Since two halves of each jaw are
ICPmM
identical, the teeth of only one side are considered in the equation. Dental formula can be represented as below =
ICPmM
Where, I = Incisors, C = Canine, Pm = Premolars, M = Molars
2123
The total number of teeth = Number of teeth in dental formula × 2 = × 2 (Man).
2123
8 16
= ×2= = 32
8 16
Terms Related to Teeth
• Enamel The outermost, shining layer in the crown region is called enamel. It is the
hardest substance in the human body.
• Cement Layer The outermost layer in the neck and root region is called cement layer.
• Pulp Cavity A cavity in the centre of the tooth containing pulp (mass of cells, blood
vessels, lymph vessels and nerves) is called pulp cavity.
• Dentine The layer made up of hard ivory like substance, which surrounds the pulp cavity is called dentine.
Dental Pulp:
• This tissue is called the dental nurse.
• Blood vessels and the lymph vessels, as well as nerve fibers are located in the dental pulp. Supplying nutrients to the dentine.
• Blood Supply + Nerves
• Connects with brain.
Cavity Formation  Addition of food on surface

Solidification of food

Enters enamel & dentine/Decay

Carious Cavity

Pulp destroyed

No blood flow

Tooth becomes block & breaks.
4. Tongue
It is a highly muscular organ containing voluntary muscles attached to the floor of buccal cavity with the help of a connective tissue
(frenulum linguae).
There are taste buds present on the tongue to realize the nature of the food like sweet, bitter, salt and sour.
The tongue helps in tasting and swallowing of food. It also helps in the process of speech and masticating the food by mixing saliva
in it.
• The blue whale has the largest tongue of all animal, e.g., about 2.7 metric tons. Length of tongue is usually 10cm.
• Dogs and cats often use their tongue to clean their fur and body removing oil and parasites.
Note: Chillies and other spicy ingredients in food cause its hotness because of a substance called capsaicin. The human tongue has
many nerve endings called receptors that detect different tastes like sweet, bitter, sour and salty. One kind of receptors detects how
warm the food is. Capsaicin irritates this receptor, causing the tongue of feel hot. Birds like parrots do not have the capsaicin-
sensitive receptor on their tongues; that’s why they enjoy chillies so
much.
5. Pharynx
It is small (12 cm long) vertical canal beyond the soft palate of the oral
cavity. It acts as a common passage for both air and food, e.g., it
communicates with both esophagus and treachea. During swallowing
of food, trachea is covered by epiglottis (a cartilaginous flap or lid) to
prevent the entry of food into treachea (wind pipe).
6. Esophagus
It is a thin, long highly muscular and purely conducting (23 to 27 cm long) tube. It opens
in stomach. Its opening is called gullet and carries food to it. The secretion of fluid from
the mucous glands present in the wall of esophagus helps in the forward movement of
food. A muscular gastro-oesophageal sphincter regulates the opening of esophagus into
the stomach.
It transfers food from the pharynx to the stomach.
7. Stomach
It is the widest organ and the most dilated organ of the alimentary canal. The stomach is J-shaped organ which churns, breaks up
food and mix the pieces with gastric juice (include enzymes like rennin, pepsin and HCl).
The inner lining of stomach secretes various components like mucous, hydrochloric acid and
digestive juices. The mucous lining of stomach protects it from the acidic environment and
allow it to work firmly.
Stomach has three major parts as given below
(a) Cardiac stomach, the upper portion into which the esophagus opens.
(b) Fundic stomach, the middle portion.
(c) Pyrolic stomach, the lower portion which opens into the first part of small intestine, i.e.,
duodenum. The terminal pyrolus part of stomach (i.e., opening of stomach into duolenum is guarded by a pyrolic sphincter.
Note:
• Human stomach cannot digest cellulose containing food such as raw grasses, leaves because humans lack enzymes.
• The stomach of an adult can hold 1.5 L of material.
• The lining of human stomach is replaced every 36 hrs.
• The stomach can breakdown goat milk faster than cow milk.
Intestine
Small Intestine It is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It is about 6
metres along.
It is divisible into three main parts as
(i) Duodenum It is U-shaped, about 25 cm long and is the widest
part of the small intestine.
(ii) Jejunum It has a diameter of about 4 cm. It is the middle part of
the small intestine and is about 2.5 metres along.
(iii) Ileum It is the last part with diameter around 3.5 cm. Its wall is thinner than that of the jejunum. It is the longest part of
small intestine. Ileum opens into the colon of large intestine.
Functions Small intestine completes digestion of components like proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acid fats. Thus, acts as a major
site in digestion of food. It absorbs nutrients into the blood and lymph and also helps in absorption of fats.
Villi and Microvilli

The surface of small intestine incorporates important features that accounts for its huge absorptive surface area. These are
• Villi The inner mucosa layer of small intestine has villi (about 1 mm in height), covered with columnar epithelial cells.
• Microvilli Numerous microscopic projections of microvilli are produced by the cell lining of villi. These microvilli gives it a
brush border appearance and enormously increase the surface area of the intestine.
Large Intestine Although it is shorter, but its diameter is larger than that of the small
intestine thus, it is known as large intestine. It is about 1.5 metres long and is divisible into
three main part as
(i) Caecum It is a small pouch like structure of about 6 cm. It also has an outgrowth
known as vermiform appendix, which is slightly coiled tube of about 8 cm long.
(ii) Colon The caecum part leads into the colon. The colon has three main parts as
ascending, transverse and descending part.
(iii) Rectum The descending portion of colon leads into the rectum which is the last part
of the intestine. Rectum is of about 20 cm in length and opens into the anus.
Functions The absorption of water and nutrients and elimination of solid wastes takes place mainly in large intestine.
Digestive Glands
To bring about the simplification of complex food molecules chemically, secretion of digestive juices takes place by different glands.
These are
(i) Salivary of Mouth Watering Glands
These are exocrine glands which discharge their secretion into the oral cavity. In man, there are three pairs of salivary glands;
parotid, sublingual and submandibular glands.
The fluids secreted by the salivary glands constitute saliva, which is a slightly acidic fluid (pH 6.8). Saliva is mainly a mixture of
water, electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3 ) derived from blood plasma, mucous, serum fluids, and enzyme, i.e., salivary amylase or
ptyalin and lysozyme (antibacterial agent).
Note: Our salivary gland produces about 1.5 L saliva each day. It contain 99% of water and 1% Enzyme
(ii) Gastric Glands
Glands of stomach are called gastric glands. These are numerous microscopic, tubular glands formed by the epithelium of the
stomach.
Gastric glands have three major types of cells
(a) Chief cells or peptic cells
(b) Oxyntic cells secrete hydrochloric acid.
(c) Mucous cells or Goblet cells secrete alkaline null cells.
The secretions from these cells form gastric juice with pH 1.5-2.5 (very acidic). The gastric juice contains two proenzymes, i.e.,
pepsinogen (propepsin) and proprennin and the enzymes gastric lipase, gastric amylase, mucous and hydrochloric acid.
In human body, about 2000-3000 mL of gastric juice is secreted per day.
(iii) Liver
It is the largest gland of the body, that lies in the upper right side of the abdominal
cavity just below the diaphragm. It is heavier in males (i.e., about 1.4-1.8 kg) as
compared to females (about 1.2-1.5 kg).
Internally, the structural and functional units of liver are the hepatic lobules
(containing hepatic cells arranged in the form of cords). Each lobule is covered by
a thin connective tissue sheath called the Glisson’s capsule. Fat storage cells are
also present in liver.
Functions of Liver
Functions performed by liver are
Production of Bile The liver secretes bile juice (hepatic bile pH 8.6). The bile is stored in the gall bladder (gall bladder bile pH 7.6).
About 500-1000 mL of bile is secreted by liver in a day.
Glycogenesis It is the conversion of the excess of glucose into glycogen by liver cells with the help of insulin secreted by the
pancreas.
Deamination It is a process by which the amino group (-- NH2) is removed from the amino acids resulting in the production of
ammonia, which is converted into urea.
Excretion Waste products and bile pigments reach the duodenum through bile and pass out with faces.
Glycogenolysis It is the conversion of glycogen into glucose by the liver cells with the help of insulin secreted by the pancreas.
Hemopoiesis The process of formation of blood corpuscles is called hemopoiesis.
Secretion of Enzymes Liver also secretes certain enzymes which play an important role in the metabolism of fats, proteins and
carbohydrates in the body.
Synthesis of Vitamin Liver synthesizes vitamin-A from -carotene.
Storage Liver stores glycogen, fats, vitamins (C and D), bile, blood, water, iron, copper and potassium.
Gall Bladder
The small muscular sac-like organ situated just below the liver is called gall bladder.
The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic duct from a common bile
duct that regulates the flow of bile into the gall bladder from the liver.
Function It stores bile temporarily and also helps in making bile more concentrated
but does not produce bile.
It does not matter if we cut Liver, because it gets regenerated.
(iv) Pancreas
It is a soft, lobule, grayish-pink gland which weighs about 60 grams. It is
about 2-5 cm wide and 12-15 cm long, located posterior to the stomach in
the abdominal cavity. i.e., between stomach and duodenum.
As it is a mixed gland, the exocrine portion of pancreas secretes an alkaline
pancreatic juice (containing enzymes and hormones) while, the endocrine
part of the pancreas consists of group of cells known as Islets of
Langerhans, which secrete hormones to be passed into the circulating
blood, i.e., insulin and glycogen.
Pancreas  2nd Largest Gland


95% Exocrine tissue + Endocrine tissue 5%
 
Enzyme Hormone
 
Pancreatic Juice Islets of Langerhans
-cell -cell
 
Glucagone Insulin
hormone hormone
Insulin Hormone
• Pancreatic -cells release insulin when blood sugar level increases.
• Insulin moves glucose from the blood into muscles and other tissues for use as energy.
• Helps the liver absorb glucose, storing it/as glycogen.
• Banting discovered Insulin Hormone.
• Sanger discovered its molecular structure.
• It is a type of protein made of amino acids.
Pancreatic Juice:
• PH  7.6 – 8.3
• Basic
• 1 lt./day
• Enzyme: 1. Amylase  digestion of carbs Amino acids
2. Trypsin  Peptone
3. Lypase  fats  fatty acids Protein digestion
Pancreatic Juice is called complete digestive juice
(v) Intestinal Glands
Apart from the above mentioned glands involved in the process of digestion, intestinal glands are also present in the walls of small
intestine called intestinal glands which secretes intestinal juice commonly called as succus entericus.
Mechanism of Digestion of Food
Utilization of food in humans involves five processes namely ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
Ingestion is the process of taking food in solid or liquid form into the mouth. Digestion involves the conversion of complex food
components into the simpler one by the action of various enzymes. The process of digestion begins in the mouth and gets
completed in the small intestine.
Absorption helps to take up the digested food by the cellular components of the body. All the digested food is taken up by the walls
of intestinal villi present in the small intestine and lacteals (small lymph capillary found in villi in the small intestine). They
increases the surface area and helps in the absorption of digested food.
Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System
Mouth
Certain drugs coming in contact with the mucosa of mouth and lower side of the tongue are absorbed into the blood capillaries
lining them
Stomach
Absorption of water, simple sugars and alcohol, etc., take place.
Small Intestine
Principal organ for absorption of nutrients. The digestion is completed here and the final products of digestion such as glucose,
fructose, fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids are absorbed through the mucosa, into the blood stream and lymph.
Large Intestine
Absorption of water, some minerals and drugs takes place.
Assimilation is the process of distribution of digested food throughout the body and egestion refers to the elimination of
undigested food formed in the lumen of large intestine (colon and rectum) through anus. The unabsorbed food is sent into large
intestine where more villi absorb water from this materials.
Peristalsis gradually pushes the undigested food from small intestine to large intestine. The remaining material after reabsorption
of water and ions is removed from the body through the anus.
Peristalsis
It is the necessary event of the digestive process because it is essential to move the semi-digested food in a regulated manner along
the whole digestive tube. The lining of the alimentary canal has muscles which contract rhythmically all along the gut, it occurs in
esophagus when food moves into stomach, when from stomach food moves into small intestine, which in turn pushes food into
large intestine and then to colon and finally into the rectum and anus.
Note:
Eating heavy food at night before sleeping is not suggestable because by doing this, during sleep the digestive functions slow down
and blood is directed from brain to digestion of food, which leads to poor sleep quality and many other diseases.
Disorders of Digestive System

Some common disorders that lead to the malfunctioning of digestive system are as follows
Digestive Disorders, their Causes and Symptoms
Disorders Condition Causes Symptoms
Jaundice Due to increased accumulation of bile Due to malfunctioning of Skin and white portion of eye
pigments they begin to excrete through liver becomes yellow.
other parts of body.
Diarrhoea Condition of abnormal frequency of bowel Irritation in the lining of Cramps, headache, loss of
movement and increased liquidity of facies. stomach due to virus, or appetite, nausea and vomiting,
bacterial infection slightly watery stools etc.
Vomiting Forceful ejection of harmful contents of Infection, allergy, Sweating, nausea etc.
stomach through mouth. overeating, food poisoning
Constipation Condition of difficult or irregular defecation Disruption of regular diet Cramps, pain, vomiting
during which faces are retained within the inadequate water and fiber difficulty having bowel
bladder for a longer time than normal intake, eating more dairy movement, swelling etc.
products

E Book Bio English 02

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

E Book Bio English 02

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Income Tax Inspector •CAT •GMAT •UPSC •SSC •BANK

Types of Nutrition in Plants

Photoautotrophic Nutrition Chemoautotrophic Nutrition

Photochemical Phase (Light or Hill Reaction)

Biosynthetic Phase (Dark Reaction or Blackman’s Reaction)

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Temperature Oxygen Carbon Dioxide

Microorganisms Involved in Nitrogen-Fixation

Types of Nutrition in Animals

(i) Holozoic Nutrition

(ii) Parasitic Nutrition

(iii) Saprozoic Nutrition

(i) Carbohydrates (monosaccharide’s, disaccharides, polysaccharide)

(60 – 80%) energy of our body

• Function: instant energy

increase working capacity

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

• Starch  Rice, Potato

• Spinal structure  Pauling

• Highest amount of Protein  Mushroom, Soya bean.

Protein + Energy Protein

Carbohydrate deficiency  Fat will cover the deficiency

Saturated Fat Unsaturated Fat

Excess amount of fat – Fat (+)  Addition of food on surface

Body mass Weight

BMI < 18  Underweight

Dermatitis (Skin Infection)

dementia (Loss of Memory)

• Chocolates have high content of nickel in it.

Shrubs Medium height plants with perennial woody stems. These

Trailers Spread over the ground without rooting of prostrate stems.

Creepers With prostrate stems with root at intervals. e.g., grass.

Twiners Weak stemmed plants where stem twine around the

Climbers Rise up their support by means of special clinging or

Different Parts of the Plant

2. Tap Root System

Roots Modified for Mechanical Support

Different Forms of Stem

1. Under Ground Modification

Some key Processes:

Plant Growth and Development

Plant Growth Hormones

(iii) Promotes the yellowing and senescence of leaves.

Events in Sexual Reproduction

Middle elongated part of carpel; helps

Swollen bottom part of carpel; Male reproductive part of the

Reproductive Organs of a Typical Flower

The Female Reproductive Organ: The Carpel

The Male Reproductive Organ: The Stamen

Formation of Sex Cells

Angiosperms also reproduce both asexually and sexually

Tissue Culture In Vitro Micropropagation

Male Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

• Front side of uterus – urinary bladders are located

Types Organ Paired/Unpaired Description and Location Function

Some processes are:

Female reproduction system Male reproduction system

Birth Control (Contraceptive) Methods

Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Approximate Failure Rate

Surgical Methods (Sterilization)

Termination (it is not a part of contraception)

Disorders of Human Reproductive System