Profiles of ICT Identity and Their Associations With Female High School Students' Intention To Study and Work in ICT

Computers & Education 195 (2023) 104722
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Computers & Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu
Profiles of ICT identity and their associations with female high

school students’ intention to study and work in ICT: A
mixed-methods approach
Mario Liong a, *, Dannii Y. Yeung b, Grand H.-L. Cheng c, 1, Ray Y.H. Cheung d
a
Department of Sociology, National Taipei University, 151, University Road, San Shia District, New Taipei City, Taiwan
b
Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
c
School of Arts and Social Sciences, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, 30 Good Shepherd Street, Ho Man Tin, Kowloon, Hong Kong
d
Department of Psychology, Lingnan University, 8 Castle Peak Road, Tuen Mun, Hong Kong
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Among science subjects, gender disparities are most evident in information and communication
Gender studies technology (ICT). Researchers have suggested that science identification plays a key role in
Pedagogical issues motivating young females to pursue the study and work of science. However, few studies have
Secondary education
comprehensively examined the constituting components of ICT identity and its influencing factors
Teaching/learning strategies
from a person-centered perspective. By adopting an explanatory mixed methods design, this study
uncovers ICT identity profiles using nine components derived from the literature and examines
their influence on the intention to further study and work in the ICT field among female high
school students. The sample included 821 female high school students from 13 schools in Hong
Kong who completed a self-report questionnaire. Twenty of them were invited for a follow-up
semi-structured interview. The result of the latent profile analysis reveals five ICT identity pro
files based on differences in the levels of the nine components. Both quantitative and qualitative
data analyses indicate that the higher the level of ICT identity is, the more likely female students
are to choose to study and work in ICT. Furthermore, adolescent females with low levels of gender
stereotypic beliefs and high degrees of parental and peer support are more likely to belong to the
highest level of the ICT identity profile, namely, the ICT person profile. In particular, female high
school students with the ICT person profile report even stronger intentions to study ICT when they
are clear about career prospects, whereas those with the average ICT identity profile display
stronger intentions to work in the ICT industry when they have high expectations of career
success. The practical implications for ICT education are discussed.
1. Introduction
In a technology-driven world, knowledge of information and communication technology (ICT) is important for young persons in
preparing for career development and mastering up-to-date skills in modern society. Although females and males showed comparable
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: marioliong@mail.ntpu.edu.tw (M. Liong), dannii.yeung@cityu.edu.hk (D.Y. Yeung), grand_cheng@msf.gov.sg (G.H.-L. Cheng),
raycheung@ln.edu.hk (R.Y.H. Cheung).
1
Current affiliation: Office of the Chief Psychologist, Ministry of Social and Family Development, 512 Thomson Road, Singapore.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104722
Received 23 October 2021; Received in revised form 28 December 2022; Accepted 30 December 2022
Available online 31 December 2022
0360-1315/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Liong et al. Computers & Education 195 (2023) 104722
Abbreviations
ICT Information and Communication Technology

STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
overall performance in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects in the OECD’s (2019) Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA), fewer females exhibited positive attitudes, interests, and confidence toward ICT study and
profession than did males (Bailie, 2015). Females drop out of ICT courses when they transition from high school to college, leading to a
low female participation rate in the ICT industry (Papastergiou, 2008). Among STEM subjects, gender disparities are most evident in
ICT (Master, Cheryan, & Meltzoff, 2016).
1.1. The role of identity in ICT studies
Recent studies on gender differences in STEM subjects and work have increasingly revealed the importance of identity in shaping
females’ choices of whether to further study and work in the ICT field. Identity, as applied to an academic subject, refers to an in
dividual’s self-concept in evaluating his or her compatibility with that subject (Holmegaard, Ulriksen, & Madsen, 2014). It acts as a
conceptual or explanatory link that elucidates the relation between individual agency and the wider social structures, such as the
requirements and expectations of relevant abilities and skills for that particular subject (Sfard & Prusak, 2005).
In the context of STEM, STEM identity refers to self-categorization into an identity formed by his or her participation in STEM-
related activities and involves socialization and internalization of relevant norms and discourse practices in STEM fields (Brown,
2006; Stets & Burke, 2000; Vincent-Ruz & Schunn, 2021). ICT identity, in this perspective, is a subdiscipline level of topical identity in
relation to STEM identity. Specifically, ICT identity involves a sense of who an individual is and who he or she wishes to become in
relation to ICT subjects and career options based on his/her perceptions and navigation of everyday experiences with ICT (c.f. Cribbs,
Hazari, Sonnert, & Sadler, 2015). In the context of the education policy in Hong Kong, although ICT is categorized as a subdiscipline of
STEM, it is pinpointed as a separate key learning area apart from other science and technology subjects by the Education Bureau, to
highlight the importance of ICT skills in learning and conducting other scientific and technology-related activities (Curriculum
Development Council, 2015). Past research studies demonstrated that females who have a positive science identity tend to enjoy
science classes and strive to perform well in class (Carlone, Johnson, & Scott, 2015), whereas those who find it difficult to self-identify
as scientists tend to give up on further studying science (Lyons & Quinn, 2010). Similarly, ICT identification is expected to play a key
role in motivating young females to pursue ICT study and work (c.f. Kim, Sinatra, & Seyranian, 2018).
1.2. Aim and approach of the current study
The current study uses a person-centered approach to identify groups of adolescent females who share similar configurations of ICT
identity and then examines how these different profiles of ICT identity are shaped by various influencing factors and their associations
with study and career intention. As individuals differ with respect to the various components that constitute ICT identity (Trauth,
2002), it is most appropriate to employ a person-centered approach to scrutinize the ways in which intentions to study and work in ICT
are shaped. Previous STEM-related studies adopted latent profile (class) analysis based on STEM attitude (Ing & Nylund-Gibson, 2013),
vocational interest (Perera & McIlveen, 2018), and activity interest (Dierks, Höffler, & Parchmann, 2014) but not on the constituting
components of STEM or ICT identity. The current study therefore aims to fill this literature gap by examining the specific and different
configurations of ICT identity among adolescent females to yield more appropriate and customized interventions to reduce the hin
drance faced by young females of each ICT identity category who are at the juncture of determining their future career in relation to
their self-concept.
Our study specifically focuses on junior high school females because adolescence is a time of acquiring and developing identity as
an adult-to-be (Eccles, 2009; Kessels, Rau, & Hannover, 2006). The questions regarding who they are and what expectations others
have of them are important for adolescents, who are faced with the pressure of establishing their own identity in the midst of increasing
social demands, which triggers their identity consciousness in this life stage (Howarth, 2002). Moreover, ICT, which is widely
perceived as being a masculine field, may contradict identity exploration among young females (Kessels et al., 2006). The incongruity
between ICT and femininity that adolescent females are developing can be a major obstacle in regard to their future ICT pursuits.
In addition, secondary school marks an important time to intervene because gender disparities in ICT study and career goals start to
emerge at this stage (Denner, 2011). In particular, since secondary school is the stage in which adolescents learn to have clearer
conceptions about ICT and teachers can still have a significant influence on students’ ICT perception, the opportunity to change
students’ decisions to pursue ICT study and careers exists (Hazari, Sonnert, Sadler, & Shanahan, 2010). Nevertheless, past studies on
STEM identity have mainly focused on the postsecondary stage of education (e.g., Cribbs et al., 2015). Few studies have examined the
situation of junior high school females in relation to ICT study and career choice (Papastergiou, 2008). As the factors that influence
career choices for adolescents and college students differ (Adya & Kaiser, 2005), it is necessary to examine sociopsychological factors
that affect junior high school students’ intentions to pursue ICT fields in the future to reveal what measures can be implemented to
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eradicate the hindrance faced by adolescent females in their ICT pursuits.

In the following literature review, we will first elucidate the constituting components of ICT identity. Then, we will discuss the
different sociopsychological factors that predict ICT identity. We will also present the research questions and hypotheses of the present
study along with the literature review.
2. Literature review
Because of a lack of previous research studies on ICT identity, to understand what constitutes ICT identity, we first reviewed a
selection of important works that discuss the conceptualization of domain or academic identity and STEM identity, then discuss the
operationalization of ICT identity in the current study.
2.1. Definition of domain identification
Based on the social identity theory, Steinke (2017) points out that identity is both “individually constructed and socially imposed”
and is multidimensional (p. 4). The process of incorporating one’s identity and anchoring one’s self into a group defined by a set of
activities within the social system which the individual feels he or she belongs to is referred to as identification. It occurs when a person
accepts influence from others to develop and maintain a relationship that is satisfying to him or her (Kelman, 2006). Because of this
objective, the person behaves so as to satisfy the requests of the influencing others (Estrada, Woodcock, Hernandez, & Schultz, 2011).
In other words, identification involves a performance corresponding to expectations in the domain. Based on the symbolic inter
actionist theory of the self, Osborne and Rausch (2001) defined identification with an academic subject as a case of domain identi
fication, which refers to the degree to which a person defines themselves through a role or performance in that specific domain. One’s
identification with an academic subject is the result of the interaction between feedback from the environment, evaluation of the
accuracy or validity of the feedback, the assessment of the importance of the domain to one’s self-concept and the perception of one’s
competence in the domain (Osborne & Jones, 2011). In other words, an individual’s identity in an academic domain consists of not
only individual traits and values but also of competence in the eyes of the institution and the learning community (Jones, Osborne,
Paretti, & Matusovich, 2014; Tesser & Campbell, 1980).
2.2. Conceptualization of STEM identity
Carlone and Johnson (2007) pioneered the constituent components of STEM identity. Basing their theory on the social
constructionist perspective of understanding and operationalizing STEM identity, Carlone and Johnson (2007) highlighted the fact
that recognition by others keeps female science students and those pursuing a career as scientists interested. However, recognition can
only be achieved through the performance of relevant tasks in the domain as a display for significant others (Herrera, Hurtado, Garcia,
& Gasiewski, 2012). Consequently, Carlone and Johnson (2007) defined STEM identity as comprising competence, performance, and
recognition. Competence refers to the belief in one’s ability to succeed in science. Performance refers to the perception of one’s ability
to perform science tasks. Recognition refers to the perception and expectation of relevant others, such as parents, teachers, and peers,
about one’s science capabilities. Because identity is social in nature, it is important to define STEM identity not only in terms of
perceived competence and attainment but also in terms of recognition by relevant others (Kim et al., 2018). Godwin, Potvin, Hazari,
and Lock (2013) stressed that these components in operationalizing STEM identity have been proved valid and useful, thus studying
them in isolation is not sufficient.
Hazari et al. (2010) further elaborated on the operationalization of Carlone and Johnson (2007)), and added interest and
self-efficacy to their original composition of STEM identity. Interest refers to an individuals’ desire to learn and work in science. In
terest is important because it creates not only positive feelings but also curiosity and motivation regarding a domain (Renninger,
2009). Self-efficacy refers to the perceived capability of comprehending science knowledge. Flowers III and Banda (2016) pointed out
that self-efficacy helps students, especially minority students, to see the value of STEM and envision themselves as members of the
STEM community. Thus, these four components play key roles in shaping adolescents’ science identities and expectations (Hazari
et al., 2010). Recent research supports this conceptualization and operationalization (e.g., Dou & Cian, 2022; Dou, Hazari, Dabney,
Sonnert, & Sadler, 2019; Godwin et al., 2013; Patrick, Anita D. & Prybutok, 2018; Wulff, Hazari, Petersen, & Neumann, 2018).
Furthermore, expectancy-value theory, proposed by Eccles (2009), suggests that identity consists not only of one’s self-perception
of competencies but also subjective task value in specific sociocultural contexts. In other words, STEM identity consists of both ability
beliefs (the evaluation of one’s STEM ability) and value beliefs (the degree of importance of STEM to a person). Specifically, an in
dividual’s academic identity is made up of (1) an ideal image of themselves and their abilities (operationalized as expectancy beliefs,
which are general beliefs about an individual’s ability to learn a subject) and (2) long-term goals and personal values (operationalized
as subjective task value, consisting of interest, attainment value (personal importance of a domain), and utility value (how well the task
relates to current and future goals)) (Eccles, 2009). Eccles (2005) argued that if an academic domain allowed one to display or confirm
important parts of the self, they would be vital to one’s identity. According to this model, because individuals are more likely to
conduct activities that are consistent with their identity (Eccles, 2009), a high level of identity in a field is an important predictor of
their intention to pursue and stay in that particular field (Godwin et al., 2013).
STEM identity thus comprises one’s motivation beliefs, utility, expectancy, competence, and performance of STEM study, as well as
recognition from others (Jones et al., 2014; Sheppard et al., 2010). Qualitative researchers, using open-ended questions, also
confirmed that interest, competence, past performance, recognition by others, expectancy beliefs, and subjective task value are the
3
defining factors of STEM identity (Hosbein & Barbera, 2020).
2.3. Operationalization of ICT identity in the current study
Because ICT is a subdiscipline of STEM, the current study adopted the operationalization of STEM identity discussed above in
defining ICT identity. Based on the above discussion of domain identification and the conceptualization of STEM identity, ICT identity
consists of both individually and socially oriented components. Osborne and Jones (2011) and Patrick and Borrego (2016) suggest that
academic identification is not a single measure but involves multiple measures. As such, ICT identity measurement should consist of a
diversity of related components rather than relying on a single individual’s self-assessment. Based on the models proposed by Carlone
and Johnson (2007), Hazari et al. (2010), and Eccles (2009), our study defines ICT identity in terms of an individual’s subjective task
value for ICT (made up of interest, attainment value, and utility value), conceptions of his or her ICT ability (made up of competence,
past performance, and self-efficacy), and his or her recognition from significant others (including parents, peers, and teachers) as being
good at ICT.
Past studies have examined isolated components suggested by this conceptualization and operationalization of science and tech
nology identity, for instance, interest and perceived utility value of ICT (Anderson, Lankshear, Timms, & Courtney, 2008), attainment
value (Robinson, Perez, Nuttall, Roseth, & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2018), recognition by others and competence/performance (Cribbs
et al., 2015), previous academic achievement (Stets, Brenner, Burke, & Serpe, 2017), self-efficacy in science and technology (Vashti,
Eric, & Kramer, 2012), interest, recognition, and performance/competence beliefs among female engineering students (Choe, 2019;
Verdín, 2021). However, few studies have comprehensively examined and integrated all of the components of ICT identity in a single
study; thus, the present study aims to fill this knowledge gap. Specifically, we are interested in empirically examining the following
research questions.
RQ1. What types of ICT identity profiles can be identified in female high school students based on the components proposed by
Carlone and Johnson (2007), Hazari et al. (2010), and Eccles (2009)?
RQ2. How does the intention to study and work in ICT differ between female students with distinct ICT identity profiles?
Concerning RQ2, we proposed the following hypotheses.
H1. Female students who have a higher level of ICT identity have a stronger intention to further study ICT.
H2. Female students who have a higher level of ICT identity have a stronger intention to work in ICT fields in the future.
As the development of ICT identity depends on various social factors (Eccles, 2009), especially during times of transition (Jackson
& Warin, 2000), in the following section, we will examine the different sociopsychological factors that shape the ICT identity of
adolescent females who are at the point of deciding which academic subject to choose and planning for their future careers.
2.4. Factors affecting young females’ ICT identity
Based on the model proposed by Vekiri and Chronaki (2008) (as cited in Meelissen & Drent, 2008), students’ choices to study and
work in the ICT field are dependent on structural factors such as gender stereotypic beliefs and social interactions with significant
others. As a result, this study specifically examines these two influencing factors.
2.4.1. Gender stereotypic beliefs

Gender stereotypic beliefs make it difficult to reconcile ICT identity and feminine gender identity. Past research has established that
stereotype threat hurts minority students to a greater degree by reducing their identification with STEM (Estrada et al., 2011), sub
sequently decreasing their cognitive performance on relevant tasks (Murphy, Steele, & Gross, 2007) and even eventually leading to
withdrawal from the subject (Osborne & Jones, 2011).
The harm of gender stereotypic beliefs is particularly prominent in the field of ICT. Berg, Sharpe, and Aitkin (2018) reported that
high school students indicate that computer science is a masculine field and, thus, that feminine identity, which focuses on beauty,
does not belong in this field. This belief of the incompatibility of femininity in ICT reduces females’ interest, perceived competence,
and actual performance in science and ICT, subsequently discouraging them from pursuing these fields in the future (Cheryan, Plaut,
Handron, & Hudson, 2013; Diekman, Clark, Johnston, Brown, & Steinberg, 2011; Nosek & Smyth, 2011). Cooper (2006) found that
females who were primed in terms of their gender identity demonstrated worse performance in computer tasks than did those who
were primed in terms of simply being students. In particular, this difficulty in reconciling ICT identity with their feminine identity is
more salient among adolescent females because adolescence is the time in which gender stereotypes become more influential (Frome &
Eccles, 1998). Therefore, we suggest the following research question and hypothesis.
RQ3. How do gender stereotypic beliefs differ between female students with different ICT identity profiles?
H3. Female students who have a lower level of gender stereotypic beliefs have a higher level of ICT identity.
2.4.2. Social support

Support from significant others also plays a key role in shaping adolescent females’ ICT identity. Identity develops and changes
based on support or pressure from significant others (Brophy, 2009). Teachers, friends, and parents are reported to shape students’
intention and engagement in the study of ICT (Michell, Szabo, Falkner, & Szorenyi, 2018). Significant others can introduce ICT-related
4
social and cultural resources to high school females and can help them develop ICT interest and facilitate their ICT learning (Ortiz,
Morton, Miles, & Roby, 2019). Qualitative studies using interviews revealed similar results: supportive teachers and facilitative
teaching environments, peer STEM-positive attitudes, and familial encouragement help female high school students build their STEM
identity and develop confidence in their abilities and choice to pursue STEM studies and careers (Aschbacher, Li, & Roth, 2010).
However, conversely, parents, peers, and teachers can discourage young females from pursuing ICT careers by shaping their perception
of appropriateness of the field for them (Chhin, Bleeker, & Jacobs, 2008). As a result, the following research question and hypothesis
are proposed.
RQ4. How does social support differ among female students with different ICT identity profiles?
H4. Female students who have a higher level of parental support, peer support, and teacher support have a higher level of ICT identity.
2.4.3. Career aspiration

Perceived personal success in ICT careers and prospective ICT career knowledge can also influence adolescent females’ ICT study
and work intentions. Perceived career prospects and potential career success shape the intention to engage in ICT, as the desire to excel
in the field is a key motivating force to achieve one’s goal (Cheryan et al., 2013). In that sense, perceived career success in ICT is an
influential factor for ICT intention. In addition, career information has been shown to promote the choice of a STEM career (Tsui,
2007). Career prospects (including employability, the future of the career, and promotion opportunities) are ranked even higher than
support from family and teachers when students decide to major in computer science in college (Fisher, Margolis, & Miller, 1997). As a
result, we would like to further examine the following research question.
RQ5. How do perceived career success and prospective career knowledge influence the associations between ICT identity profiles
and the intention to study and work in ICT?
Because of the previous findings, we speculated that perceived career success in ICT and prospective ICT career knowledge will
moderate the relationship between ICT identity and the intention to study and work in ICT among females.
H5. The positive association between ICT identity and intention to study and work in ICT is stronger among female students with
higher perceived career success in ICT than among those with lower perceived success.
H6. The positive association between ICT identity and intention to study and work in ICT is stronger among female students with
higher prospective ICT career knowledge than those with limited knowledge.
In summary, the proposed analytical model in the present study hypothesizes that ICT identification is a core factor that explains
how gender stereotypic beliefs and social support are converted into an individual female’s intention to pursue studies and a career in
ICT. This model also examines the moderating effects of perceived career success in ICT and prospective career knowledge on the
relation between ICT identity and the intention to pursue future studies and work in ICT (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Current study model.
5
3. Material and methods
3.1. Research design
The present study adopts an explanatory mixed-methods design, which involves the collection and analysis of quantitative data
from a survey and qualitative interview data that serve to explain and elaborate on the survey results to yield a deeper understanding of
the research questions (Bakla, 2018). Interviews can further explain and elaborate on the quantitative results and help yield further
insight into young females’ actual experiences with ICT (Çakır, Gass, Foster, & Lee, 2017). In summary, the adoption of both quali
tative and quantitative methods can help triangulate the results from different methods, yield a more elaborate understanding of the
phenomenon, and identify contradictions (Creswell & Clark, 2011).
3.2. Participants and procedures
Ethical approval was obtained from the Human Subjects Ethics Subcommittee of the university with which the second author is
affiliated. Invitation letters were then sent to the principals of 130 secondary schools to invite their form 3 (grade 9) female students to
take part in this study. Thirteen schools, 5 of which were female-only and 8 of which were co-ed, agreed to participate in this project.
Parental or principal consent was sought before the students participated in this research. A total of 1392 questionnaires were
distributed by teachers to eligible female students in these 13 schools. Participation was completely voluntary. The students completed
the questionnaires in class or at home. There were 836 questionnaires returned, with a response rate of 59%. The response rate is
comparable to other local studies conducted among Hong Kong Chinese secondary school students (e.g., Chan & Cheung, 2018; Chiu,
2016). Among the returned questionnaires, 15 questionnaires were discarded due to substantial missing data. Thus, the final sample
size was 821, with 276 participants from coed schools (33.6%) and 545 participants from female-only schools. Each participant was
also asked to report their age, birthplace, and parents’ education level. The mean age of the entire sample was 14.54 years (SD = 0.75).
Table 1 shows the detailed demographic characteristics of the participants.
We also invited 20 students with different ICT identity profiles (see Table 2) to participate in individual semi-structured interviews.
These interviews were held in the classroom, and each lasted for approximately 45 min. Interview questions (see Table 3) were mainly
about three aspects of students’ ICT studies: (1) their subjective experiences, abilities, and interests in ICT; (2) the perceptions, ex
pectations, and influences of significant others on their ICT studies and career choices; and (3) their own expectations in terms of
learning and developing careers in ICT. All interviews were recorded and transcribed.
3.3. Measures
3.3.1. ICT identity

Participants’ ICT identity was constructed as a second-order ICT factor. There are nine indicators: three indicators measuring the
participant’s subjective task values, namely, attainment value, utility value, and interest in ICT; one indicator representing self-efficacy in
ICT; one indicator capturing perceived competence in ICT; one indicator measuring past performance; one measuring recognition from
parents, one measuring recognition from teachers, and one measuring recognition from peers. A sample item of the subjective task values
was “How much do you like being involved in ICT?” Participants rated these items on a 7-point scale, with higher scores representing
higher levels of the respective construct. The Cronbach’s alpha (α) value was 0.69 for attainment value (2 items), 0.69 for interest
Table 1
Participant demographics (N = 821).
Demographics Frequency (valid %)
Gender setting of the school Co-ed 276 (33.6)

Female-only 545 (66.4)
Place of birth Hong Kong 690 (84.0)
Mainland China 118 (14.4)
Overseas 9 (1.1)
Missing 4 (.5)
Father’s education level No formal education 7 (.9)
Primary 65 (7.9)
Secondary 449 (54.7)
Diploma 53 (6.5)
University 123 (15.0)
Master’s or above 29 (6.0)
Missing 75 (9.1)
Mother’s education level No formal education 10 (1.2)
Primary 77 (9.4)
Secondary 459 (55.9)
Diploma 68 (8.3)
University 105 (12.8)
Master’s or above 44 (5.4)
Missing 58 (7.1)
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Table 2
Interview participants
Student Code Grade ICT identity
1 8 ICT person
2 7 Incompatible with ICT
3 8 Hesitant
4 7 ICT person
5 7 ICT person
7 7 ICT person
8 7 Almost ICT person
9 7 Hesitant
11 9 Average
12 9 Hesitant
13 7 Average
15 10 Hesitant
17 9 Average
20 10 Average
Table 3
Outline of interview questions.
No. Interview questions
ICT Experiences, Abilities, and Interests in ICT

1. How would you describe yourself in relation to ICT?
2. How much are you interested in ICT?
3. How would you describe your ability in terms of ICT? How would you describe your academic performance in terms of ICT?
4. How did you learn/acquire this knowledge/ability in ICT?
- What made you interested in the first place? How did you start to learn ICT?
5. Will you choose ICT courses in higher grades/in college?
Perceptions, Expectations, and Influences of Significant Others
6. How do your parents, best friends, and teachers see your ICT ability and interest?
- Do they think that you are talented in ICT?
- Do they encourage you to pursue the study of ICT?
7. To what extent are your best friends interested in ICT?
- How often do you discuss ICT knowledge/skills with them?
8. Can you think of one or several persons who inspired you to become interested in ICT?
Own Expectations for Learning and Developing a Career in ICT
9. What would you like to study in college? What are the factors you consider when making this choice?
10. To what extent do you think you would succeed in ICT studies and work?
(2 items), 0.92 for self-efficacy (3 items), 0.74 for competence (6 items), and 0.90 for recognition from parents (2 items). The other
indicators (namely, utility, past performance, recognition from teachers, and recognition from peers) were each measured by one item.
Table 4 presents the mean, SD, Cronbach’s alpha, and correlation among the nine indicators.
3.3.2. ICT career aspiration

The participants’ ICT career goals were measured by two questions related to a) their perceived career success in ICT and b) their
prospective ICT career knowledge. For example, as one question asked, “If your future career involves ICT-related knowledge and
capabilities, how likely is it that you will be successful?” Participants rated the items on a 7-point rating scale, with higher scores
Table 4
Descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients, and correlations among indicators of ICT identity.
Mean (SD) α 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
1. Interest 3.82 (1.38) .69 –

2. Perceived competence 3.92 (1.20) .74 .70*** –
3. Past performance+ 3.68 (1.53) – .62*** .74** –
4. Self-efficacy 3.72 (1.39) .92 .74*** .85*** .74*** –
5. Attainment value 4.22 (1.33) .69 .68*** .69*** .51*** .68*** –
6. Parent recognition 3.58 (1.47) .90 .38*** .42*** .45*** .44*** .30*** –
7. Teacher recognition+ 4.72 (1.63) – .26*** .29*** .28*** .31*** .23*** .33*** –
8. Peer recognition+ 3.90 (1.46) – .40*** .41*** .42*** .41*** .34*** .46*** .45*** –
9. Utility value+ 4.72 (1.53) – .53*** .48*** .38*** .54*** .68*** .24*** .17*** .27*** –
Note. + The indicator was only measured by one item; thus, no Cronbach’s alpha was reported. ***p < .001.
7
indicating greater career success and greater prospective career knowledge in ICT.
3.3.3. Intention to study and work in ICT

With reference to Wong, Yeung, Ho, Tsz, and Lam (2014), two items were adapted to measure students’ intention to study ICT in
senior forms and in universities, and one item was used to assess their intention to pursue careers in ICT. A sample item was the
following: “Do you plan to study ICT in form 4 (equivalent to Grade 10)?” Items were rated on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 =
definitely not to 7 = definitely (α = 0.90).
3.3.4. Gender role stereotypes

Eleven items were selected from Tantekin (2002)’s attitudes toward gender roles scale to measure participants’ own gender ste
reotypic beliefs. A sample item was the following: “Most females prefer not to work if they do not have to support their families.”
Participants rated the 11 items on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree, with higher scores
indicating less stereotypic attitudes (α = 0.65).
3.3.5. Perceived support from others

Modified from the measure of Giles and Larmour (2000), five items assessed the degree of support and encouragement students
received from their parents, teachers, and best friends in studying ICT subjects and working in ICT. A sample item was “I perceive that
my father encourages me to develop a career related to ICT.” Each item was rated on a 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 = not at all to
7 = to a great extent (α = 0.83).
3.4. Data analyses
To identify ICT identity profiles (RQ1), we adopted latent profile analysis (LPA) (Hofmans, Wille, & Schreurs, 2020) to examine
attainment value, utility value, interest, self-efficacy, perceived competence, past performance, and recognition from others (parents,
teachers, and best friends). We referred to entropy, the Akaike Information Criteria (AIC), the Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC), and
the Lo-Mendell-Rubin (LMR) test for model selection.
After identifying ICT identity profiles, we performed multinomial logistic regression to address how gender stereotypic beliefs and
the three types of social support (parent, teacher, and peer support) affected the identity profiles (RQ3-4). Because parents’ education
level was found to have impacts on young females’ STEM choices (Jackson, Gardner, & Sullivan, 1993) and the female-only learning
environment was reported to increase female students’ motivation toward ICT (Crombie & Armstrong, 1999), parents’ education level
and the gender setting of the school (female-only vs. coed environment), together with students’ academic performance, were
controlled in the model as covariates. Finally, we ran a regression to analyze how perceived career success and prospective career
knowledge moderated the association between students’ identity profiles and their intentions to study and work in ICT (RQ2 & RQ5).
We conducted LPA using Mplus 7.4 and regression analyses using Stata 16. Missing data were handled through maximum likelihood
methods.
Thematic analysis guided by the research questions was employed to analyze the interview data. Interview transcriptions were read
and reviewed line by line several times to draw up open codes (Dahlgren, Emmelin, & Winkvist, 2007) to identify themes and responses
related to students’ ICT abilities and study experiences, influences from significant others, and future study and career aspirations. The
open codes were subsequently arranged into relevant categories of themes and responses, which were then compared and contrasted
based on the research questions to identify patterns and variations.
Table 5
Descriptive statistics.
Key variables Mean (standard deviation)
Interest 3.82 (1.38)

Competence 3.92 (1.20)
Past performance 3.68 (1.53)
Self-efficacy 3.72 (1.39)
Attainment value 4.22 (1.33)
Recognition from parent 3.58 (1.47)
Recognition from teacher 4.72 (1.63)
Recognition from peer 3.90 (1.46)
Utility value 4.72 (1.53)
Gender stereotypic beliefs 3.70 (.76)
Parent support 3.58 (1.47)
Teacher support 3.61 (1.65)
Peer support 3.22 (1.58)
Perceived career success 3.48 (1.53)
Prospective career knowledge 3.37 (1.51)
Intention to study STEM 2.72 (1.72)
Intention to work in STEM 2.92 (1.77)
8
4. Results
4.1. Quantitative analysis
Table 5 reports the descriptive statistics of the key variables. Table 6 shows the LPA findings. The 5-profile model appeared to be a
satisfactory solution with a high entropy value (0.85) and was better than the 4-profile model in terms of the AIC (21,643.81 vs.
21,798.44), BIC (21,917.02 vs. 22,024.55), and LMR test (p = .012) results. The LMR test indicated that the 6-profile model was no
better than the 5-profile model (p = .105). Therefore, we selected the 5-profile model as the final model for the ICT identity.
Table 7 summarizes the characteristics of the five ICT identity profiles. In the largest profile (n = 310, 37.8%), the means of the ICT
identity indicators fell around the midpoint of the score ranges. We referred to this profile as average. The almost ICT person profile
(n = 179, 21.8%) had higher indicator means than did the average profile. The ICT person profile (n = 63, 7.7%) featured the highest
indicator means. In the incompatible with ICT profile (n = 107, 13.0%), the indicator means were consistently far below the mid
points of the score ranges. In the last profile (n = 162, 19.7%), the indicator means were below the midpoints of the score ranges,
except for the mean of “recognition from teacher”, which was slightly above the midpoint of the score range and, importantly, did not
differ from that of the average profile. We referred to this profile as hesitant. Overall, the five profiles differed substantially on all
indicators except “recognition from teacher” (Fig. 2).
We used the average profile, which was the profile with the most members, as the reference category for the subsequent analyses.
Table 8 reports the results of multinomial logistic regression. Female students with more parent and peer support were more likely
(relative risk ratio [RRR] = 1.43 to 2.55) to have almost ICT person or ICT person profiles and were less likely (RRR = 0.52 to 0.81) to
have hesitant or incompatible with ICT profiles. Therefore, H4 is partially supported. Additionally, students perceiving more gender
stereotypes were less likely (RRR = 0.75) to have the almost ICT person profile, providing support to H3.
Table 9 reports how the individual ICT identity profiles are associated with the intentions of the sampled students to study and work
in ICT. With the average profile as the reference category for ICT identity profiles, female students with the ICT person (b = 1.35) and
almost ICT person (b = 0.63) profiles reported a higher intention to study ICT, whereas those with the hesitant (b = − 0.50) and
incompatible with ICT (b = − 1.14) profiles reported a lower intention. H1 is therefore supported. We also observed a significant
moderating effect of prospective career knowledge (b = 0.32) on the association between ICT identity and intention to study ICT: the
ICT person profile entailed a higher intention to study ICT than did the average profile, particularly among the students who perceived
themselves as having more prospective career knowledge (Fig. 3). H6 is partially supported.
The regression results also showed that the ICT person (b = 1.32) and almost ICT person (b = 0.41) profiles were related to a higher
intention to work in ICT, and the incompatible with ICT (b = − 1.15) profile was related to a lower intention. H2 is supported. The
impact of the incompatible with ICT profile on the intention to work in ICT was qualified by perceived career success (b = − 0.28): the
difference between the incompatible with ICT and average profiles was more profound among students with higher levels of perceived
career success (Fig. 4). This provides a partial support to H5.
4.2. Qualitative results
This section summarizes the identified themes from the qualitative analysis of the interviews, which are organized into three
sections, namely, the development of ICT identity, social influence from significant others, and the influence of ICT identity on study
intention and career aspiration. Table 10 summarizes students’ responses to the three themes.
4.2.1. Development of ICT identity

Some high school females stated that they were not particularly interested in ICT before, but once they experienced a sense of
achievement and success in their ICT studies, they became dedicated to ICT. For example, one student stated:
I thought that coding was super cool! I started to like coding … [Before I learned coding], I saw all the letters and symbols and
wondered what they meant. However, now that I have learned it. I can understand what they mean. So cool![ …] After learning
coding, I thought about working in the coding industry in the ICT field. Then, I also think that I can create my own games.
(Student 4)
Table 6
Results of latent profile analysis (LPA).
Model
1-profile 2-profile 3-profile 4-profile 5-profile 6-profile
Entropy – .87 .89 .86 .85 .85

AIC 25347.25 23143.68 22152.43 21798.44 21643.81 21514.99
BIC 25432.04 23275.57 22331.43 22024.55 21917.02 21835.30
p (LMR) – <.001 <.001 .022 .012 .105
Notes: AIC = Akaike information criterion; BIC= Bayesian information criterion; p (LMR) = p value of the Lo–Mendell–Rubin test. Entropy (ranging
from 0 to 1) indicates classification accuracy, with a value of 0.80 being considered high. Lower AIC and BIC values suggest a better model fit. A
significant LMR test result indicates that a model with k classes is better than its counterpart with k-1 classes (e.g., 5-class model vs. 4-class model). All
else being equal, a model with fewer classes should be selected in the interest of parsimony.
9
Table 7
Characteristics of ICT identity profiles.
ICT identity profiles ICT identity indicators
Interest Competence Past Self- Attainment Parent Teacher Peer Utility

performance efficacy recognition recognition recognition
ICT person (n = 63, 6.14a 5.88a 6.02a 6.14a 5.97a 5.02a 5.72a 5.41a 6.32a
7.7%)
Almost ICT person (n 4.78b 4.92b 4.86b 4.93b 5.14b 4.17b 5.18a,b 4.55b 5.57b
= 179, 21.8%)
Average (n = 310, 3.85c 4.06c 3.75c 3.86c 4.34c 3.53c 4.78b,c 3.89c 4.86c
37.8%)
Hesitant (n = 162, 3.04d 3.11d 2.68d 2.67d 3.46d 3.13c 4.39c 3.27d 4.01d
19.7%)
Incompatible with ICT 1.90e 1.92e 1.65e 1.49e 2.42e 2.34d 3.75d 2.87d 3.05e
(n = 107, 13.0%)
Notes: Means are reported. For a certain ICT identity indicator, the highest mean is highlighted in bold, and the lowest mean is underlined.
F tests were adopted to compare ICT identity profiles for each ICT identity indicator. All F values were significant (p < .001), and post hoc comparisons
with the Bonferroni adjustment were subsequently conducted. Means with no subscript in common differed significantly (p < .05) across ICT identity
profiles.
Fig. 2. Latent profiles of ICT identity.
Table 8
Predicting ICT identity profiles.
ICT identity profiles
Incompatible with ICT Hesitant Almost ICT person ICT person

Gender stereotypic beliefs 1.39 (.99, 1.95) .97 (.75, 1.26) .75 (.58, .96) .67 (.44, 1.02)
Parent support .57 (.46, .70) .87 (.73, 1.03) 1.43 (1.20, 1.72) 2.38 (1.74, 3.26)
Teacher support .94 (.80, 1.10) .92 (.80, 1.05) 1.05 (.91, 1.21) 1.26 (.99, 1.62)
Peer support .52 (.42, .65) .81 (.70, .94) 1.50 (1.29, 1.75) 2.55 (1.96, 3.34)
Notes: Average was the reference category for ICT identity profiles. Relative risk ratios (95% confidence intervals) are reported. Significant findings (p
< .05) are in bold. Gender setting of the school, academic performance, and parent education level were controlled in the analysis as covariates.
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Table 9
Predicting the intention to study and work in ICT.
Intention to study ICT Intention to work in ICT
Main effects b p b p
ICT identity profiles
Incompatible with ICT ¡1.14 < .001 ¡1.15 < .001
Hesitant ¡.50 < .001 − .26 .060
Almost ICT person .63 < .001 .41 .004
ICT person 1.35 .001 1.32 .001
Perceived career success .25 < .001 .32 < .001
Prospective career knowledge .05 .376 .10 .107
Moderating effects
Incompatible with ICT x Perceived career success − .23 .066 ¡.28 .026
Hesitant x Perceived career success − .05 .595 .12 .260
Almost ICT person x Perceived career success .10 .345 .21 .056
ICT person x Perceived career success .06 .779 − .07 .732
Incompatible with ICT x Prospective career knowledge − .04 .721 − .07 .539
Hesitant x Prospective career knowledge .02 .856 − .03 .771
Almost ICT person x Prospective career knowledge .13 .184 .09 .367
ICT person x Prospective career knowledge .32 .014 .22 .079
Notes: Average was the reference category for ICT identity profiles. B = unstandardized regression coefficient. Significant findings (p < .05) are in
bold. Gender stereotype conceptions, parent support, teacher support, peer support, gender setting of the school, academic performance, and parent
education level were controlled.
Fig. 3. Moderating effect of career prospect knowledge on the association between ICT identity profiles (ICT person vs. average) and the intention to
study ICT.
This quote shows that competence, past performance, and self-efficacy, which are important components of ICT identity, were key
in driving these female high school students to pursue their ICT studies in the future.
Recognition by significant others is also an important component of students’ ICT identity, similar to what Edna, Calabrese Barton,
Hosun, and Tara (2013) have discovered for science identity in general. For instance, Student 7 mentioned that she wanted to be
recognized as a technology person. She learned many different technological skills and knowledge to impress her family members and
showed off the games she had created to her sister. Her strong ICT identity pushed her to be more attentive in the ICT class than were
her fellow students and to desire a future career in technology.
ICT identity was often developed out of interest in ICT, which was linked with the leisure activities and hobbies of these young
females. As digital natives, many of the adolescent females we interviewed frequently used computers and browsed the internet for fun,
and some liked to play video and online games. This hobby inspired some to consider learning coding so that they could change the
programming of games and websites themselves:
I think I developed my interest in coding because of the pretty pictures and nice music I encountered on the internet. I wanted to
download them but could not. Therefore, I started to learn to break those limitations by myself and became interested in coding.
Additionally, when I play video games, I lose sometimes. Then, I think how I can win. Then, I try to study their programming to
fix it. (Student 16)
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Fig. 4. Moderating effect of perceived career success on the association between ICT identity profiles (incompatible with ICT vs. average) and the
intention to work in ICT.
4.2.2. Influence from significant others

Female high school students with the ICT person profile tended to have parents and friends who inspired or encouraged them to
learn more about ICT. Interest in computers was the usual starting point of developing their ICT identity. In the learning process, these
adolescent females gradually established their competence and obtained a sense of success:
[Who do you think has inspired you to be interested in computer?] Should be my dad. My dad was an engineer. When I was a
kid, it was him who approached those mechanics at home[…] When I watched how he dealt with machines but could not
understand, or when I tried myself but could not make it, or when the computer was damaged by viruses, I would ask dad to
come over to help. He could restore everything quickly. (Student 1)
Students who were uninterested in ICT usually reported a lack of support from their parents and friends. For instance, Student 6
mentioned that she was not interested in ICT at all, her results were bad, as she could not follow what was being taught in class, and
most of her friends did not like the subject. Additionally, her mother forced her to learn ICT (rather than encouraging or guiding her),
which made her dislike the subject even more.
Consistent with the quantitative results, few students acknowledged the contribution of teachers in the development of ICT identity
or in the pursuit of ICT study. Teachers’ support appeared to be less relevant to the development of ICT identity for these adolescent
females. For instance, Student 7, who identified herself as an ICT person and was very eager to acquire ICT knowledge, was not
interested in the ICT class at school because she was already familiar with what was being taught in the class. Some interviewees
commented that because of the large class size of more than 30 students, teachers were not able to attend to all students individually.
Therefore, even though they were eager to learn and were interested in ICT, they were not able to have their study problems or
difficulties resolved in time.
4.2.3. ICT identity and study intention/career aspiration

Students with strong ICT identity showed dedication and motivation in the pursuit of ICT knowledge and career. For example,
Student 5 and Student 8 stated the following:
[In the coding workshop I attended], I was asked to create a game from scratch. It was difficult for me. I did not know what to do
at the beginning[…]Whenever I did not understand something, I raised my hand and asked the instructor. So at the end, I could
make a game that I was satisfied with. Though there were difficulties in the process, in general, they could be solved[…] I have
learned some basic knowledge, and indeed, I can further explore coding on my own. (Student 5)
I would like to study information technology in the university and … something related to design or art[…] If I can work in a
field that will allow me to draw and do coding, then I will be very happy and satisfied. (Student 8)
Conversely, female students who did not have a strong ICT identity tended to choose their future careers in other areas. For
instance, Student 17 wanted to be a psychologist more than a programmer or a doctor.
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Table 10
Summary of responses to qualitative interviews.
Student Development of ICT Identity Influence from Significant Others Study Intention and Career Aspiration
Code
1 She built her ICT identity when she was in Her father was an engineer and could fix She wanted to study ICT or law but still had
primary school when she learnt coding and computer problems. not decided.
Photoshop.
2 She could not follow the instructor in the coding She did not tell her friends or parents about her She was interested in studying Chinese,
class. No matter how hard she tried, she got stuck ICT study and they did not seem to care about her geography, and history.
in the class and found no interest in ICT. ICT knowledge.
3 She joined a coding workshop but found it Her mother encouraged her to attend some ICT She wanted to further study science
difficult and boring for her. It was her first time class. 2–3 of her friends went to the coding subjects and to be a physician in the future.
to create a website and liked doing something workshop with her but they were more interested
new. in making funny websites than learning coding.
4 After acquiring coding skills, she felt proud of Her father taught her science knowledge and She wanted to work in the game industry or
herself for being able to understand fixed home appliances with her. She also liked to study to be a physician.
programming codes and website construction. discuss what she learnt in ICT class with her
friends.
5 After she learnt coding, she found that coding The majority of her friends were interested in ICT Although she wanted to further study ICT,
could help turn her creativity into something and they learned coding together. Her parents she aspired to be a lawyer.
tangible. also encouraged her to acquire ICT skills.
6 She attended a coding workshop and followed all Her mother told her that ICT was useful to her She had not thought about what to study in
the steps as instructed but did not remember but she did not understand why it was useful. All university but wanted to work in
them after the workshop. She did not bother to her friends showed no interest in ICT. Even after disciplined services.
revisit the class materials afterward. she asked her ICT teacher, she still did not
understand.
7 She developed her ICT capability and identity She felt good when she could help her family She aspired to use ICT knowledge to be a
after learning to create a blog and website. members solve computer problems and showed designer.
them the games she created.
8 She had liked ICT since childhood and became She had one friend who was deeply interested in She wanted to be a programmer or
more interested when it could be used to help her ICT. designer.
draw.
9 Although she enjoyed making her own games by Her father persuaded her to join the coding She said she would like to be a physician as
taking an existing game and changing some of workshop and a classmate was willing to go with her parents said it was a good occupation.
the details and graphics of it, she found it her. However, she did not feel passionate about
difficult to remember what she learned in the the occupation.
coding workshop. She had neither interest in nor
hatred for ICT.
10 She started to see herself as an ICT person after Her parents gave her freedom to explore what She wanted to study law in university and
learning coding in school. Although she did not she liked but did not encourage her to study any to be a lawyer in future.
further study by herself, she revisited the things subject. Most of her friends were afraid of ICT but
she learned in class and kept improving the she had a friend who learned coding with her.
website and games she created.
11 She found coding interesting because it could A tutor at an NGO recommended that she learned She wanted to have a job that could let her
help her turn her creativity into games or coding but her parents did not know anything use her skills in drawing and coding.
websites. about her ICT study. The majority of her friends
were not interested in ICT.
12 She found coding and ICT uninteresting and Her parents persuaded her to learn ICT because it She had not yet decided on any plan for
difficult. She went to a coding workshop just was a necessary skill in the contemporary world. further study although her parents wanted
because she wanted to do something during the Although her parents and friends praised her for her to study medicine.
vacation and her friends were going. However, her website, she was not particularly happy with
she enjoyed making her own websites and their appreciation. Only 1–2 friends of hers liked
wanted to learn how to make videos. ICT.
13 She had been playing video games since Her parents were not interested in her ICT study She wanted to be a graphic designer that
childhood and found ICT knowledge useful for or the ICT work she did. Although some of her allowed her to use her drawing and ICT
bypassing regional restrictions in games. friends were interested in science, none were skills.
interested in ICT.
14 She developed her ICT identity after attending a Her parents did not encourage her to study ICT She wanted to do artistic work using
coding workshop at school. She became but allowed her freedom to pursue what she computer.
interested in coding when she saw people doing wanted. She did not have friends who were
coding on television and thought it was very cool interested in ICT but when she showed them her
to be able to do so. works, they were impressed.
15 She was afraid of coding but after learning the Her parents did not care about what she learned She had not decided what to study in
basics, she found coding interesting. However, in class and she did not show them her website. university but inclined to study STEM-
she did not have the motivation to continue Her friends did not join her in learning coding. related subjects.
learning or working on her website after class.
16 She became interested in ICT when she tried to Her parents recognized her ability in ICT as she She wanted to further study ICT and to
figure out how to download music and graphics was the one to fix computer problems at home. work in the game industry.
from the internet and to cheat in playing video
games.
(continued on next page)
13
Table 10 (continued )
Student Development of ICT Identity Influence from Significant Others Study Intention and Career Aspiration
Code
17 She used to be afraid of computer and had no ICT Her parents had no ICT knowledge and did not She wanted to further study ICT but for her
knowledge. However, when she saw her support or discourage her from learning ICT. future occupation, she wanted to be a
classmates creating videos and impressive Although most of her friends had no interest in psychologist.
presentations, she wanted to learn to make them. learning ICT, her best friend went to learn coding
After learning, she started to feel a sense of with her.
achievement.
18 Even after learning coding at school and making Her parents and friends knew that she learned She wanted to be a teacher in the future but
her own website, she still felt coding was ICT in school but did not show any interest in did not know what subject she wanted to
difficult. She did not identify as an ICT person at encouraging her. She did not think any teachers teach.
all but felt that ICT was a useful skill. had ever shown support to her for studying ICT.
19 She was not interested in ICT at all as she found it She did not talk about ICT study with her parents She wanted to be a nurse or engineer but
too difficult. She only managed to complete or friends and they did not show any concern did not know what subjects to take to
some class activities with the help of others. about her ICT ability. become one.
20 She felt a sense of achievement when she Her parents and friends were not particularly She had no concrete plan for further study
managed to create a game and started to like ICT. impressed by the games and websites she but would likely study science or visual art
created. in university.
4.2.3.1. Career prospects and perceived career success. When adolescent females contemplate which career path to walk on, they
themselves and their significant others also consider earning power and career prospects. For example, Student 16, who aspired to be a
video game developer, said,
I was able to talk with some ICT people to understand the career prospect, their job nature, how much one can earn[…]The
technology field has a big demand for professionals and has a good prospect[…] ICT will be my first choice for college. (Student 16)
The knowledge that the ICT field has good career prospects increased her dedication to pursuing further study in ICT. This matches
our quantitative finding that prospective career knowledge boosts the intention to study ICT among students with the ICT person
profile.
Conversely, when some adolescent females considered their future careers, they considered not only their aspirations and interests
but also their possibility of success in the ICT field. Interview data support the quantitative findings that students of the average profile
who have a higher perceived career success are likely to choose to work in ICT. Student 11 perceived that she had the right skills and
knowledge to make her strive on ICT and therefore considered working in the field:
[What do you like to do in the future?] Something related to the computer. I have some talent in drawing. With my interest and
skills in coding, I think I can combine both skills and do well in that area. (Student 11)
However, some students with strong ICT identity were interested in and good at ICT but may have chosen other career paths
because they perceived themselves as more succeeding in non-ICT areas. For example, although Student 5 was very interested in and
curious about the power of technology in making transformations around the world, she wanted to become a lawyer because she
evaluated herself as being able to succeed as a lawyer due to her linguistic abilities. Student 10, who belonged to the Almost ICT Person
profile, also said that she would like to be a lawyer in the future because she could perform better in the legal field. Female students
who have a higher perceived career success in non-ICT areas may turn away from ICT fields, even though they are interested in and
good at ICT.
This finding is unexpected and was not captured by our quantitative analyses. Two reasons are speculated regarding this phe
nomenon. First, a few students who were good at and interested in ICT also had strong abilities in other areas, leading them to choose
other career options when they perceived a greater chance of success in those areas. Second, gender stereotypic beliefs may implicitly
influence these female students’ career choices. Although many of them did not explicitly relate their career choice to their gender
identity, it was possible that their gender identification and conceptions led them to choose a “gender-appropriate” career, despite
their strong ICT identity. This speculation is supported by the response of Student 4, who was the only interviewee to say that she
preferred not to work in ICT because of her gender:
After learning coding, I thought of working in the ICT field. Then, I also thought about working in the video game industry[…] If
I have to choose, I would like to be a doctor, probably not an engineer because no girls work in that field. (Student 4)
Gender stereotypic beliefs, together with the perception of the lack of female role models in the ICT industry, may have implicitly
impacted these young females’ career choices.
5. Discussion
5.1. ICT identity and intention to study and work in ICT
The present study advances the current literature on STEM education by comprehensively examining the constituting components
of ICT identity and its influencing factors from a person-centered perspective. The results of this research confirmed that ICT identity is
14
a key predictor of the intention to study and work in ICT among females. This finding is consistent with past STEM research findings
that the STEM self-concept can predict the choice of STEM subject (Jeffries, Curtis, & Conner, 2020) and allow young people to plan for
their future (Sfard & Prusak, 2005). Because identity affects the motivation to achieve (Cohen & Garcia, 2008), deep cognitive pro
cessing of subject materials, and self-regulation in the pursuit of the domain (Osborne & Jones, 2011), students who have built a strong
ICT identity are more motivated to work hard to maintain that identity (Akkuş Çakır et al., 2017). ICT identity is important in
cultivating ICT career aspirations (Dou et al., 2019; Gottlieb, 2018), as an individual tends to engage in a career that is consistent with
and matches the core features of his or her identity (Eccles, 2009).
Five profiles of ICT identity among adolescent females were identified, namely, ICT person, almost ICT person, average, hesitant,
and incompatible with ICT. Attainment value, utility value, interest, competence, self-efficacy, past performance, and recognition from
parents, peers, and teachers were all demonstrated to be significant determinants of the five profiles, as each profile generally displays
consistent and corresponding levels of the ICT identity components. Students with a strong ICT identity understood the importance of
ICT for both themselves and society, enjoyed ICT, had a high self-evaluation of their ICT ability, and received high recognition from
their significant others. Past studies reported similar findings that female college students who are passionate about ICT have a clear
idea of the contributions of ICT to a variety of social uses and are able to see the relevance of ICT for themselves (Fisher et al., 1997).
Relatively speaking, teacher recognition did not differ as much across the five profiles as did the other components. We speculate that
this was because the class size in Hong Kong schools tends to be large (i.e., over 30 students per class), limiting the frequency of direct
and close interactions between students and teachers. Additionally, teachers often conduct whole-class teaching, in which students are
expected to adopt a passive role and conform (Sun, 2015). As a result, teacher recognition has limited influence on the development of
ICT identity among Hong Kong female students.
5.2. Gender stereotypic beliefs
Consistent with our prediction in H3, gender stereotypic beliefs can predict high school females’ ICT identity. A negative associ
ation between ICT identity and gender stereotypic beliefs was found. This finding coincides with Denner’s (2011) finding that young
females with weaker gender stereotypic beliefs have higher expectations for success and perceived relevance of computing. Addi
tionally, past research has indicated that gender stereotypic beliefs in relation to science are associated with weaker science identity,
which in turn results in lower science career aspirations (Cundiff, Vescio, Loken, & Lo, 2013).
Nevertheless, despite its strong influence, individuals may not be conscious of the impact of gender stereotypic beliefs on their ICT
study. From the interviews, it was noted that the majority of the adolescent females were not aware of the existence of their gender
stereotypic beliefs. Even among students who could identify support and barriers to their ICT studies, they were not aware of the
existence and influence of gender stereotypes in their decision-making process (Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002). In particular,
gender inequality and stereotypes remain salient in the educational system and teaching materials in Hong Kong (Lee, 2014). It is not a
surprise that the lack of gender egalitarian education leads high school females to be uninformed of the existence and influence of such
beliefs.
5.3. Social support
Support and encouragement from parents and peers were found to be significant predictors of ICT identity across the five profiles.
Greater support from parents and peers in general was associated with stronger ICT identity, especially among adolescents who are
subject to such influences to a greater extent than are adults (Adya & Kaiser, 2005; Osborne & Jones, 2011). Moreover, the lack of
support from parents and peers weakens the development of ICT identity and subsequently hinders the decision to study and work in
ICT among adolescent females (Pasiewicz, 2018). It shows that ICT identity is made possible not only within a single community but is
cultivated in a multiplicity of relationships with parents and peers, through which students evaluate and position themselves in the ICT
field (Solomon, Croft, & Lawson, 2010).
Contrary to hypothesis 4, teachers’ support was not able to predict high school females’ ICT identity. Based on our qualitative
findings, we speculate that the situation in Hong Kong is different from that in Western societies because the class size of high schools
in Hong Kong remains large. Smaller classes, comparatively, are reported to facilitate students’ learning progress and their acquisition
of more knowledge (Brühwiler & Blatchford, 2011). In Hong Kong, a high school teacher, who is usually responsible for a class of 30 or
more students, is unlikely to attend to the needs of each individual student. Given that students have diverse needs and motivations in
studying ICT, the current class environment makes it very challenging for teachers to offer adequate time and support to nurture
students’ ICT identity development.
5.4. Perceived career success and prospective career knowledge
Prospective career knowledge was found to moderate the association between ICT identity and the intention to study ICT among
female high school students. Specifically, students with a strong ICT identity reported an even higher intention to study ICT when they
had a clearer idea about career prospects in the field. In other words, prospective career knowledge can help boost the motivation of
young females with a strong ICT identity to further study ICT (Capobianco, Deemer, & Lin, 2017). Consistent with the interview data,
high school females had already been considering their future areas of study based on their interests and competences as well as the
prospect of working in a related field. Hazari et al. (2010) pointed out that students have a higher motivation to choose and persist in a
field if they perceive that a career in that field can help them achieve their desired outcome. In other words, a career with a better
15
prospect is more appealing to students, especially when it is consistent with their identification.
Adolescents’ impression about the nature, characteristics, rewards, and work conditions of the occupation as well as the person
ality, lifestyle, and perceived social status of people in that occupation can shape their future career choices (van Tuijl & van der Molen,
2016). In contrast, young people avoid some career options because of their lack of knowledge about the fields or the unappealing
perceptions of such options (Brophy, 2009). Therefore, it is important for educators and parents to provide accurate and detailed career
information to young females with strong ICT identity and even to let them meet with ICT professionals. Working with them as interns
to understand the breadth of work and activities carried out by ICT professionals will keep these young females informed of the latest
developments in the ICT field.
Moreover, perceived career success moderated the relation between ICT identity and the intention to work in the ICT field in such a
way that compared to students with weak ICT identity, students with average ICT identity had a higher intention to work in ICT, and
this higher intention was more profound when their perceived career success was high. In other words, perceived career success can
help boost the intention to work in ICT among female high school students with an average ICT identity. This is understandable
because these females are not very confident about their competence in ICT, are not strongly dedicated to the field, and may still be
exploring their future career options. Sharma, Torrado, Gómez, and Jaccheri (2020) suggested that the perception of career success
and a positive perception of ICT careers can help encourage females to enter the ICT industry. If they can be mentored by current
employees of the ICT field, which can build up their confidence in meeting the requirements of the industry, then they will be more
likely to choose to work in the ICT industry (Brophy, 2009).
5.5. Practical implications
Past studies revealed that female students reported less favorable attitudes toward STEM as they progressed through their sec
ondary school years (Bennett & Hogarth, 2009); thus, it is necessary to implement intervention programs in earlier stages of devel
opment to prevent young females from developing self-limiting attitudes toward ICT (Çakır et al., 2017). The current study has
revealed that ICT identity plays a key role in shaping female high school students’ intention to study and work in the ICT field.
To promote ICT identity, it is important for educators to facilitate “critical and reflective engagement with domain-specific
knowledge, its use, and its meaning for the self” (Çakır et al., 2017, p. 118). Class discussions, activities, and assignments that pro
mote self-reflection and the association between learning materials and the self are recommended to encourage identity exploration
among students (Sinai, Kaplan, & Flum, 2012). In particular, students should not only be taught skills and theoretical knowledge in ICT
but, more importantly, be guided to reflect on and evaluate all the components included in ICT identity—attainment value, utility
value, interest, competence, self-efficacy, past performance, and social recognition—in their learning of ICT (Godwin et al., 2013). To
achieve these goals, educators should let students develop control over their ICT learning, provide them with increasingly challenging
tasks to build a stronger sense of competence and self-efficacy, help students relate ICT knowledge with their background knowledge to
promote their interest, and demonstrate the usefulness and contribution of ICT to our daily activities (Osborne & Jones, 2011).
Moreover, as indicated in our findings, classes should be smaller in size to make the above learning activities possible and should be
conducted in interactive ways that encourage students to relate their personal experiences to actual career circumstances.
In particular, different educational strategies should be adopted for female high school students with differing levels of ICT identity.
Our findings revealed that prospective career knowledge and career coaching are useful for promoting the intention to study ICT
among young females with the ICT person profile and the intention to work in the ICT industry among young females with the average
profile, respectively. Schools, educators, and education policy-makers should consider using validated measures similar to the one
adopted in the present study to identify high school females with relatively strong ICT identity and provide them with up-to-date ICT
career information and career guidance to help them realize their academic and career aspirations. In contrast, female students with
average or weaker ICT identity can benefit from career coaching that aims to help individuals plan for their future careers and
strengthen their self-efficacy and ICT identity by enhancing their perceived career success in ICT. In particular, career coaching with
such objectives can reduce the competitive disadvantage that females face in the male-dominated ICT field (Spurk, Kauffeld, Bar
thauer, & Heinemann, 2015). Adolescent females with average ICT identity can benefit the most from the help and guidance of an ICT
mentor or a job-shadowing opportunity to equip themselves with necessary knowledge about how to succeed in the ICT field.
Moreover, ICT classes should include “making” (the creation of technological artifacts related to electronics and programming
through play and innovation) to enhance students’ intrinsic motivation and eventually to prompt them to incorporate ICT into their
sense of self (Schlegel et al., 2019). From the qualitative findings, a number of female students with the almost ICT person and ICT
person profiles mentioned that they developed interest in ICT because of video gaming. Those who had experience creating computer
games in a coding workshop even remarked that they became more interested and confident in ICT after the training. Past studies have
revealed that playing and designing computer games can help encourage young females to have career aspirations in the ICT field
(Sharma et al., 2020). Indeed, hands-on creation based on STEM knowledge that involves the spirit of play and innovation, the
stimulation of intrinsic motivation, and the application and acquisition of technological knowledge is reported to enhance students’
formation of STEM identity (Schlegel et al., 2019). With more students developing stronger ICT identity, they can encourage and
provide support to each other in ICT study, further enhancing their ICT identity. Furthermore, students should be encouraged to show
what they have created to their parents so that parents can have a better understanding of how well their daughters are academically
performing in ICT, which in turn can be helpful for enhancing social support to adolescent females. In addition, as suggested by Kong
and Wang (2021), high school leaders should plan parent education campaigns to help parents develop positive attitudes toward their
children’s ICT learning and learn how to provide them with support in this area.
For all young females, reducing gender stereotypic beliefs is beneficial for strengthening their ICT identity, which in turn boosts
16
their further study and work intentions. Educators should consider implementing gender-egalitarian curricula to help female students
reflect upon their own gender stereotypic beliefs. Moreover, an ICT learning environment that is free from gender stereotypes should
be cultivated in schools. This kind of learning environment has been found to improve females’ interest, utility value, and expectancy
in ICT compared to a gender stereotypic environment due to a stronger sense of belonging in the former, even after the learning
material, teacher’s gender, and student gender ratio were controlled (Master et al., 2016).
5.6. Limitations and future research
This study adopted a cross-sectional and self-reported design. The completion of the questionnaire survey and participation in the
semi-structured interview were voluntary, resulting in a response rate of 59%. Therefore, students with a more positive attitude toward
ICT and schools that place more emphasis on ICT education were likely more inclined to participate. Additionally, as a cross-sectional
study, the associations among ICT identity and gender stereotypic beliefs, social support, and study and work intentions should be
interpreted with caution. Future research may consider utilizing a longitudinal design to replicate the relationships between these
variables reported above. In addition, researchers should discover further measures to cater to the specific needs and circumstances of
adolescent females with varying degrees of ICT identity in learning ICT.
6. Conclusions
This study demonstrates the importance of ICT identity in the recruitment of female high school students into the ICT field and the
influences of gender stereotypic beliefs and social support on ICT identity. The study specifically brings to the attention of educators,
parents, and policy-makers the necessity to consider the needs of adolescent females with varying levels of ICT identity to keep them in
the pipeline and to stimulate their interest in ICT, which is a transformative sector of the economy. To ensure that the needs, voices,
and perspectives of females are included, all stakeholders should be involved in resolving the current institutionalized gender
imbalance in the ICT field.
Funding
This work was supported by funding from the Women’s Foundation in Hong Kong (Project Numbers: 9231198 and 9231202),
which was awarded to the first and second authors.
Role of the funding source
The Women’s Foundation had no involvement in the study design, in the collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, in the
writing of the article, or in the decision to submit the article for publication.
Credit author statement
Mario Liong: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. Dannii Y. Yeung: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Grand H.-L.
Cheng: Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. Ray Y. H. Cheung: Formal analysis, Writing – original draft.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The authors do not have permission to share data.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Women’s Foundation for funding the two research projects from which the data for this article were
collected. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers who provided valuable comments and suggestions on our earlier draft.
17
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Profiles of ICT Identity and Their Associations With Female High School Students' Intention To Study and Work in ICT

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Computers & Education 195 (2023) 104722

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers & Education

Profiles of ICT identity and their associations with female high

ICT Information and Communication Technology

1.1. The role of identity in ICT studies

1.2. Aim and approach of the current study

eradicate the hindrance faced by adolescent females in their ICT pursuits.

2.1. Definition of domain identification

2.2. Conceptualization of STEM identity

defining factors of STEM identity (Hosbein & Barbera, 2020).

2.3. Operationalization of ICT identity in the current study

2.4. Factors affecting young females’ ICT identity

2.4.1. Gender stereotypic beliefs

2.4.2. Social support

2.4.3. Career aspiration

Fig. 1. Current study model.

3. Material and methods

3.1. Research design

3.2. Participants and procedures

3.3.1. ICT identity

Gender setting of the school Co-ed 276 (33.6)

ICT Experiences, Abilities, and Interests in ICT

3.3.2. ICT career aspiration

1. Interest 3.82 (1.38) .69 –

3.3.3. Intention to study and work in ICT

3.3.4. Gender role stereotypes

3.3.5. Perceived support from others

3.4. Data analyses

Interest 3.82 (1.38)

4.1. Quantitative analysis

4.2. Qualitative results

4.2.1. Development of ICT identity

1-profile 2-profile 3-profile 4-profile 5-profile 6-profile

Entropy – .87 .89 .86 .85 .85

Interest Competence Past Self- Attainment Parent Teacher Peer Utility

Fig. 2. Latent profiles of ICT identity.

Incompatible with ICT Hesitant Almost ICT person ICT person

4.2.2. Influence from significant others

4.2.3. ICT identity and study intention/career aspiration

5.1. ICT identity and intention to study and work in ICT

5.2. Gender stereotypic beliefs

5.3. Social support

5.4. Perceived career success and prospective career knowledge

5.5. Practical implications

5.6. Limitations and future research

Role of the funding source

Credit author statement

Declaration of competing interest

The authors do not have permission to share data.

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