Final\ lecture 1.

Electrical safety

The Basic Principles of Electricity

Electricity, simply put, is the flow of electric current along a conductor. This electric current takes the form of free
electrons that transfer from one atom to the next.
 The Volt – The pressure that is put on free electrons that causes them to flow is known as electromotive force.
The volt is the unit of pressure, the volt is the amount of electromotive force required to push a current of one
ampere though a conductor with a resistance of one ohm.
 The Ampere – defines the flow rate of electric current. For instance, when one coulomb flows past a given
point on a conductor in one second, it is defined as a current of one ampere
 The Ohm – is the unit of resistance in a conductor. Three things determine the amount of resistance in a
conductor: size, material; copper or aluminum and temperature. A conductor’s resistance increases as its
length increase or diameter decreases.

 Electrical conductor, is a substance or material that

allows electricity to flow through it.
 Superconductor is a term given to certain metals which
have a very low resistance to electricity at low
temperatures.
 Very poor conductors are known as insulators and
include materials such as rubber, timber and plastics.
Insulating material is used to protect people from some
of the hazards associated with electricity.

Short circuit - A short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows

a current to travel along an unintended path with no or very
low electrical impedance. This results in an excessive current
flowing through the circuit. The opposite of a short circuit is an
open circuit, which is an infinite resistance between two nodes.
What Causes Short Circuits - Short circuits can be caused by:

 Vermin or pests chewing through wires

 Water or other fluids coming into contact with electrical wiring
 Loose connections in an electrical box
 Old or damaged outlets, switches, lights, appliances, or other electrical devices
 Nails or screws piercing through walls and coming into contact with wires
 Deterioration of electrical cable sheathing
 Build-up or surges of electricity

Lecture 2\ first aid

Aims of first aid

 To preserve life: Saving lives is the main aim of first aid.

 To prevent further harm: The person who has experienced the injury must be kept stable, and their condition
must not deteriorate before medical services arrive. This may include moving the individual away from harm,
applying first aid techniques, keeping them warm and dry, and applying pressure to wounds to stop any
bleeding.
 Promote recovery: Taking steps to promote recovery may include applying a bandage to a wound.
How to practice first aid
A fourth step will appear in the emergency procedures for some facilities.

 Airway: Make sure the airway is clear. Choking, which results from the obstruction of airways, can be fatal.
 Breathing: Once the airways are confirmed to be clear, determine whether the person can breathe, and, if
necessary, provide rescue breathing.
 Circulation: If the person involved in the emergency situation is not breathing, the first aider should go
straight for chest compressions and rescue breathing. The chest compressions will promote circulation. This
saves valuable time. In emergencies that are not life-threatening, the first aider needs to check the pulse.
 Deadly bleeding or defibrillation: Some organizations consider dressing severe wounds or applying
defibrillation to the heart a separate fourth stage, while others include this as part of the circulation step.
First aid for heat stroke/sun stroke

 First aid treatment for heat stroke is critical. Heat stroke is a life-threatening medical emergency that requires
immediate action. It is the most serious form of heat-induced illness.
 The causes of heat stroke usually result from working or exercising in a hot environment, indoors as well as
outdoors.
First Aid for Burn Injuries
1.Stop the burning process
Remove clothing and jewelry near the burn, but do not remove anything stuck to the skin since it can cause more
damage.
2. Immediately cool the burn
Immediately start to cool the burn injury and keep cooling for 15-20 minutes, to limit the burn and prevent it from
getting worse. Cool the burn with running lukewarm water (20-28 degrees), cooling burn gel compresses or a clean
wet cloth.
3. Only cool the injury – Not the whole body
It’s critical to avoid cooling the whole body since it can lower the body temperature to a dangerously low temperature
(below °35 C) and cause the severe condition of hypothermia.
4. Keep the person warm and dry
Keep the person warm and dry after cooling the burn
5. Seek medical attention for:

 Burns larger than the palm of the injured person’s hand

 Burns in sensitive parts like hands, feet, face, genitals and joints
 Third degree burns or deep injuries
 Burns that cause white, black or charred skin or if you lose feeling in the area
 All chemical burns and electrical burns
 Burn injuries inflicted on children or elderly
6. Protect the burn

 Keep the burn injury clean and dry

Lecture 3 \ Musculoskeletal hazards
Ergonomic hazards. It happens when the type of work, body positions, and working conditions put a strain on your
body. They are the hardest to spot since you don’t always immediately notice the strain on your body or harm that
these hazards pose. Short-term exposure may result in “sore muscles” the next day or in the days following the
exposure, but long-term exposure can result in serious long-term illness
Ergonomic hazards include:
  Improperly adjusted workstations and chairs
 Frequent lifting
 Poor posture
 Awkward movements, especially if they are repetitive
 Having to use too much force, especially if you have to do it frequently
 Vibration
Work-related upper limb disorders. WRULDs describe a group of conditions which can affect the neck, shoulders,
arms, elbows, wrists, hands and fingers. Tenosynovitis (affecting the tendons), carpal tunnel syndrome (affecting the
tendons which pass through the carpal bone in the hand) and frozen shoulder are all examples of WRULDs which
differ in the manifestation and site of the illness.
Display screen equipment. As an employer, you must protect your workers from the health risks of working with
display screen equipment (DSE), such as PCs, laptops, tablets and smartphones.
The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations apply to workers who use DSE daily, for continuous
periods of an hour or more. We describe these workers as 'DSE users'. The regulations don't apply to workers who use
DSE infrequently or only use it for a short time.
There are three basic ill-health hazards associated with DSE

 musculoskeletal problems;
 visual problems;
 psychological problems
Musculoskeletal problems. Tenosynovitis is the most common and well-known problem which affects the wrist of the
user. Tenosynovitis is caused by the continual use of a keyboard and can be relieved by the use of wrist supports.
Other WRULDs are caused by poor posture and can produce pains in the back, shoulders, neck or arms
These problems can be mitigated by the application of ergonomic principles in the selection of working desks, chairs,
foot rests and document holders.
It is also important to ensure that the desk is at the correct height and the computer screen is tilted at the correct angle
to avoid putting too much strain on the neck.

Lecture 4 \ Chemical
Introduction to Chemical and Biological Health Hazards. Some of these illnesses in extreme cases can cause fatality,
however more commonly they lead to illnesses such as skin sensitization and respiratory disease. It is estimated that
within the UK 30% of all cancers have an occupational link.
Biological Agents

 Fungi – These are small organisms which can appear as plant like such as a mushroom. However unlike
plants, they are unable to produce their own food and live off organic matter, animals, plants and parasites.
Fungi reproduce using spores, which may cause allergic reaction when inhaled. Fungal infections can range
from minor to severe and are usually treated with antibiotics.
 Moulds – These are a small group of fungi which under damp conditions grow on surfaces such as walls and
foods such as cheese. Some mould is beneficial such as penicillin or may cause harm by infecting our lungs
(Farmers Lung) and may lead to asthma. Farmers lung is contracted from breathing in mould spores, hay dust
and animal grain dust.
 Bacteria – These are small organisms. they can live outside of our body. They are controlled through the use
of antibiotics. Not all bacteria are harmful to humans, it is bacteria which helps us to break down food during
digestion. However harmful Bacteria such as legionnaires, tuberculosis and tetanus can cause severe and even
fatal harm. Bacteria can be controlled through temperature and filtration.
 Viruses – These are tiny non-cellular organisms. Smaller than bacteria and cannot be controlled by antibiotics.
New virus strains are continually developing. They can be treated and defeated by the human bodies natural
defences and healing system. Medication can be used to treat the symptoms but are unable to cure it. The HIV
virus spreads AIDS. The common cold is a viral infection and unfortunately the Corona virus fits into this
section.
Lecture 5 \ Physical and Psychological
Noise. The ear may detect vibrations which vary from 20 to 20,000 (typically 50–16,000) cycles each second (or
Hertz – Hz).
Sound travels through air at a finite speed (342m/s at 20°C and sea level). The existence of this speed is shown by the
time lag between lightning and thunder during a thunderstorm.
Health effects of noise. There are three sections of the ear – the outer (or external) ear, the middle ear and the inner (or
internal) ear. The sound pressure wave passes into and through the outer ear and strikes the eardrum causing it to
vibrate. The eardrum is situated approximately 25 mm inside the head.
There are three principal acute effects:
temporary threshold shift – caused by short excessive noise exposures and affects the cochlea by reducing the flow of
nerve impulses to the brain. The result is a slight deafness, which is reversible when the noise is removed;
tinnitus – a ringing in the ears caused by an intense and sustained high noise level. It is caused by the over-stimulation
of the hair cells. The ringing sensation continues for up to 24 hours after the noise has ceased;
acute acoustic trauma – caused by a very loud noise such as an explosion. It affects either the eardrum or the bones in
the middle ear and is usually reversible. Severe explosive sounds can permanently damage the eardrum.
Radiation. Ionizing radiation is emitted from radioactive materials, either in the form of directly ionizing alpha and
beta particles or indirectly ionizing X-rays and gamma rays or neutrons. It has a high energy potential and an ability to
penetrate, ionize and damage body tissue and organs.

 Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons and have a positive charge. They have little power to
penetrate the skin and can be stopped using very flimsy material, such as paper. Their main route into the
body is by ingestion.
 Beta particles are high-speed electrons whose power of penetration depends on their speed, but penetration is
usually restricted to 2 cm of skin and tissue. They can be stopped using aluminum foil. There are normally
two routes of entry into the body – inhalation and ingestion.
 Gamma rays, or X-rays, are electromagnetic radiation and have far greater penetrating power than alpha or
beta particles. They are produced from nuclear reactions and can pass through the body.

 Ionizing radiation is a form of energy that acts by removing electrons from atoms and molecules of materials
that include air, water, and living tissue. Ionizing radiation can travel unseen and pass through these materials.
 Non-ionising radiation includes ultraviolet, visible light infrared and microwave radiations. As the wavelength
is relatively long, the energy present is too low to ionize atoms which make up matter. The action of non-
ionizing radiation is to heat cells rather than change their chemical composition.
 Ultraviolet radiation (UV) occurs with sunlight and with electric arc welding. In both cases, the skin and the
eyes are at risk from the effect of burning. The skin will burn and repeated exposure can lead to skin cancer.
Skin which is exposed to strong sunlight should be protected either by clothing or sun creams. This problem
has become more common with the reduction in the ozone layer.