E Book Bio English 01

Chapter - 01 Classification
Chapter - 02 Plant Kingdom
Chapter - 03 Cell
Chapter - 04 Tissue
Chapter - 05 Nutrition
Chapter - 06 Plant Morphology
Chapter - 07 Reproduction - Plants and animals
Chapter - 08 Digestive System
Chapter - 09 Respiratory System
Chapter - 10 Circulatory System
Chapter - 11 Excretory System
Chapter - 12 Skeletal System
Chapter - 13 Nervous System
Chapter - 14 Endocrine System
Chapter - 15 Genetics
Chapter - 16 Hereditary and Evolution
Chapter - 17 Health and disease
Chapter - 18 Biotechnology
Chapter - 19 Sensory Organs
Chapter - 20 Environment and Its Effects

Income Tax Inspector •CAT •GMAT •UPSC •SSC •BANK
BIOLOGY
• Biology is the branch of science in which all livings things are studied.
• The word 'Biology' was given by Lamarck
• Father of Biology – Aristotle.
Biology
Basic Biology Applied Biology
Applied biology takes the

Zoology Botany Microbiology science of biology and
applies it to real life needs
All animals Plants All microbes
Medical Science
Father : Aristotle Theophrastus Leeuwenhoek
Agriculture
Book: Historia Book: Historia
Animilium Plantarum Ayurvedic
Taxonomy: Study of living's classification

 Carl Linnaeus was considered as father of taxonomy
 He wrote Systema Naturae book and Genera Plantarum on taxonomy.
 Linnaeus divided all livings into two kingdoms.
This phenomenon was called Binomial Nomenclature.
 Linnaeus suggested that every living thing has its scientific name.
First term – Genera
Second Term – Species
Eg: Pavo cristatus , homo sapiens
Genera species Genera Species
(peacock) Human
♦ Three Kingdom System was given by Haeckel in 1886

1. Protista
2. Animalia
3. Plantae
They classified only Eukaryotic organism.
♦ Five Kingdom Classification was given by RH Whittaker in 1969
1. Monera 2. Animalia 3. Fungi 4. Protista 5. Plantae
Whittaker classified livings on the basis of following points:
(A) On the Basis of Nucleus
(Director & Author) •CAT •GMAT •GRE •SSC •BANK
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Monera Protista
(Bacteria, cyno bacteria, Unicellular Eukaryotic – Potozaa
Blue-green Algae) (Amoeba, Euglena, paramecium)
Eukaryotic Multicellular
Autotropic Animal Plant Fungi

No Cell Wall Heterotropic Autotrophic Saprophytic
It takes its food by engulfing. (Consumer) (Producer) (Decomposer)
Animal kingdom can be divided into two part.
Vertebrate Non Vertebrate
 They are also called chordate  Non-chordate
 Heart located in upper part  Heart located in lower part
 Well-developed vertebrate found.  Undeveloped vertebrate found
 Eg: (Mammals, Aves, Pisces, Amphibian, Reptilia)  Eg: (Porifera, Coelentrata, Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes,
echinodermata, mollusca)
Non – vertebrate
Porifera
• Simple multicellular organism.
• Found in saline water
• It also called sponge animal because some pores are found on their body which are called ostia.
• They transport oxygen & water by these pores.
• These organisms are not capable of moving.
• e.g.: Spongilla, Bath sponge, Sycon
Coelenterata
• These organisms also found in saline water.
• Gastrovascular cavity found on body through which they conduct respiration and excretion
• These organisms secrete calcium carbonate
• e.g.: Jelly fish, Hydra, Coral
Platyhelminthes
• Body does not have any cavity i.e. body is flat
• 80% are of parasitic nature.
• Respiration is conducted by skin
• Excretion through flame cell.
• e.g.: Tapeworm, planaria, liver fluke
Aschelminthes
• Body in round shape so they are called round worm.
• Closed circulatory system found
• Respiration: by skin
• Eg: Round worm, eye worm, Wucharia
Annelida
• Body have segments
• Complete digestive system found.
• Excretory organ is Nephride
• e.g.: Earthworm, Leach, Neris
Arthropoda
• Largest Phylum
• Respiratory organ: Trachea
• Excretion: Malpighian tube
• Open circulatory system found.
• e.g.: Housefly, spiders, mosquitoes, crabs etc.
Cockroach
Honey bee Three pair legs, called insects.
Prawn
Mollusca
• Second largest phylum of Animal Kingdom.
• Respiration and Excretion conducted by gills.
• These are aquatic Animals & Body divided into 3 part.
(A) Head
(B) Muscular feet
(C) Hump
e.g.: Octopus, snail, cuttlefish
Echinodermata
• Spiny body
• Respiration and excretion conducted through gills.
• These are also aquatic animal
• Water vascular system found in these organisms.
• e.g.: Star fish, Brittle star.
Vertebrate
Pisces
• All fishes are classified in this phylum.
• Fish are divided into two part.
1. Bony Fish
Skeleton of these fishes is formed by bones.
♦ ♦ ♦
Air bladder is found in these fish.

e.g. Rohu, Magur, Betta, Catla, dog fish
2. Cartilaginous Fish
♦ Skeleton of these fish is formed by cartilage.
♦ Air Bladder are not found
• e.g.: shark, torpedo, gambusia
Note:
• Respiration in Pisces by gills
• Torpedo fish produce electric current.
• Gambusia is also called mosquito fish because it kills and eats mosquito
Reptilia
• Creeping animals
• Generally found on Land.
• Skin dried and lined
• e.g. Snake, Lizard, Crocodiles, Tortoise
Amphibian
• These organisms live on Land and water.
• In water, respiration is conducted by gills
• On land area, respiration is done by skin and lungs.
• Body not segmented
• Three chambered heart are found.
• e.g. Frog, toad, Salamander.
Mammlia
• Respiration through: lungs
• Excretion: Kidney
• Warm Blooded animal
• They produce their offspring & milk feeding
• e.g. All animals, Human, whale, Bat, Dolphin
Aves
• Warm Blooded
• They have hollow Bones, so skeleton is light in weight
• Their Jaws are converted into beak and
• Lower limbs are converted into tail
• Oil glands are found on the base on tails
• Eg: peacock, Eagle, Pigeon, Humming Bird (natural Helicopters), Ostrich (Largest Bird), Penguin (Flightress), (found in Antarctica
continent)
Fungi
• Multicellular as well as single cellular
Ex. – Penicillium, Aspergillus, Agaricus
• Decomposers – The best recyclers around.
• No chlorophyll – non photosynthetic
Lichens  algae + fungus  Dies due to SO2.
It tells the pollution level of a city.
• Venus fly Trap
PLANT KINGDOM
Plant Tissue
• Tissue formed by cells.
• Responsible for Growth & development.
Type
Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue Ground Tissue
Meristematic
• Divisible
• Growth conducted by this.
(A) Apical Tissue Increase length of stem & roots
(B) Lateral Tissue Increase girth of system, found in all woody plants.
(C) Intercalary tissue Increase branch of plants.
Permanent Tissue
• Division does not take place
• These tissues further divided into two part
(A) Simple tissue (B) complex tissue
(A) Simple Tissue
(i) Parenchyma
• These are called living tissue
• In these tissue, A thin layer of cell wall is present.
• It stores food in plant
(ii) Collenchyma
• These tissues are formed by cellulose
• These are long and cylindrical tissue.
• They provide support to the plant.
(iii) Sclerenchyma
• These are also called lignified tissue
• It provides mechanical flexibility, support to the plant at the time of storm.
(B) Complex Tissue These are vascular (transporting) tissue
(i) Xylem
• These transports water and mineral from roots to leaves.
(ii) Phloem
• It transports food from leaves to different part of plant.
Ground Tissue
• These tissues are found in roots.
• Mainly parenchyma cells found in this tissue.
•CAT •GMAT •UPSC •SSC •BANK
PLANT CLASSIFICATION
Plant
1. Thallophyta
• Body can't be divided into stem/roots/leaves
• Vascular tissue not found
Ex: Lichen/Fungi/Algae
• Mostly attached to a solid
2. Bryophyta
• Divided into stems and leaves
• Roots are not found
• Hair like structure Rhizoid (work as roots)
• Seeds are not produced
Sphagnum, Riccia, Anthoceros, Moss (Funaria)
3. Tracheophyta
• Well developed plant.
• Vascular tissue is found.
(A) Pteridophyte
• Fern plant (leaves like wings)
• Wood-soft
• Seeds are not produced
E.g. Cryptogams, Lycopodium
(B) Gymnosperm
• Naked seed plant
• E.g. spruce, Deodar, pine, silver pine
• Evergreen plants found in 1500 m height
• Seeds are not enclosed by ovary.
(C) Angiosperm
• These are flowering plant.
• Seeds are enclosed by ovary.
(i) Monocot
• Seeds are not divided
• Leaves are long
• Adventitious roots found in it
• E.g. (1) Grains – wheat, Rice, Maize. (2) Grass – Bamboo, sugarcane
(ii) Dicot
• Seeds are divided
• Leaves are broad
CYTOLOGY
The cell (Latin word means little room’) is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living organisms. Cell
may be compared to the bricks which are assembled to make a building. cells are also assembled to make the body of every
organism.
Discovery of the cell

Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the
cells in a cork slice with the help of a primitive microscope. Hooke
observed that the cells in the cork were actually dead cells.
Leeuwenhoek Firstly observed living cells in pond water in 1674 with
the help of improved microscope.
Shape and Size of cells

Cells can be of different shape and size.
Generally, cells are round, spherical or elongated in shape but some cells
are long and pointed at both ends (a spindle shape) whereas, some are
quite long. the shape and size of cells are related to the specific functions
that they perform. E.g. nerve cells have a typical shape.
• The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometer in bacteria.
• The largest cell measuring 170 mm × 130 mm, is the egg of an
ostrich.
Number of cells in Living Organisms

All organisms are composed of cells. Some cells, which can exist as an independent organism are called Unicellular organisms or
single celled organism, e.g. Amoeba, chalky dominos. Paramecium and bacteria, whereas multicellular organisms are those that
consist of more than one cell, e.g. fungi, plants and animals.
Every multicellular organism has come from a single cell. Cells also divide to produce cells of their own kind and their functions are
performed by different organs, e.g. blood cell, nerve cell, fat cell, sperm, bone cell. ovum. smooth muscle cell, etc.
Characteristics of Cells
The various properties exhibited by a cell are as follows
Cell's Characteristics
• Cells are capable of independent existence and they have the ability to replicate independently.
• They contain hereditary information which passes from one generation to another.
• Number of cells present, depends on the size of an organ or body organisation.
• Each living cell has the capacity to perform certain basic functions depending upon its location.
• They are lesser in number in small organisms and large animals like beer, whale, etc. have greater number of cells.
Cell Theory
Cell theory was put forward by Matthias Schleiden (German botanist) in 1838 and Theodore Schwann (British zoologist)
According to this theory. all living things are composed of minute units, called cells which are smallest entities that can be called
living. It also describes the properties of cells and also states that it is the basic unit of reproduction. The study of cells is called cell
biology
Rudolf Virchow in 1855 first explained that the pre-existing cells divide and new cells are formed from them. He modified the
hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape.
Viruses do not follow cell theory
Cell Structure
With the discovery of an electron microscope in 1940, it is possible to observe and
understand the complex structure of the cell.
Structurally, the cell constitutes the following three basic components
(i) Cell membrane or plasma membrane
(ii) Nucleus
(iii) Cytoplasm
All these components interact with its environment to perform various functions.
In Animal
• smallest cell- mycoplasma
• largest cell- egg of ostrich
Cell wall
The cell wall is a rigid (non-living) but flexible covering of the cell which is located outside the cell membrane and provides shape
and structural support to the cells. It also protects the cells from the outside attack and infection.
Cell walls are particularly found in plants, fungi, bacteria, algae and some archaea. Animals and protozoans do not have cell walls.
Cell walls are made up of various materials depending on the species like
• Bacterial cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.
• Fungi's cell wall is made up of the glucosamine polymer chitin.
• Algae's cell wall is made up of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.
• Plant's cell wall is mainly made up of cellulose, which provides structural strength.
Functions of Cell Wall
(i) Cell wall permits the cell of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand without bursting by acting as a pressure vessel.
(ii) It also helps cell to tolerate much greater changes in the surrounding medium as compared to animal cells.
Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane

This is the outermost covering of cell. separating the contents of the cell from its external environment, plasma membrane is made
up of lipids (major content is phospholipid) and proteins. Structurally, it is a thin, flexible and semi-permeable or selectively
permeable membrane. The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane. Animal cells, plants cells, prokaryotic
cells and fungal cells, all have cell membranes as their outer covering except viruses which are devoid of cell membrane.
Functions of cell Membrane

(i) Its major function is to maintain shape of the cell by providing support to it.
(ii) The flexible nature of the cell membrane allows the cell to engulf food and other substances from the surrounding
environment and this process of intakes is known as endocytosis, e.g. in Amoeba.
(iii) It performs various other function in a cell such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signaling.
Nucleus
Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.
It is generally spherical or elliptical in shape and is located in the center of the cell. it acts as a major controlling center of the cell
and also called as brain of the cell.
Various components of nucleus are as follows

(i) Nuclear Membrane
Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane, called nuclear membrane.
It is a double-layered structure made up of protein and fat which encloses the contents of the nucleus. Fluid-filled space or
perinuclear space is present between the two layers of a nuclear membrane. the nuclear membrane contains microspores, allowing
the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to outside (to the cytoplasm). the outer layer of the nuclear membrane is connected
through the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell.
• All organism other than bacteria and blue green algae, are called eukaryotes.
(ii) Nucleoplasm
As compared to the protoplasm inside the cell, nucleoplasm is the protoplasm present inside the nucleus of the cell. It is little acidic
and also known as karyoplasm or nuclear sap. It is composed of nucleolus and chromatin. It is made up of abundant protein.
phosphorus and nucleic acid.
(iii) Nucleolus
The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm.
It is not a membrane bound structure.
There are generally one or more spherical nucleoli inside the nucleus of the cell. but some eukaryotic organisms have nucleus that
contains up to four or more nucleoli.
The main function of nucleolus is to synthesis RNA and to store genetic information in its DNA.
Nuclear Matrix
It is a network of fine fibrils of acid proteins that function as scaffold for chromatin. the chromatin is a hereditary DNA protein
fibrillar complex which is named because of its ability to get stained with certain dyes. It is basically composed of histones (a type
of protein in DNA and RNA) DNA in chromatin is mainly responsible for genetic characters in an organism.
(iv) Chromosomes
During the cell division, chromatin shrinks (compressed) and gets divides into various smaller, thick and consolidated from, known
as chromosomes. these are thread like, rod- shaped structures and are made up of a combination of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
and protein, found in the nuclei of cells.
They carry genes that act as a unit of inheritance in living organisms.
Genes control the transfer of characters from the parents to next generation, Thus, chromosomes are also called hereditary
vehicles in an organism.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a fluid-like substance of viscous nature filled in the cell.
In eukaryotic cell, it can also be defined as the part of the cell present between the cell membrane and the nuclear envelope.
Protoplasm’ it a term given by Purkinje in 1839, which is the living content of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. it is
basically composed of a mixture of small molecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and polysaccharides.
In eukaryotes, the protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the cytoplasm and that inside the nucleus as the
nucleoplasm. While, in prokaryotes the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacteria cytoplasm.
(i) Cytosol
Cytosol is the cytoplasmic matrix (liquid) found inside the cells.
(ii) Cell Organelles
Each cell has certain specific components within it, known as cell organelles.
Cell organelles perform special functions.
These organelles are
(a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) It was discovered by Albert Claude and Keith porter in 1945. ER is basically structured as a
network of tubules or flattened sac, called vesicles or oblong bags. These are all interconnected by a single continuous membrane.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Rough Endoplasmic Smooth Endoplasmic

Reticulum (RER) Reticulum (SER)
Synthesises and secretes serum proteins (e.g., albumin), Synthesises lipids and steroids, metabolises carbohydrates
hormones (e.g., insulin) and other substances (e.g., milk) and helps in regulating calcium concentration, drug
in the glands because it possesses ribosomes at the detoxification and attachment of receptors on the cell
cytoplasmic side of the membrane. membrane.
• The SER helps in the manufacturing of fat molecules or lipids that are essential for the functioning of the cell. some of these
proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane This process is known as membrane biogenesis.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Transport of materials between various parts of the cell.
• It has some digestive enzymes in the membrane bound sacs that break down foreign material entering the cell.
• They break down worn-out cellular components.
Microbodies: These are small cell organelles bounded by a single membrane that absorb oxygen and also take part in oxidation other
than those involved in respiration.
(b) Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body) it was first discovered by Camillo Golgi
It is basically composed of flat sacs known as cisternae.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
• The main function of Golgi apparatus is to carry out the processing of proteins generated in ER.
• It helps in the transportation of lipids around the cells.
• In Golgi bodies, some complex sugars are formed from the simple sugars.
• It also helps in the formation of cell wall (in plant cell) and lysosomes.
(c) Lysosomes These were discovered by De Duve and are also known as suicidal bags (digestive bags) or atom bomb of the
cell. due the presence of powerful hydrolytic enzymes which are able to digest every organic substance in the cell.
Lysosomes occur practically in all animal cells and protozoans
Functions of Lysosomes
• It helps in dispensing useless cells and replace them with new cell, i.e. breakdown of ageing and dead cell.
• It helps in body defense system.
(d) Mitochondria It is discovered by Richard Altman and was named as Bio blast by Benda. It acts as the cell’s power
producer and also called as power house or power plant of the cell.
Functions of mitochondria
• Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes therefore they can make some of their proteins.
• It has the ability to convert energy into such forms that are usable by the cell. i.e. in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate).
• It acts as the major site of cellular respiration, which ultimately generates fuel for the cell’s activities.
• Mitochondria is also involved in other cell processes such cell division and growth, as well as in cell death (apoptosis).
• However, mitochondria are not full autonomous as both structure and functions are partially controlled by nucleus of the
cell.
• It provides energy for energy requiring processes of the cell like muscle contraction, nerve impulse, conduction etc.
• It may store and release calcium when required.
(e) Plastids The term plastids were introduced by E. Hackle

It is a major organelle found in the cells of plants and algae.
It has numerous membrane layers embedded in a part called stroma.
Income Tax Inspector
Types of Plastids
Leucoplast Chloroplast Chromoplast
Colourless, occurs near the nucleus, in Greenish plastids due to the presence of Yellow or reddish in colour due to the
non-green cells like roots, underground chlorophyll and carotenoids, takes part in presence of carotenoid pigments, found
stems, etc. They may be amyloplast photosynthesis. Chloroplasts of algae in coloured parts like flowers, fruits, etc.
(store starch), Elaioplasts (store fat) or other than green ones are called various forms are found in tomato
proteinoplast (store proteins). chromatophores. (lycopene), carrot (carotene), beet root
(betanin), etc.
(f) Ribosomes These are basically composed of ribonucleic and (RNA) and proteins, Ribosomes are not surrounded by any
membrane. It is the smallest cell organelle and was earlier known as microsomes before the contribution of palade, who later called
it ribosomes.
Function of Ribosomes Its major function is to synthesise proteins in the cell, due to which it is also known as factory of protein
in the cell.
(g) Centrosomes It is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures, called centrioles. Both centrioles lie
perpendicular to each other forming an organisation like that of cartwheel. Centrosome is mainly found in animal cells and was
first discovered by T Boueri.
Function of centrosomes it is helpful in cell division and formation of spindle fiber.
(h) Vacuoles are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution in certain cases,
they may also contain solids, which have been engulfed e.g. in Amoeba.
• The organelle has no basic shape and size; its structure varies according to the needs of the cell. it is generally large in plants
(confined within the nucleus) to provide turgidity and rigidity to its cell but are less in number and smaller in size in
animals.
• In some unicellular organisms specialized vacuoles are present for releasing excess water and some waste from the cell.
• Sap vacuoles They are fluid filled vacuoles which are separated from the cytoplasm by a semi-permeable membrane called
Tonoplast
• Gas vacuoles They store gases and provide buoyancy, mechanical strength and protection from harmful radiation.
Functions of Vacuoles
• The main function of vacuole is to collect the food stuff in which sugar. O 2. CO2, mineral salts, organic acids and residual
substances are dissolved.
• It helps to maintain turgidity of the cells.
• It is also helpful in maintaining original shape of the cell and in the transportation of various cellular substances in the cell.
(iii) Inclusions
These are basically considered as the non-living components present in the cell that do not possess metabolic activities and are not
bounded by membranes as well. the most common inclusions are glycogen lipid droplets crystals and pigments.
DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid
• DNA are responsible for heredity from parents to offspring
• DNA found in nucleus and also found in mitochondria.
• Discovered by/ Identified by Friedrich Miescher in 1869.
• DNA molecule consist of four nitrogen bases.
A – Adenine
T – Thymine
C – Cytosine
G – Guanine
• DNA's are coiled up forming chromosomes and each chromosome has one pair of DNA molecule.
• Chromosome are responsible for cell division
• Chromosome have 23 pairs.
Abnormality of Chromosome
• If Chromosome (1) increase in any pair than that pair will have 3 chromosomes, which is called trisomy.
• If chromosome (1) decrease in any pair than that pair will have 1 chromosome, which is called monosomy.
Down's Syndrome
• In this syndrome, trisomy occurred in 21st pair.
Effect:
1. Head Round in child
2. Height 
3. No Brain development
So, he dies at the age of 16-17 years.
Turner's Syndrome
• In this Syndrome, monosomy occurs in female (one sex chromosome decrease in female).
• Effect:
1. Sex organ will not develop
2. breast will not develop
3. Ovary will not develop – cause sterility
Klinefelter's Syndrome
• In this syndrome one sex chromosome increase in male
• Effect:
1. Breast development in male
2. Sperm is not formed in male. – cause Gynecomastia
Patau's Syndrome
• In this syndrome, if trisomy occurred in 13th pair.
Cause/Effect:
1. Small head
2. 6 fingers
3. Heart & Kidney problem
Edward Syndrome
• In this syndrome, trisomy occurred in 18th chromosome.
• Effect: Kidney problem
RNA
• Ribonucleic acid
• It helps in synthesis of protein in our body.
• It also responsible for Production of new cells in human.
Primary function of RNA:

• Carrier of genetics.
• Serve as messenger to choose the right amino acid, producing new protein.
Type:
RNA is divided into 3 types:
1. tRNA: transfer RNA
• It is located at the end point amino acid.
• It connects messenger RNA (mRNA) to Amino acid.
2. rRNA:
• rRNA is the component of ribosome
• It is located within the cytoplasm
3. mRNA:
• It carries genetic information in livings.
Types of cells
On the basic of structure, cells of two basic types
(i) Prokaryotic cell

The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed as
prokaryotic cells. These are generally smaller and not very complex structure.
These are essentially infoldings of cell membrane. In prokaryotes, the nuclear
region (containing only nucleic acids), called nucleoid of the cell may be poorly
defined due to the absence of a proper nuclear membrane.
Prokaryotic cells also lack most of the other cytoplasmic organelles present in
eukaryotic cells. e.g. prokaryotic cells are present in bacteria like E.coli,
Clostridium bluegreen algae, etc.
(ii) Eukaryotic cell

The cells, like onion cells and cheek cells, having organised nucleus with a nuclear
membrane, are termed as eukaryotic cells.
These cells are more complex than the prokaryotic cells. the nucleus in eukaryotes
is separated from the cytoplasm by double –layered membrane and it directs the
life processes of the cell. e.g. eukaryotic cell is present in protista. fungi, plant and
animals.
Difference Between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Components Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Cell Size Generally smaller in size (1-10 m) Generally larger in size (5-100 m)
Nuclear region It is not well defined It is well defined and surrounded by a nuclear
membrane
Genetic material DNA is circular and lies free in cytoplasm (no true DNA is linear and contained in a nucleus.
nucleus).
Cytoplasm Lack organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, Contains organelles like endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, centrosome, etc. mitochondria, Golgi aparatus, lysosmes,
centrosomes, etc.
Vacuoles Sap vacuoles are lacking. Gas vacuoles may be Sap vacuoles are commonly present.
present
Cell cycle Cell cycle is short, of nearly about 20-60 minutes. Cell cycle is long of about 12-24 hours.
Nucleolus There is no nucleolus. One or more nucleoli occur within the nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells are further categorised into animal cells and plant cells.
Difference between Eukaryotic Animal Cell and Plant Cell

Characteristics Animal Cell Plant Cell
Membrane organisation It has thin, flexible and living plasma It has thick, rigid, dead cell wall in addition to
membrane only. plasma membrane.
Nucleus It has nucleus generally in or near the center of Its nucleus is pushed to one of the sides in the
the cell. peripheral cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic reticulum Rough ER is abundant in animal cells. Rough ER is sparse in plant cells.
Chromosomes They are small in size. They are larger in size.
Glyoxysomes They lack glyoxysomes. They have glyoxysomes.
Carbohydrates They store carbohydrates as glycogen. They store carbohydrates as starch.
Lysosomes They have lysosomes. They generally do not have lysosomes.
Cell wall Cell wall is absent. Cell wall is present.
Vacuoles Cytoplasm contains small vacuoles. The peripheral, central space is occupied by a
large vacuole.
Plastid Plastids are absent. Plastids are present.
Golgi bodies Prominent and highly complex Golgi bodies are Sub-units of Golgi apparatus called dictyosomes
present. are present.
Centriole Animal cell possess centrioles. Plant cells lack centrosome and centrioles.
Cell cycle
Idea was suggested by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. in a particular statement "Omnis cellula e cellula", means 'every cell produces
from a cell'. This states that the continuity of life depends on cell reproduction or cell division.
Cell cycle
Cell cycle was introduced by Howard and Pele in 1953. it is defined as the series of events by which a cell duplicates its genome
and synthesises other cell components and then divides into two daughter cells.
Phases of cell cycle
1. Interphase (undividing phase)
2. M Phase or Mitosis phase (dividing phase)
1. Interphase (Undividing phase)

It represents the phase between two successive M phases. It constitutes or lasts for more
than 95% of the whole duration of cell cycle. Though it is called the resting phase, but it is
the time during which the newly formed cells prepare themselves for division i.e., to
undergo both growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
2. M Phase (Dividing Phase)
It is the phase of cell division in which already duplicated chromosomes get distributed
into two daughter nuclei. it starts with the nuclear division (karyokinesis) and terminates
after cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis is the separation of daughter chromosomes and nucleus division and cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm.
During this phase. all components of the cell reorganise for cell division. since, the number of chromosomes remain same in both
parent and progeny cells, it is also known as equational division.
Cell Division
• Concept of cell division was firstly propounded by a scientist Nageli and was observed by Fleming
• Its complete extensive and exclusive study was done by Belar in 1920. this is also called cell production.
Modes of cell Division

cell division usually occurs in following three ways
1. Amitosis 2. Mitosis 3. Meiosis
1. Amitosis / Direct cell division

A cell division by simple cleavage of the nucleus and division of the cytoplasm without spindle formation or appearance of chromosomes. It is also
called direct cell division. It is very rare and is not considered an exact mode of cell division. It occurs only in some specialised cells
like mammalian cartilage, embryonic membrane of some vertebrates, old tissues, diseased tissues.
2. Mitosis/ Somatic division.

It was first explained by Eduard Strasburger. it usually takes place in somatic cells of animals Thus; it is known as Somatic
division.
Mitosis occurs in gonads for the multiplication of undifferentiated germ cells. it is a continuous process that gives rise to two
identical cells but the number of chromosomes in them remains the same. It occurs in various phases such as prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase and then cytokinesis.
Different phases of Mitosis

Prophase • First and the longest phase of cell division. It continues for about 50
minutes.
• Involves the condensation of chromosomal material.
• Nucleoli and nuclear envelope disappear.
• Duplicated chromosomes have two identical sister chromatids
which are held together by a disk-like structure (kinetochore) at
centromere.
• Spindles push controlee pars to the opposite ends (poles). in plants,
development of spindle fibers occurs without the involvement of
centrioles.
Metaphase • Short and simple phase that lasts for only 2-10 minutes. metaphase
is the most suitable time to determine the number of chromosome
and to study their morphology.
• Chromosome move towards the equatorial plane of the spindle.
• Spindle fibers extends towards the chromosome and attaches to the
kinetochore.
• At equator of the spindle, the chromosomes get arranged in the
forms of a plate called metaphase place and the chromosome reaches
to the equator.
Anaphase • It continues for about 2-3 minutes only.

• As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the
centromeres of each chromosome splits and the sister chromatids
separates to move towards the opposite poles.
• The spindle fibers elongate and cell becomes longer and anaphase
ends when all the chromatids reaches the opposite poles.
• The chromosomes that have reached their respective poles start to

decondense and lose their individuality.
• Reconstruction of nuclear envelope occur in each group of
Telophase chromosomes.
• The chromosomes gradually uncoil and become long and slender
and are at opposite poles.
• Spindle fibers get disappear.
• Viscosity of cytoplasm decreases, which would generally increase in
prophase.
• Cell organelles like nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER are reformed
again.
At the end of mitosis, division of cytoplasm and equal distribution of cell organelles in two daughter cells occurs by the process of
cytokinesis. During this process, the original larger cell divides into two smaller identical cells, which individually takes food, grow,
divide and the process continues.
Mitosis help in the growth and development of multicellular organisms; in the healing and repair of wounds; in maintaining the
chromosome number and nucleocytoplasmic ratio.
3. Meiosis
The term meiosis was given by JB Farmer and Moore. Meiosis is a

division process in which gametes (sex cells) are produced.
• It basically produces gametes in animals, some lower plants,
various protists and fungi.
• Meiosis in asexually reproducing organisms forms asexual
reproductive bodies like spores.
• As meiosis results in the reduction of number of chromosomes in
the daughter cells by half, so it is also known as reduction
division.
• It consists of two stages of division that occur successively in an
organism with one-time chromosome replication.
(i) First Meiotic Division (Meiosis I)
(ii) Second Meiotic Division (Meiosis II)
(i) Meiosis I In this phase of division parental chromosomes replicate

to produce identical sister chromatids and the number of chromosomes
reduces from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) and hence, this type of division is
called heterotypic division. Like mitosis, it also involves the four phases of
division.
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
(ii) Meiosis II There is no reduction in the number of chromosomes and the haploid nuclei divide mitotically in order to
produce four haploid daughter nuclei.
• After meiosis II, four daughter cells are formed from the original single parent cell and each one is haploid (n) in nature.
• The phases involved in meiosis II are prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II.
Significance of Meiosis As variations are important to the process of evolution, meiosis acts as a source of new genetic variation.
Tissue
The term tissue was coined by N Grew. It is defined as a group of similar cells that constitute
together to perform a particular function. e.g. blood, phloem, muscle
Tissues are broadly categorised into plant tissues and animal tissues Branch of biology which
deals with the study of tissues is known as histology.
Plant Tissue
Most of the tissues present in plants are dead and provide more mechanical strength to them than
the living cells because the dead cells of plant do not need so much of maintenance.
On the basis of the functions they perform, plant tissue can be categorised as
Plant Tissue
Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue
Apical Lateral Intercalary Simple tissue Complex tissue

meristem meristem Meristem (made up of one type of cells) (made up of many kinds of cells)
m
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Xylem Phloem
Meristematic Tissue
It includes group of cells which actively divide throughout their life.
These tissues are generally found in growing parts of the plants like
receptacle axis of stem to which the floral organs are attached, sepal and
stigma of the flower, apex of the root, cambium , etc. cells produced by
meristem are similar in start growing and becomes mature, the
characteristics of the newly formed cells change slowly.
Characteristics of Meristematic Tissue

• These are living cells which bring an increase in the length and girth (thickness) of the plant.
• Meristematic tissues have thin cell wall made up to cellulose. They also lack vacuoles.
• Cells of meristematic tissues contain clear and dense protoplasm and large nuclei.
• Plastids can also be seen in the form of protoplastids.
Types of Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic tissues are of three types, depending upon the position in the plant body
(i) Apical Meristems These are found at the apices (growing tips) or main and lateral shoots and roots. It is responsible for
linear growth of an organ like the height or length of the plants, which is called primary growth.
(ii) Intercalary Meristems These are found at the base of the leaves or internodes on twigs (on either side of the node). These
meristems help in longitudinal growth of the plant by adding primary tissue. e.g., in stems of various grasses and wheat or at
the base of the leaf (as in Pinus) and the nodes (as in mint).
(iii) Lateral Meristems (Cambium) These are also found on the lateral side of the stem and roots. These are responsible for the
growth in thickness, i.e., to increase stem or root in diameter called secondary growth.
• The number of annual rings formed by the secondary growth is used for counting the age of the trees.
• The activities of cambium changes with climatic changes i.e., in spring season, its activity increase while activity in winter
season. Thus, acts as an indicate parameter of the one-year growth.
Permanent Tissue of Mature Tissue

These are made up of mature cells which have lost their ability of cell division and are already adopted or accommodated to
perform some specific work. these tissues originate from meristematic tissues, when they lose the ability to divide. This process of
taking up permanent shape, size and function is known as differentiation. The permanent tissue may be dead or living. having
thick or thin cellular walls.
1. Simple permanent Tissue

These are composed of similar type of cells, which have common origin and function.
These are further classified under three categories.
(i) Parenchyma these are the simplest and unspecialised type of permanent tissue, whose cells are usually isodiametric
(equally expanded on all sides) with intercellular spaces among them, which allows the exchange of gases.
The cell wall is made up of cellulose or calcium pectate. Each cell possesses a nucleus and vacuole. it is found in epidermis, cortex
pith, pericycle, mesophyll of leaves, pulp of fruits, endoderm of seeds and in meristematic tissues.
It parenchymatous cells have chloroplast in some situations, then the phenomenon of photosynthesis takes place in them, and
hence parenchyma is also called Chlorenchyma (Chloro tissue)
These tissue cells store the food stuffs in the protoplasm of the cells.
(ii) Collenchyma It consists of living cells, there is no intercellular space as these are elongated in shape due to irregular
thickening of cellulose and pectin in the cellular walls. It is basically a mechanical tissue which provides mechanical support and
elasticity to the plants. Thus, its existence always provides rigid support to the plants. It is found in outer region of cortex. e.g.,
angles of stems, midrib of leaves.
(iii) Sclerenchyma It consists of dead cells and is devoid of protoplasm’s cells of rigid tissue. Cell walls of such cells are greatly
thickened due to lignin or cellulose (or both). It gives mechanical strength, support and rigidity to the plant body. sclerenchyma
tissues are the components of hard coating of several sees, and nuts e.g. husk of coconut.
2. Complex permanent Tissue

These are another type of permanent tissue. composed of more than type of cells having common origin.
Complex tissues are also of two main types.
(i) Xylem it is the chief conducting tissue of vascular plants responsible for the conduction of water and inorganic solutes
(minerals) from roots to apical parts of the plant. Its main function is to provide mechanical strength and rigidity to the plant.
The components of xylem include tracheid, vessels xylem parenchyma and xylem fibers. It exists in the vascular pores of the roots.
stems and leaves of the plants.
Xylem consists of dead hollow cells (such as wood) in the form of fibers and sclereids. out of all different types of cells of xylem,
vessels are the most important cells.
(ii) Phloem it is also the chief conducting tissue of vascular plants responsible for the conduction of organic solutes (food). This
conduction may be bi-directional, i.e. from leaves to storage organs or may be from storage organs to growing parts of plants.
The components of phloem include sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibers. Out of all the phloem
components, phloem fibers are the dead cells. The cells of sieve tubes (having numerous pores like holes in the wall) are
responsible for the transformation and distribution of food to various organs. Phloem is also known as base because the phloem
fibers of some plants are used for binding purposes, e.g. flax and hemp.
Note:
• Vascular Tissues Both xylem tissue and phloem tissue together constitute the vascular bundles.
• Laticiferous tissues are the special types of tissues which contain a colourless, milky fluid called latex.
• Secretory tissues are mainly found in vascular plants. These are meant to secrete substance like rubber, resins oil, gums etc.
e.g. hydathodes, trichomes and glands, secretory cavities and canals, etc.
Animal Tissues
All complex animals consist of four base types of tissues i.e., epithelial, muscular, connective and neural (nervous tissue).
Type of Animal Tissues and their Functions
Name Main Function
Epithelial tissue Protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, reproduction.
Connective tissue Attachment, support protection, storage, transport.
Muscular tissue Movement of parts and locomotion.
Nervous tissue Control and coordination by nerve impulse conductive.
All complex animals consist of four basic types of tissues i.e., epithelial, muscular, connective and neural (nervous tissue).
Epithelial Tissue or Epithelia

It is composed of one or more layers of closely packed cells covering the external surface and internal lining of the body organs. The
epithelium lines all the organs of the body cavity as well as ducts. It also forms a barrier to keep the different body systems
separate. e.g. skin, lining of mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli, kidney tubules, etc.
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

(i) Do not have inter cellular spaces between them, i.e. have very small amount of cementing material between them.
(ii) These tissues help to protect organisms from invading microorganisms, injury to internal organs and fluid loss.
(iii) The outer layer of epithelium is exposed to the external environment, while inside layer acts as a basement membrane.
(iv) The moist nature of the linings of some hollow organs or cavities is due to the mucous secreted by the epithelial tissue.
(v) Epithelial cells have no blood vessels.
(vi) Epithelium tissues use diffusion as a process for exchange of materials between the epithelial cells and vessels of connective
tissue.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
(i) Helps in the absorption of water and nutrients.
(ii) Provides protection to the underlying cells from injury, drying, infection and also from the harmful effects of chemicals.
(iii) Helps in the elimination of waste products from the body.
Types of Epithelial Tissues

On the basis of cell layers and shape of cell, epithelial tissues are classified as.
Epithelial tissues
Simple Permanent tissue
Grondular Simple Simple Simple Simple Pseudostratified Stratified Transitional

squamous cuboidal columnar ciliated
Stratified Stratified Stratified Stratified

squamous cuboidal columnar ciliated
columnar
Keratinised Non-Keratinised
1. Simple Epithelial Tissue

It is formed from a single layer of cells, resting on the basement membrane.
(i) Squamous Epithelium It is composed of a single layer of flat, thin and disc-like cells.
Location Present in the skin, lining of the mouth, esophagus, terminal bronchioles, alveoli of the lungs, membranous labyrinth
(internal ear), coelomic cavities and rete testis.
Functions Provide protection helps in the exchange of gases between the cells.
In the blood vessels and heart, epithelial is called endothelium.
(ii) Cuboidal Epithelium It consists of tall, polygonal (in outline) wide and cube-shaped cells around the nucleus located in the
centre of the cells.
Location present in the small salivary glands, pancreatic ducts, thyroid vesicles, distal convoluted tubules of the nephrons of
kidneys, ovaries, seminiferous tubules, testes and iris of eyes.
Inner surface of the lens and the pigment cell layer of the retina of the eye.
Function These cells help in the protection, secretion, absorption, excretion and also in gamete formation.
(iii) Columnar Epithelium It possess elongated cells which are placed side by side like a tall column.
Location it lines the inner surface of the stomach, intestine, gall bladder and bile duct. it also forms the gastric glands. intestinal
glands and pancreatic lobules (Present in the pancreas) where it helps in the secretion and absorption of various digestive juices.
Functions Protection, secretion and absorption.
(iv) Glandular Epithelium the columnar cells which get specialised for the purpose of secretion are referred to as glandular
epithelium.
These tissues are generally found in various glands of the animals. These can be columnar or cuboidal cells.
These are mainly of two types
(a) Unicellular Glands They have isolated glandular cells, generally found in intestine and mucous membrane. e.g. globlet cells of
alimentary canal.
(b) Multicellular Glands They have cluster of glandular cells and are found deep inside e.g. salivary gland.
Multicellular Glands are further divides as
Tubular (When gland retains its shape as a tube throughout) e.g. sweat gland and oil gland of the skin.
Alveolar (having sac-like secretory portion and an obvious lumen), e.g. salivary glands, mammary glands, etc.
(v) Ciliated Epithelium It has numerous cubical or columnar cells in it bearing many delicate hair- like outgrowths, (the cilia),
arising from the basal granules.
Location It lines the inner surfaces of most of the respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, ventricles of the brain and the central canal of
the spinal cord tube.
Functions Provides protection and helps in the movement of mucus, urine, eggs and cerebrospinal fluid in particular direction.
• The epithelium containing mucous cells along with the underlying supporting connective tissue, is called mucosa or
mucous membrane.
• The cells of epithelia rest upon basement membrane, formed of mucopolysaccharides and collagen fibrils.
• Cilia have the ability to move, which pushes the mucus forward in the respiratory tract.
(vi) Pseudo – Stratified Epithelium this epithelium is one-cell thick but look like two layered.
Hence, named as pseudostratified.
Location it occurs in the large ducts, certain glands such as parotid salivary gland, the urethra of the human male and in the
olfactory mucosa. They occur in the trachea and large bronchi.
Functions Provides protection and secretion. Also helps in the movement of secretions from glands, urine and semen in the male
urethra and mucus loaded with dust particles from the trachea towards the larynx.
2. Compound Epithelia (Multilayered Epithelia)

The compound epithelia consist of a few several layers of cell. Therefore, they are thicker and stronger than the simple epithelia.
Have major role in providing protection to the underlying tissues against chemical, mechanical, thermal or osmotic stresses.
Compound epithelia may be of the following two types.
(i) Stratified Epithelium these consist to many layers of epithelial cells, the deepest layer is made up of loose columnar or
cuboidal cells but the outer surface may vary in nature. on the basis of the form of cells found in the outer layer, it is classified into
four types i.e. stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar and stratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
(ii) Transitional Epithelium It differs stratified epithelium in having fewer layers (i.e., four to six layers) of cells, the cells of
basal layer are columnar or cuboidal. The cells of middle layer are polyhedral or pear – shaped. while, the cells of the surface layer
are large and globular or umbrella shaped.
Location It lies in the renal calyces, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder and part of the urethra. Because of its distribution mainly
in the urinary system, it is also called urothelium.
Functions it permits distention Thus, urinary bladder can be stretched considerably without being damaged and regain its original
shape under normal conditions.
Connective Tissue
These are most abundant and widely distributed in the body of complex animals.
They are named so because of their special function of linking and supporting other tissues or organs of the body.
Functions Attachment of one tissue to another, supporting cartilage and bone, storage and insulation (by fat storage) transporting
materials etc.
Note:
• Camels hump is made up of adipose tissue of fatty tissue which conduct heat slowly. So, the camel can keep suitable body
temperature. These deposits are also used for energy when food is not available.
• laborer's who do hard manual labor develop thick skin on their palms and soles due to thickening of all three layers (i.e.
epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layers) of the skin.
• Small bones present in the body are solid and the long bones such as the humerus and femur have a cavity.
• An adult person has about 4.7 to 5.5 of blood that form 7% of body weight.
Connective Tissue
Vascular Connective Tissue Connective Tissue Proper Skeletal Connective Tissue

Different cells suspended in the More intercellular than cells. Forms endoskeleton, support and
liquid matrix, fibres are absent. protect in the body rigid matrix
enclosing few cells and fibres.
Lymph: Pale yellow tissue Blood: Mobile connective

containing plasma and WBC. tissue containing plasma Bone: Hard, non-pliable Cartilage: Soft, a
Platelets are absent. and a blood corpuscles, tissue vascular tissue found in
platelets are present. pinna of ear.
Reticular Connective Loose Connective Pigmented Connective Dense Connective

Tissue Tissue Tissue Tissue
Consists of star shaped Loosely arranged cells and Consists of irregular pigment Compactly arranged cells
reticular cells. fibres in matrix. cells or chromatophores. and fibres in matrix
Areolar Tissue Adipose/Fatty Tissue Dense Irregular Dense Regular

Contains small spaces Contains fat storing
(areolar) in between the adipocytes, acts as shock
fine threads, forms the absorber, produces blood White Fibrous Yellow Elastic
basic frame work of corpuscles, etc. Connective Tissue Connective Tissue
body. Collagen is dominant, Contains loose network
tough and inelastic. of yellow fibres, elastic
e.g., Tendon and branched.
White (Yellow) Fat Brown Fat
e.g., Ligaments
Monolocular, i.e., single Multilocular, i.e., several small fat
large fat globule present, globules present, iron containing
less energetic. cytochrome pigment is present,
more energetic.
Muscular Tissue
Muscular cells have the feature of contractility. The muscle tissue is composed of cells, called myocytes which can shorten
considerably and return to the original relaxed state.
Structurally, they consist of long, narrow cells called muscle fibers and the cytoplasm which is known as scroplasm. the
endoplamic reticulum present in it is called sacroplasmic reticulum (SR). The sacroplasm is largely occupied by fine parallel
threads of proteins, called myofibril.
Types of Muscle Tissue
There are three types of muscle tissue
1. Striated (Striped) Muscle

The striated muscle consists of 80% or more of the mass of soft tissues in vertebrates.
The cells of this tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate (having many nuclei).
Location These are found in body walls, limbs, tongue, pharynx and beginning of esophagus in the form of bundles that are
wrapped by connective tissue sheathes. They form the various body muscles such or biceps, triceps.
General Features of Striated Muscles
(i) The striated muscles contract rapidly but not for long time i.e. soon get fatigued.
(ii) It is innervated by nerves from the brain and spinal cord.
(iii) The contraction of striated muscle is under the control of person’s conscious will. Hence, called voluntary muscles.
(iv) Most of the striated muscles are joined to the bones by tendons.
(v) Blood capillaries are also present in the surface of the fibers.
2. Non- striated (Smooth) Muscle
The cells of non-striated muscle tissue are thin, long with pin pointed ends (spindle shaped) and uninucleate
(i.e. have single nucleus).
Functionally, smooth muscles are of following two main types
(i) Single unit Present in the walls of hollow organs such as digestive tract, uterus, ureters, urinary bladder.
(ii) Multi unit present in the dermis of skin, iris of eye and walls of large blood vessels.
Location The son- striated (Smooth) muscles are present in the iris of eye, walls of the internal organs
(viscera) such as alimentary canal, genital tracts, ducts, blood vessels, urinary bladder, ureter, etc. Thus, they
are also called visceral muscles.
General Features of smooth Muscle Tissue
(i) The visceral muscle contracts slowly but can stay contracted for long time without getting fatigued as compared to the
striated muscles.
(ii) Contraction is not under persons conscious will, (control) hence called involuntary muscles.
3. Cardiac Muscle
These muscles are mainly confined to the wall of the heart. The muscle cells of the heart are cylindrical. branched and uninucleate.
The middle of cell contains one or two nuclei.
Location It is found in the walls of the pulmonary veins and superior vena cava.
Cardiac muscle cells

Functions
(i) It generates its own wave of excitation that can pass through fiber to fiber.
(ii) It accounts for the rhythmic contractions of the heart muscle by its own throughout the life. Hence, known as involuntary
muscle.
Neural Tissue
This tissue in an animal receives stimuli and conduct impulses for controlling and coordinating body functions. It forms central
nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS) and autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Nervous tissue is mainly composed of nerve cells and glial cells.

The main function of neural tissue is to accommodate the working of almost all organs according to the specific requirements.
Components of Neural tissue
Neurons Neurosecretory Cells Neuroglia Ependymal Cells
Structural and functional unit of Specialised nerve cells, Non-nervous hold neurons Arranged as epithelial layer,
neural tissue, longest cell of the function as an endocrine at their position in CNS. lines the brain ventricles
body, composed of cell body, organ, release neuro (cavities) and central canal
axon (single long part) and hormones from their axons of spinal cord, free surface
dendrites (small branched part). into blood possess microvilli (for the
absorption of cerebropinal
fluid) and cilia.

E Book Bio English 01

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

E Book Bio English 01

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter - 01 Classification

Chapter - 02 Plant Kingdom

Chapter - 06 Plant Morphology

Chapter - 07 Reproduction - Plants and animals

Chapter - 08 Digestive System

Chapter - 09 Respiratory System

Chapter - 10 Circulatory System

Chapter - 11 Excretory System

Chapter - 12 Skeletal System

Chapter - 13 Nervous System

Chapter - 14 Endocrine System

Chapter - 16 Hereditary and Evolution

Chapter - 17 Health and disease

Chapter - 19 Sensory Organs

Chapter - 20 Environment and Its Effects

Basic Biology Applied Biology

Applied biology takes the

Taxonomy: Study of living's classification

♦ Three Kingdom System was given by Haeckel in 1886

Autotropic Animal Plant Fungi

Honey bee Three pair legs, called insects.

Air bladder is found in these fish.

Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue Ground Tissue

Discovery of the cell

Shape and Size of cells

Number of cells in Living Organisms

Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane

Functions of cell Membrane

Various components of nucleus are as follows

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough Endoplasmic Smooth Endoplasmic

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum

(e) Plastids The term plastids were introduced by E. Hackle

Primary function of RNA:

(i) Prokaryotic cell

(ii) Eukaryotic cell

Difference Between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Difference between Eukaryotic Animal Cell and Plant Cell

1. Interphase (Undividing phase)

Modes of cell Division

1. Amitosis / Direct cell division

2. Mitosis/ Somatic division.

Different phases of Mitosis

Anaphase • It continues for about 2-3 minutes only.

• The chromosomes that have reached their respective poles start to

The term meiosis was given by JB Farmer and Moore. Meiosis is a

(i) Meiosis I In this phase of division parental chromosomes replicate

Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue

Apical Lateral Intercalary Simple tissue Complex tissue

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Xylem Phloem

Characteristics of Meristematic Tissue

Types of Meristematic Tissue

Permanent Tissue of Mature Tissue

1. Simple permanent Tissue

2. Complex permanent Tissue

Epithelial Tissue or Epithelia

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

Types of Epithelial Tissues

Simple Permanent tissue

Grondular Simple Simple Simple Simple Pseudostratified Stratified Transitional

Stratified Stratified Stratified Stratified

1. Simple Epithelial Tissue

2. Compound Epithelia (Multilayered Epithelia)