Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Keywords: Maternal self-confidence has become an essential concept in understanding early disturbances
Maternal self-confidence in the mother-child relationship. Recent research suggests that maternal self-confidence may be
anxiety associated with maternal mental health and infant development. The current study investigated
depression the dynamics of maternal self-confidence during the first four months postpartum and the
Early regulatory problems
predictive ability of maternal symptoms of depression, anxiety, and early regulatory problems in
Postpartum
infants. Questionnaires assessing symptoms of depression (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression
Scale), anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory), and early regulatory problems (Questionnaire for
crying, sleeping and feeding) were completed in a sample of 130 women at three different time
points (third trimester (T1), first week postpartum (T2), and 4 months postpartum (T3).Maternal
self-confidence increased significantly over time.High maternal trait anxiety and early infant
regulatory problems negatively contributed to the prediction of maternal self-confidence, ex
plainting 31.8% of the variance (R = .583, F3.96 = 15.950, p < .001).
Our results emphasize the transactional association between maternal self-confidence, reg
ulatory problems in infants, and maternal mental distress. There is an urgent need for appropriate
programs to reduce maternal anxiety and to promote maternal self-confidence in order to prevent
early regulatory problems in infants.
1.Introduction
1.1. definition
The early mother-infant relationship plays a crucial role in a child's development (Lomanowska, Boivin, Hertzman, & Fleming, 2015).
In order to understand and to identify disturbances in the mother-child relationship, maternal self-confidence has become an important
concept.
The concept of maternal self-confidence (Teti & Gelfand, 1991) is understood as a special aspect of self-efficacy (Jones & Prinz,
ÿ Corresponding author at: Universitätsfrauenklinik Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 440, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
E-mail address: Stephanie.Wallwiener@googlemail.com (S.Wallwiener).
1
Equal contributors.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.09.011
Received 15 March 2017; Received in revised form August 24, 2017; Accepted 18 September
2017 0163-6383/ © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Machine Translated by Google
2005). Maternal self-confidence is defined as a mother's confidence in her own abilities to successfully raise her child, to be able to
handle aspects of daily parenting, and to correctly interpret her child's signals (Zahr, 1991), representing her ability to create an
environment which positively influences the infant's development (Reck, Noe, Gerstenlauer, & Stehle, 2012; Zietlow, Schluter,
Nonnenmacher, Muller, & Reck, 2014). In the literature, the terms “maternal self-efficacy” and “maternal self-confidence” are used as
synonyms (Teti & Gelfand, 1991).
In the sense of a feedback mechanism, high maternal self-confidence supports feelings of success, which in turn perpetuates
maternal self-confidence. The downside is that in mothers with low maternal self-confidence, problems in parenting will be expected and
interpreted as failure, weakening maternal self-confidence in turn (Sanders & Woolley, 2005; Jones & Prinz, 2005). According to
Bandura's theory of self-efficacy, women with high levels of maternal self-efficacy usually enjoy the new challenge of motherhood, while
women with low maternal self-confidence tend to be afraid of the adjustments of motherhood and suffer mentally and physically
( Bandura, 1977).
Low maternal self-confidence can also cause long-term behavioral or affective disorders in children as it directly influences the
parenting style: While, on the one hand, low maternal self-confidence is more often associated with a coercive parenting style with tough
penalties ( Bugental & Cortez, 1988), recent studies emphasized that the higher the levels of maternal self-confidence are, the more is
warmth, sensitivity, and responsiveness shown towards the child (Stifter & Bono, 1998), (Teti & Gelfand, 1991) , preventing the
development of anxiety and depressive disorders or behavioral problems in children and adolescents in the long term and promoting
social competence, self-confidence, and educational achievement (Sanders & Woolley, 2005; Tucker, Gross, Fogg, Delaney, & Lapporte,
1998; Reck et al., 2012).
Maternal self-confidence itself is a dynamic, time-dependent process potentially influenced by different variables, including the
mother's mental health. Although maternal self-confidence is known to affect mental and physical health of both mother and child,
research concerning influencing variables, especially in the peripartum period, is rare among the current literature.
229
Machine Translated by Google
Taken together, these data suggest that an association between maternal self-confidence, mental health, and early regulatory problems
can be hypothesized. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the course of maternal self-confidence in the first four months
postpartum and to gather data showing the link to symptoms of depression and anxiety. We also specifically analyzed the link between
maternal self-confidence and early infant regulatory problems. hypothesizing that low maternal self-confidence fosters regulatory problems.
To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first study to examine the effects of maternal self-confidence on early infant regulatory problems
in the postpartum period.
2.Methods
This longitudinal, prospective study was conducted in Southern Germany at a perinatal center of maximum care between January and
August 2014. The study was designed to gather comprehensive data in a diverse sample of women in Germany during pregnancy and up
to four months postpartum on medical, sociodemographic, and psychological factors.
Participants were recruited while waiting for their routine medical check-ups. The eligibility criteria included being 18 years old and older
and having a sufficient knowledge of the German language. The questionnaires were developed to include a range of psychometrically
validated tools as wells as scales covering sociodemographic and medical data and were completed at three different time points: third
trimester (T1, N = 330), first week postpartum (T2, N = 247 ), and 4 months postpartum (T3, N = 154). The first questionnaire was filled out
on-site while the other questionnaires were mailed to the participants at a nominated address and returned in envelopes provided. All
medical details were double checked for accuracy with the hospital's medical and delivery record.
In this part of the study, we focus on maternal self-confidence and its link to maternal psychological symptoms and early infant regulatory
problems. Only women with complete data at T3 and who delivered at term were included in the analyzes (N = 130).
Women with preterm births were excluded (n = 18), as preterm birth is assumed to affect the early mother-child-interaction and to interact
with feeding, sleeping, and crying behavior in infants. The return rate at TIII was 46.7%, which is comparable to similar studies (Gawlik,
Muller, Hoffmann, Dienes, & Reck, 2015). Ethics approval was granted by the Ethical Committee of the University of Heidelberg.
2.2. measurements
230
Machine Translated by Google
We used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM® SPSS® v. 23.0.0.0) for all analyzes conducted. Power estimates were
computed using G-Power v. 3.1.9.2 (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, & Lang, 2009; Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007). Prior to all analyses,
Little's Missing Completely at Random (MCAR-) test was carried out to evaluate differences between excluded cases and the remaining
sample (Little, Roderick JA 1988). For the MCAR test, the following variables were considered: sociodemographic variables (eg, age,
graduation), pregnancy- and birth-related variables (eg, gestation age and APGAR values) as well as questionnaire data (eg, STAI and
LMSCS scores ). The results of the MCAR test were not significant (ÿ2 = 8,092.11, df = 7,949, p = .13); the case-exclusions were valid for
our sample and the subpopulation representative for the larger sample. In addition, missing values are unlikely to depend on third variables.
Due to scale-specific amounts of missing values, the valid number of cases n varied depending on the data subsets statistic.
Linear regression models were chosen to evaluate the independent contribution of the study variables for maternal self-confidence at
T3. Using stepwise forward regression analysis, variable selection ends if R2 does not significantly change by selection of further variables.
Since a forward regression analysis bears the risk of not selecting independent variables with small, but meaningful effects, a backward
procedure was also applied.
Secondly, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for repeated measures was conducted to evaluate the change of maternal self
confidence between T2 and T3, adjusted for the significant regression predictors of the first step as covariates. Effect sizes are reported
as partial ÿ2 , which is a= sample-based estimator
.06 or r = .3 are of explained
medium-sized, and ÿ2variance.
= .14 or According to Cohen
r = .5 are large (Cohen
effects. 1977),statistical
Two-sided ÿ2 = .01 or r = .1 are small,
significance was ÿ2
evaluated at the 5% level.
3.Results
The average age at study inclusion was 33.66 years (SD = 4.06 years). The majority of women in the sample were married and living
together with their husband (80%). Just under half of the women were primiparous (40%). More than half of the women (53.8%) had a
university degree. Approximately two thirds of the women (67.5%) had an income level of more than €2,000 per month. Half of the women
(47.2%) had a vaginal delivery. Approximately one third of the women (33.1%) had a planned and one fifth of the women (19.7%) had a
secondary cesarean section. Questionnaire data are presented in Table 1. We considered scores one SD above the mean (one SD below
the mean for the LMSCS) as indicative of considerable impairment (see XX for similar procedures).
Sociodemographic factors (age, marital status, educational level, and parity) and birth-related variables (delivery mode) were included
as covariates in the analysis. There was no association between maternal self-confidence at T2 and maternal age (r = .00, p = .99),
education (r = ÿ.01, p = .93), family income (r = .02, p = .72), and parity (r = .09, p = .30).
At T3, maternal self-confidence was not associated with maternal age (r = ÿ.11, p = .18) or with education (r = ÿ.06, p = .44), family
income (r = ÿ.06, p = .49), or birth mode (r = .06, p = .47).
However, one week after delivery (T2), there was a significant correlation between LMSCS scores and a delivery by cesarean
231
Machine Translated by Google
Table 1
Descriptive statistics of questionnaire data.
Maternal self-confidence (LMSCS) at T2 130 31.00 142.00 111.38 2.46 28.03 18 (13.8)
Maternal self-confidence (LMSCS) at T3 130 43.00 144.00 124.72 1.17 13.32 17 (13.1)
Maternal depressive symptoms (EPDS) at T1 130 0.00 22.00 6.45 0.44 5.00 25 (19.2)
Maternal depressive symptoms (EPDS) at T2 128 0.00 21.00 6.61 0.46 5.16 25 (19.5)
Maternal state anxiety (STAI-S) at T1 126 23.00 73.00 38.35 0.92 10.28 20 (15.9)
Maternal state anxiety (STAI-S) at T2 128 21.00 65.26 33.10 0.80 9.08 18 (14.1)
Maternal trait anxiety (STAI-T) at T1 127 21.00 60.00 34.72 0.75 8.42 22 (17.3)
Maternal trait anxiety (STAI-T) at T2 130 20.00 56.00 33.07 0.77 8.77 22 (16.9)
Infant crying/sleeping (SFS-CS) at T3 104 1.00 3.14 1.63 0.04 0.38 16 (15.4)
Co-regulation (SFS-CR) at T3 122 1.17 3.55 2.39 0.05 0.60 26 (21.3)
Infant feeding (SFS-F) at T3 124 1.00 1.85 1.17 0.02 0.23 19 (15.3)
notes. a. 1 SD above the mean for all measures but LMSCS; 1 SD below the mean for LMSCS.
section (r = .13, p < .05) as well as parity (r = .22, p = .04). As only parity was associated with specific study variables (state anxiety at T1: r = .29, p
= .01; crying/sleeping at T3: r = ÿ.30, p = .02), we adjusted our regression model for parity .
Bivariate Pearson correlations between study variables and maternal self-confidence (LMSCS) at T3 are shown in Table 2. All significantly
correlated variables including maternal depression (EPDS), trait and state anxiety (STAI) at T1 and T2, regulatory problems (SFS subscales ) at T3,
as well as parity were included in the stepwise regression algorithm.
The final model was significant (R = .583, F3.96 = 15.950, p < .001) and included infant crying and sleeping problems at T3 (SFS: ÿ = ÿ.493, p <
.001) as well as trait anxiety at T1 (STAI: ÿ = ÿ.274, p = .01) as significant, negative predictors, explaining 31.8% (adjusted) of the variance in maternal
self-confidence. The forward regression steps are reported in Table 3. Multicollinearity can be excluded as the variance inflation factor (VIF) is almost
equal to one for every variable in every step. Infant crying and sleeping already explained 25.3% of adjusted variance in step 1. Step 2 (trait anxiety)
contributed a further 6.5% (adjusted). The backward procedure led to exactly the same result after 7 steps of variable exclusions (not reported). The
power to detect small effects (f = .15), and for large effects
two two
= .02) for regression coefficients in this analysis was 1-ÿ = .36, for medium-sized effects (f = .35) 1-ÿ > .99.
two
(F
The linear relationships between these three variables and maternal self-confidence are shown in Fig. 1 (values were z-stan dardized).
3.4. ANCOVA for repeated measures of maternal self-confidence (LMSCS at T2 and T3)
This model was performed to investigate the influence of time (T2 and T3), trait anxiety (STAI-T at T1), infant crying and sleeping problems (SFS
at T3), as well as the interaction effects between these variables with time (Table 4).
The ANCOVA showed significant main effects of trait anxiety (STAI-T at T1: F1,98 = 9.714, p = .002, ÿ2 = .090), but no main effect of infant crying
and sleeping problems (SFS-CS at T3: F1,98 = 2.014, p = .159, ÿ2 = .020). However, an interaction effect between time of measurement and infant
crying and sleeping problems was significant (F1.98 = 6.401, p = .013, ÿ2 = .061), which results from the fact that infant crying and sleeping problems
were correlated to maternal self-confidence at T3 (r = ÿ.515, p < .001) but not at T2 (r = .038, p = .703).
Additionally, there was a significant main effect of time (F1.98 = 7.929, p = .006, ÿ2 = .075). In general, maternal self-confidence increased from
T2 (M = 111.03, SE = 2.79) to T3 (M = 125.02, SE = 0.84). The power to detect small effects (f = .10) in this
Table 2
Pearson correlations between study variables and maternal self-confidence (LMSCS) at T3.
Maternal depressive symptoms (EPDS) at Pearson r ÿ.169 Maternal state anxiety (STAI-S) at .055 ÿ.165 Maternal trait anxiety (STAI-T) at .065 T1 ÿ.314
T1 p(2-tailed) T1 .000**
no 130 126 127
Maternal depressive symptoms (EPDS) at Pearson r ÿ.180 Maternal state anxiety (STAI-S) at ÿ.334 Maternal trait anxiety (STAI-T) at .000** ÿ.284
T2 p(2-tailed) .043* T2 T2 .001**
no 128 128 130
Infant crying/sleeping (SFS-CS) at T3 Pearson r ÿ.515 Coregulation (SFS-CR) at T3 p(2- ÿ.225 Infant feeding (SFS-F) at T3 .013* ÿ.281
232
Machine Translated by Google
Table 3
B. I KNOW
ÿ you
p 95% CI lower bound 95% CI upper bound VIF
Fig. 1. Linear relationships between trait anxiety (STAI) at T1, infant crying and sleeping problems (SFS) at T3, and maternal self-confidence (LMSCS) at T3. Values were z-standardized.
analysis was 1-ÿ = .51, for medium-sized (f = .25) and large effects (f = .40) 1-ÿ > .99.
4.Discussion
The aim of the present study was to investigate maternal self-confidence and its association with maternal mental health and
early infant regulatory problems in 130 women. We were able to describe the course of maternal self-confidence over the first four
months postpartum and to identify significant predictors.
Although maternal self-confidence increased significantly by itself over the first four months postpartum, maternal trait anxiety as
well as early infant regulatory problems significantly contributed to the prediction of maternal self-confidence, explaining 31.8% of the
variance.
233
Machine Translated by Google
Table 4
Repeated-measures ANCOVA on maternal self-confidence (LMSCS) at T2 and T3
These results provide new insights into the association between maternal self-confidence and the predictive value of increased maternal
anxiety as well the transactional association between regulatory problems in infants and maternal self-confidence. So far, no comparable
study exists in the literature.
We found the LMSCS to be a reliable questionnaire for assessing maternal self-confidence, with an excellent internal consistency of ÿ
= 0.96 at T2 and a good internal consistency of ÿ = 0.885 at T3.
Four months postpartum (TIII), mean LMSCS scores for our study population were M = 124.72: 17% of participants scored below and
13% above one standard deviation. Our results are comparable to other studies conducted at similar time points (Reck et al., 2012; Zietlow
et al., 2014).
Concerning the course of maternal self-confidence itself, we could show that maternal self-confidence rose from an average sum score
of 111 to 125 points (adjusted means) within the first four months postpartum, with time explaining 5.2% of the variance.
These results are comparable to other studies conducted shortly after birth (Reck et al., 2012; Zietlow et al., 2014) and are in line with
previous findings indicating a significant rise in maternal self-confidence within the first few weeks postpartum (Logsdon et al., 2009; Hsu &
Sung, 2008). This dynamic process could be explained by a positive feedback mechanism as hypothesized by Sanders et al.: establishing
routine in daily life with the baby leads to feelings of success, which in turn strengthen maternal self-confidence (Jones & Prinz, 2005;
Sanders & Woolley, 2005).
It would be reasonable to assume that this trend continues as the child becomes older. The child's needs change according to age and
mothers may need to expand and adjust their formerly developed parenting skills. Interestingly, in a study by Zietlow et al. Investigating
maternal self-confidence up to preschool age, the authors could not show any further significant increase in maternal self-confidence after
the average age of 60 days (Zietlow et al., 2014).
As the STAI distinguishes between state and trait anxiety, both types of anxiety independently affected maternal self-confidence
negatively. Further regression analyzes as well as the analysis of covariance also confirmed maternal anxiety to be a powerful predictor of
maternal self-confidence: High levels of trait anxiety during pregnancy (T1) were followed by low maternal self-con fidence four months
postpartum.
These findings are supported by a previous study by Logsdon et al., (2009). Here, the authors found that maternal mental illnesses
interfered with the development of maternal self-confidence as described above: maternal self-confidence rose in all mothers during the
first weeks postpartum except for mothers suffering from postpartum depressive disorders (Logsdon et al., 2009 ).
Additionally, the EPDS was included in the analysis as a means of distinguishing between anxiety and symptoms of depression. In the
final model, elevated depressive symptoms failed to keep their predictive value for maternal self-confidence, despite being significantly
correlated to maternal self-confidence initially. Compared to peripartum depression, anxiety seems to have a greater influence on maternal
self-confidence. This link could be mediated by avoidance behavior: mothers with symptoms of anxiety might tend to avoid anxiety-related
situations, impeding positive experiences that in turn would strengthen their self-confidence.
Additionally, this result is in line with a study by Reck et al., investigating the influence of maternal anxiety and depression on maternal self-
confidence; they found previous maternal anxiety to have the most significant impact (Reck et al., 2012).
2. 3. 4
Machine Translated by Google
Our results are especially meaningful regarding the fact that both clinical and subclinical symptoms of anxiety and depression were
assessed as we did not diagnose anxiety or depressive disorders according to DSM-IV or ICD-10 criteria. In accordance with Weinberg
et al., our results support the theory that even subclinical symptoms can decrease maternal self-confidence (Weinberg et al., 2001). As
a screening for psychological distress during pregnancy is still not established in standard antenatal care, our results strongly emphasize
the need to do so in order to pay special regard to women at risk and to provide psychological support where needed. This seems even
more urgent in light of a study by Zietlow et al., who demonstrated a lasting effect on maternal self confidence up to preschool age
(Zietlow et al., 2014).
At this point it is worth highlighting a study conducted by Matthey et al. (2013), who suggested the anxiety subscale of the EPDS
might be suitable for detecting peripartum anxiety (Matthey, Fisher, & Rowe, 2013). Indeed, future research should focus on this
interesting approach in order to contribute to a holistic peripartum care.
4.3. Limitations
To our knowledge, the present study is the first to examine the association between maternal mental health and early infant
regulatory problems and maternal self-confidence in the postpartum period. However, this study has several limitations. First, data were
collected from a highly educated sample of pregnant women rather than from population-based subjects. Furthermore, at about 52.3%,
the cesarean section rate of our study population is higher than average in Germany at 31.1% (Bundesamt, 2015). Nationwide the
cesarean section rate is between 17 and 51%, with a large variation depending on the patient risk profile of the hospital as well as the
region of the country (“Faktencheck Kaiserschnitt. Kaiserschnittgeburten-Entwicklung und regionale Verteilung.,” 2012).
Therefore, results especially in relation to the birth mode cannot readily be generalized to broader populations. Second, all variables of
interest except medical data were assessed using self-report measurements, potentially bearing a risk for cognitive biases, as especially
patients with depressive symptoms tend to direct selective attention to negative information (Gotlib & Joormann, 2010).
Additionally, anxiety disorders and children's regulatory problems alike were assessed by self-report measures and not diagnosed
according to DSM-IV or ICD-10 criteria. However, as already mentioned, this supports the theory that even subclinical symptoms can
decrease maternal self-confidence, emphasizing the relevance of our findings.
Finally, we were not able to detect small effects due to the limited sample size or to draw causal conclusions between early infant
regulatory problems and maternal self-confidence due to the partly cross-sectional data assessment. After 4 months postpartum, 53.3%
of women were lost to follow-up. Although this seems to be a common problem in studies with a comparable study design (Gawlik et
al., 2015), one should be cautious in making generalizations from our findings.
4.4. conclusion
The present findings suggest that high trait anxiety during pregnancy and the postpartum period anticipates lower maternal self
confidence, fostering early regulatory problems in infants, especially regarding crying and feeding.
As anticipated, maternal self-confidence rose during the first four months postpartum, with time explaining 5.2% of the LMSCS
variance. However, early infant regulatory problems and anxiety provide a remarkable explanation for variance in maternal self.
235
Machine Translated by Google
confidence four months postpartum (T3) (31.8%), irrespective of time. Considering the mutual influence between maternal self
confidence and early regulatory problems, our results reinforce existing knowledge pertaining to the transactional relationship be
tween regulatory problems in infants and maternal distress, but also add new aspects to the recent literature by revealing the
importance of the concept of maternal self-confidence.
Regarding maternal mental health, our findings emphasize the tremendous effect of anxiety, as previous studies mostly did not
distinguish anxiety from depression. There is an urgent need for appropriate programs focusing on maternal anxiety to promote
maternal self-confidence in order to prevent early regulatory problems in infants.
Conflict of interest
References
Andrews, G., Sanderson, K., Slade, T., & Issakidis, C. (2000). Why does the burden of disease persist? Relating the burden of anxiety and depression to effectiveness of
treatment. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 78(4), 446–454.
Babb, JA, Deligiannidis, KM, Murgatroyd, CA, & Nephew, BC (2015). Peripartum depression and anxiety as an integrative cross domain target for psychiatric
preventative measures. Behavioral Brain Research, 276, 32–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2014.03.039.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.
Barr, RG (1990). The normal crying curve: what do we really know? Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 32(4), 356–362.
Bergant, AM, Nguyen, T., Heim, K., Ulmer, H., & Dapunt, O. (1998). German language version and validation of the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale. Deutsche
Medizinische Wochenschrift, 123(3), 35–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1023895.
Boyce, P., Stubbs, J., & Todd, A. (1993). The edinburgh postnatal depression scale: Validation for an australian sample. Australian and New Zealand Journal of
Psychiatry, 27(3), 472–476.
Bugental, DB, & Cortez, VL (1988). Physiological reactivity to responsive and unresponsive children as moderated by perceived control. Child Development, 59(3),
686–693.
Bundesamt, S. (2015). Krankenhausentbindungen in Deutschland. Jahre 1991 bis 201. [from http://www.destatis.de].
Cox, JL, Holden, JM, & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression: Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. British Journal of
Psychiatry, 150, 782–786.
Cutrona, CE, & Troutman, BR (1986). Social support, infant temperament, and parenting self-efficacy: A mediational model of postpartum depression. child
Development, 57(6), 1507–1518.
Dubber, S., Reck, C., Muller, M., & Gawlik, S. (2015). Postpartum bonding: The role of perinatal depression, anxiety and maternal-fetal bonding during pregnancy.
Archives of Women's Mental Health, 18(2), 187–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0445-4.
Faktencheck Kaiserschnitt. Kaiserschnittgeburten-Entwicklung und regionale Verteilung. (2012). 1, 122.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, AG, & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences.
Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, AG (2009). Statistical power analyzes using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research
Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149.
Gawlik, S., Muller, M., Hoffmann, L., Dienes, A., & Reck, C. (2015). Assessing birth experience in fathers as an important aspect of clinical obstetrics: How applicable is
Salmon's Item List for men? Midwifery, 31(1), 221–228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2014.08.013.
Goodman, JH, Guarino, A., Chenausky, K., Klein, L., Prager, J., Petersen, R., & Freeman, M. (2014). CALM Pregnancy: Results of a pilot study of mindfulness-based
Cognitive therapy for perinatal anxiety. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 17(5), 373–387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00737-013-0402-7.
Gotlib, IH, & Joormann, J. (2010). Cognition and depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 285–312. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131305.
Grant, KA, McMahon, C., & Austin, MP (2008). Maternal anxiety during the transition to parenthood: A prospective study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 108(1–2),
101–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2007.10.002.
Groß, R., & Bonney, T. (2013). Empirische Grundlagen des Fragebogens zum Schreinen, Füttern und Schlafen (SFS). Praxis Der Kinderpschologie Und Kinderpsychiatrie,
5, 327–347.
Gross, S., Reck, C., Thiel-Bonney, C., & Cierpka, M. (2013). Empirical basis of the questionnaire for crying, feeding and sleeping. Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und
Kinderpsychiatrie, 62(5), 327–347. http://dx.doi.org/10.13109/prkk.2013.62.5.327.
Hendrick, V., Altshuler, L., Strouse, T., & Grosser, S. (2000). Postpartum and nonpostpartum depression: Differences in presentation and response to pharmacologic
treatment. Depression and Anxiety, 11(2), 66–72.
Hopkins, J., Campbell, S.B., & Marcus, M. (1987). Role of infant-related stressors in postpartum depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96(3), 237–241.
Howell, EA, Mora, PA, DiBonaventura, MD, & Leventhal, H. (2009). Modifiable factors associated with changes in postpartum depressive symptoms. archives of
Women's Mental Health, 12(2), 113–120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00737-009-0056-7.
Hsu, HC, & Sung, J. (2008). Separation anxiety in first-time mothers: Infant behavioral reactivity and maternal parenting self-efficacy as contributors. infant behavior
and Development, 31(2), 294–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.10.009.
Jones, TL, & Prinz, RJ (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(3), 341–363. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004.
Julian, L.J. (2011). Measures of anxiety: state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI), beck anxiety inventory (BAI), and hospital anxiety and depression scale-anxiety (HADS A).
Arthritis Care & Research (Hoboken), 63(Suppl. 11), S467–S472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acr.20561.
Kunseler, FC, Oosterman, M., de Moor, MH, Verhage, ML, & Schuengel, C. (2016). Weakened resilience in parenting self-Efficacy in pregnant women who were
abused in childhood: An experimental test. Public Library Of Science, 11(2), e0141801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141801.
Logsdon, MC, Wisner, K., & Hanusa, BH (2009). Does maternal role functioning improve with antidepressant treatment in women with postpartum depression?
Journal Womens Health (Larchmt), 18(1), 85–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2007.0635.
Lomanowska, AM, Boivin, M., Hertzman, C., & Fleming, AS (2015). Parenting begets parenting: A neurobiological perspective on early adversity and the
transmission of parenting styles across generations. Neuroscience. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.09.029.
Masi, G., Millepiedi, S., Mucci, M., Poli, P., Bertini, N., & Milantoni, L. (2004). Generalized anxiety disorder in referred children and adolescents. Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(6), 752–760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000121065.29744.d3.
Matthey, S., Barnett, B., Kavanagh, DJ, & Howie, P. (2001). Validation of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale for men, and comparison of item endorsement
with their partners. Journal of Affective Disorders, 64(2-3), 175–184.
Matthey, S., Fisher, J., & Rowe, H. (2013). Using the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale to screen for anxiety disorders: Conceptual and methodological with
siderations. Journal of Affective Disorders, 146(2), 224–230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.09.009.
O'Neil, J., Wilson, MN, Shaw, DS, & Dishion, TJ (2009). The relationship between parental efficacy and depressive symptoms in a diverse sample of low income
mothers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(6), 643–652. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10826-009-9265-y.
236
Machine Translated by Google
Otto, MW, Eastman, A., Lo, S., Hearon, BA, Bickel, WK, Zvolensky, M., et al. (2016). Anxiety sensitivity and working memory capacity: Risk factors and targets for
health behavior promotion. Clinical Psychology Review, 49, 67–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.07.003.
Papousek, M., & von Hofacker, N. (1998). Persistent crying in early infancy: a non-trivial condition of risk for the developing mother-infant relationship. Child Care Health
Development, 24(5), 395–424.
Porter, CL, & Hsu, HC (2003). First-time mothers' perceptions of effectiveness during the transition to motherhood: Links to infant temperament. Journal of Family
Psychology, 17(1), 54–64.
Raymond, JG, Steele, JD, & Series, P. (2017). Modeling trait anxiety: From computational processes to personality. Front Psychiatry, 8, 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.
3389/fpsyt.2017.00001.
Reck, C., Noe, D., Gerstenlauer, J., & Stehle, E. (2012). Effects of postpartum anxiety disorders and depression on maternal self-confidence. Infant Behavior and
Development, 35(2), 264–272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.12.005.
Reck, C., Zimmer, K., Dubber, S., Zipser, B., Schlehe, B., & Gawlik, S. (2013). The influence of general anxiety and childbirth-specific anxiety on birth outcome. Archives
of Women's Mental Health, 16(5), 363–369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00737-013-0344-0.
Sanders, MR, & Woolley, ML (2005). The relationship between maternal self-efficacy and parenting practices: Implications for parent training. Child Care Health
Development, 31(1), 65–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2005.00487.x.
Sevigny, PR, & Loutzenhiser, L. (2010). Predictors of parenting self-efficacy in mothers and fathers of toddlers. Child Care Health Development, 36(2), 179–189. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.00980.x .
Sidor, A., Fischer, C., Eickhorst, A., & Cierpka, M. (2013). Influence of early regulatory problems in infants on their development at 12 months: A longitudinal study in
a high-risk sample. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 7(1), 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-7-35.
Stifter, CA, & Bono, MA (1998). The effect of infant colic on maternal self-perceptions and mother-infant attachment. Child Care Health Development, 24(5),
339–351.
Teti, DM, & Gelfand, DM (1991). Behavioral competence among mothers of infants in the first year: The mediational role of maternal self-efficacy. child
Development, 62(5), 918–929.
Tucker, S., Gross, D., Fogg, L., Delaney, K., & Lapporte, R. (1998). The long-term efficacy of a behavioral parent training intervention for families with 2-year-olds.
Research in Nursing and Health, 21(3), 199–210.
von Hofacker, N., & Papousek, M. (2008). Psychische Störungen im Säuglingsalter. In MFH Remschmidt, & A. Warnke (Eds.). Therapie psychischer Störungen im
Kindes- und Jugendalter: Ein integratives Lehrbuch für die Praxis (pp. 121–132). Stuttgart: Thieme.
Weinberg, MK, Tronick, EZ, Beeghly, M., Olson, KL, Kernan, H., & Riley, JM (2001). Subsyndromal depressive symptoms and major depression in postpartum
women. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71(1), 87–97.
Zahr, LK (1991). The relationship between maternal confidence and mother-infant behaviors in premature infants. Research in Nursing and Health, 14(4), 279–286.
Zietlow, AL, Schluter, MK, Nonnenmacher, N., Muller, M., & Reck, C. (2014). Maternal self-confidence postpartum and at pre-school age: The role of depression, anxiety
disorders, maternal attachment insecurity. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 18(8), 1873–1880. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-014-1431-1.
237