FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE The late origin of aquaculture is because humans who are terrestrial cannot readily

FAO Definition of aquaculture: Farming of Aquatic Organisms including fish, appreciate parameter of aquatic environment.
mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention Several aquatic parameters affect aquatic organism
in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding,  Very low solubility of O2
protection from predators etc., Farming also implies individual or corporate
 High solubility of CO2
“ownership” of stock being cultivated.
 (pH) Hydrogen ion concentration
Two essential factors together differentiate (distinguish) aquaculture from capture
 Salinity
fisheries.
 Buffering capacity
 Intervention to enhance production
 Ownership of the stock  Dissolved nutrients
 Toxic nitrogenous wastes
Activities constituting Aquaculture:
 Turbidity
The following activities are considered as aquaculture:
 Heavy metals and other toxic substances
 Rearing of fry, spat, post larvae etc., in hatcheries,
 Photo and zooplankton concentration
 Stocking of ponds, cages, tanks, raceways and temporary savages with wild
 Current velocity
caught or hatchery reared juveniles to produce marketable
fish/shellfish/aquatic plants/other aquatic animals. It is difficult for terrestrial human being to appreciate influence of these
environmental factors causing longer period for aquaculture development than other
 Culture in private tidal ponds e.g Indonesia Tambaks
forms of food production. Construction of physical facilities building up productivity
 Rearing molluscs to market size from hatchery produced spat, transferred
of the system and attainment of skills take considerable period of time, therefore,
natural spat fall or transferred part-
aquaculture started much later than agriculture.
 Stocked fish culture in paddy fields.
Further, the major consequence of late origin of aquaculture is that, relatively little
 Harvesting planted or suspended seaweed genetic selection has taken place in fish being farmed compared to plants and
 Valliculture (Culture in coastal lagoons) animals used in agriculture and animal husbandry.
1.2. Origin of aquaculture and agriculture Modern agriculture based on organisms vastly different from wild ancestors in heavy
 Agriculture first developed 10000 years ago in the middle east when human cases wild ancestors don’t exist because, selection and domestication took place over
population changed from hunting-gathering to cultivating wheat and thousands of yrs.
barley.Subsequently there were independednt origins of farming cereal crops In contrast majority of aquaculture is based on wild plants and animals.
on other major land masses Only a few species have been domesticated. Following are the example of fish
 Middle east wheat and barely species that have been domesticated.
 Rice cultivation began in Asia 7000 years ago  Common carp
 Sorghum and millet developed in Africa  Atlantic salmon
 And maize in America  Rainbows trout
 Tilapia species
 Compared to agriculture the origins of Aquaculture much later
 Channel catfish
 Common carp culture developed some hundreds of years BC in China
Many other aquaculture species are based on wild brood stock or larvae collected
 The first aquaculture text book was written some 500 BC by Fan Lei a
from the wild.
Chinese politician
 Africa, America, Australia introduced aquaculture in recent centuries.
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In some cases production cycle has not be closed i.e., the species have not been 1.4. Aquaculture production by environment (2009)
matured under captivity and spawned under captive conditions. Therefore there is Freshwater environment dominated the aquaculture production. The following table
minimal potential for selective breeding because unless the production cycles are give the production statistics by environment.
closed selective breeding cannot take place.
By Quantity By Value
1.3. State of the World Aquaculture (FAO 2010)
Freshwater 60.61 56.0% V
Aquaculture is a growing vibrant & important production sector of high protein food Seawater 31.75% 30.7%
 The World Aquaculture produced 55.7 million tons in 2009, valued at 105.3 Brackish water 7.60% 13.3%
billion USD Species
 It has grown at a steady annual growth rate of 6.1% from 2001 to 2009. Carps are the most culture species in the world with 40% of the production by
 The Per capita supply of fish from aquaculture increased from 0.7 Kg in volume. Other major groups cultured include shellfish, tilapias, shrimps and prawns;
1970 to 7.8 Kg in 2008. and salmons. The following table shows percentage contribution by species groups
 Aquaculture production increased from 1 million MT in 1750 to 55.7 million to total world aquaculture production
MT in 2009. Sl. No. Species groups % contribution
 Growth rate of aquaculture is three times the rate of meat production during 1. Carps 39.9
the same period. 2. Tilapia and other cichlids 5.6
 Capture fish production has stagnated at 90 MMT since mid 1980s therefore 3. Miscellaneous freshwater fish 9.5
any further increase in fish production has to come through aquaculture. 4. Salmons, trouts, smelts 4.41
 Aquaculture production of plants in 2009 was 17.3 million MT valued at 4.8 5. Shrimps and prawns 6.27
billion US dollars 6. Oysters 7.7
Aquaculture Production by Regions: 7. Marine mussels 3.2
8. Scallops, Pecten 2.84
 Asia produced 88.8% of the total aquaculture production by quantity and
9 Clams, cockles, arkshells 7.96
78.7% by value in 2008.
10 Miscellaneous marine mollucs 1.66
 China produced 62.3% of world production by quantity and 51.4% by value.
 Asia Excluding china produced 26.10% of the world fish production through
aquaculture Unit 2 - Freshwater Aquaculture resources
 Top 15 produced contributed 92.4 percent of world Aqua Production Introduction: Freshwaters are one of the essential resources for the survival of
mankind. Among other uses, freshwaters are also use for farming of fish.
 Developing countries produced 48.62million tones of food fish valued at $
Freshwaters can be divided into
84.03 billion
 Surface waters
Top five aquaculture producers countries (2009)  Ground water
China was the top producer of fish through aquaculture. The other four countries in  Ice and glaciers
the top five positions are given in the table below.  Soil moisture
1) China ------- 34.78 Surface water can be sub-divided into
2) India --------- 3.79  Rivers/streams
3) Vietnam ----- 2.66  SSLakes
4) Indonesia ----1.73  Ponds/tanks
5) Thailand ------1.39  Wetlands

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Following are the top 10 countries with freshwater resources  Three Indian major carps viz., Catla, Rohu and Mrigal are the main species
Sl. No. Country % cultivated.
1) Brazil 14.9  The three Chinese carps – silver carp, grass carp and common carp are also
2) Russia 8.1 used in the composite fish culture.
3) Canada 6.0  A wide range of technology for seed production and culture of the carps is
4) United status 5.6 available
5) Indonesia 5.1  Carp culture expanded rapidly after 1980s in the states of Andhra Pradesh
6) China 5.1 and West Bengal.
7) Columbia 3.9 b) Air breathing fishes
8) Peru 3.5  Giant murrel, striped murrel, spotted murrel, Magar ,Singhi and Climbing
9) India 3.5 perch are the air breathing fish available for culture.
10) Congo 2.3  Air breathing fish are the second most popular group of fish cultured in
11) Rest of the world 40.0 freshwaters.
Out of these total resources ponds and tanks are most suitable for culture, while, pen  They can withstand poor water quality
and cage culture can be undertaken in Lakes and Reservoirs.  Therefore can be grown in areas unsuitable for carp culture such as marshes
2.2. Freshwater Resources of India and derelict water bodies.
India is blessed with different types of freshwater resources, some of which can be c) Crustaceans
utilized for fish culture. Following are the types of water bodies found India and  Giant freshwater prawn and the Indian River prawn are the two species of
their extent. crustaceans suitable for culture.
S.No Type of water body Area (million ha.)  They are highly priced, fast growing species suitable for export
1 Ponds and tanks 2.25  They can be poly cultured with the carps
 In mono-culture yields of 800 to 1000 kg/ha/year can be obtained.
2 Lakes and Reservoirs 2.09
d) Molluscs
3 Bheely and wetlands 1.30
 The freshwater mussels Lamellidenssp and Hyriops sp. are used for
4 Paddy fields 2.30
production of freshwater pearls.
5 Irrigation canals 0.12 e) Coldwater fish
 The Mahseers and the exotic trouts are species available for cold water fish
Only 45% of the ponds and tanks in India are currently utilized for fish culture culture
Therefore great potential for horizontal expansion exists
 Species Mahseers suitable for culture are Tor putitora; T. torT. khudree, T.
Biological Resources (Species) mosal and T. malabaricus
India is also blessed with great biodiversity of fish. Only a few of the fish found in  The snow trout Schizothoraxsp and minor carps such as Labeo dero and L.
India have been used for fish culture or are suitable for fish culture. The following dyocheilus are also suitable coldwater species.
species of fish are either used for fish culture or can be used for fish culture.  The exotic cold water fish introduced to India are Salmogairdneri, S.
a) Carps truttafario and Salvelinusfontnualis
 India is basically a carp country  The tenchTincatinca is also suitable so also the common carp, Cyprinus
 Freshwater farming is mainly focused on carps carpio
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2.3. Status of freshwater Aquaculture in India  Farming implies intervention in the rearing processes to enhance production.
Freshwater aquaculture has expanded rapidly in India, particularly in the States of  Intervention strategies to enhance pond production of fish can be broadly
Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. As stated earlier carps are the dominant group of classified as pre-stocking management stocking and post-stocking
fish cultured in India as is the case in some other parts of Asia, particularly China. management
The following statistics illustrate the point. 3.2. Pre-stocking Management
 Freshwater aquaculture, accounts for 70% of the total Inland production  The ponds need to be prepared such that the pond environment provides
 Aquaculture is growing at a rate of 5.6% per annum. optimum condition for growth of the fish.
 Carps contribute to 90% of the freshwater aquaculture production  The pond environment should be free from predators, aquatic weeds, weed
 Due to constant R and D and extension aquaculture productivity in India has fish; it should have optimum water quality parameters and sufficient natural
been enhanced from a more 500 kg/ha/yr to 2000 kg/ha/yr. food should be available in semi- intensive culture systems.
 However, the potential is yet to be reached.  The steps involved in pre-stocking and post-stocking management are
The potential for increasing fish production by adopting scientific farming methods similar in the nursery, rearing and grow-out ponds.
are given in the following table.  An additional step in the pre-stocking management in nursery ponds is the
Sl. No. System Potential (tons/ha/yr) eradication of aquatic insects which predate on spawn and fry.
1 Composite fish culture 4-6 The pre-stocking pond management of drainable ponds, which can be dried, is as
2 Intensive culture 10-15 follows.
3 Clarias culture 3-5  Draining and drying
4 Sewage fed fish culture 3-5  Ploughing
5 Integrated fish cutlrue 3-5  Liming
6 Pen culture 1-2  Filling with water and
7 Running Water culture 20-50 kg/m3  Fertilization
8 Cages 10-15 Kg/m3 Perennial un-drainable water bodies require the following additional pre-stocking
By bringing more area into culture and by increasing productivity of the systems, management measures.
India can substantially increase its fish production through freshwater aquaculture.  Control of aquatic weeds
 Eradication of weed fish and predatory fish and animals.
Unit 3 - Nursery, Rearing and grow-out ponds Nursery ponds require eradication of aquatic insects as an additional pre-stocking
3.1. Preparation and Management of Nursery, Rearing and grow-out ponds management meature.
The following definition will help to understand the concepts discussed in this units. 3.2.1. Draining, drying, Ploughing and Liming
1. Nursery ponds: Ponds where spawn are reared to fry stage. In carps it takes Draining and drying
about 15-20 days to grow spawn to fry size
Pond needs to be drained a dried before culture operations begin
2. Rearing ponds: These are ponds where fry are grown to fingerling size. In carps Drying facilitates in
it takes about 2-3 months to rear fry to fingerlings size.
 Oxidation of organic matter
3. Grow-out ponds: In these ponds fingerlings are stocked and grown to  Degassing of toxic gases such as ammonia and hydrogen sulphide
harvestable size. Carps grow from fingerlings to marketable size in about 10-12
 It kills pathogenic micro organisms
months.
 Kills predatory and weed fish
 Aquaculture as defined earlier is the Farming of aquatic organisms
 Kills unwanted aquatic plants
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Ponds should be dried for 7-10 days till the soil cracks the ponds with clayey soil; in 3.2.2. Pond fertilization
sandy soils they should be dried till the soil supports a person and foot prints do not  Fry and fingerlings of most fish such as carps feed on zooplankton
form on the soil.  Sustained zooplankton production in ponds depends on good phytoplankton
Ploughing and bacterial base
The ponds should be ploughed using wooden ploughs or power tillers or tractors  This is maintained through adequate availability of nutrients such as
Ploughing helps in Nitrogen, Phosphorous carbon and micronutrients in ponds.
 Mixing up of soil which helps in oxidation of organic matter  Natural availability of these nutrients in ponds will be inadequate.
 Proper degassing of soil from toxic gases  Hence they need to be added through external sources for sustaining good
 Mineralization of nutrients. plankton growth
 Nutrients are added to water through organic manures and inorganic
Liming
fertilizers.
The productivity of fish ponds depends on soil qualities such as
Organic manures
 Texture
 Water retention  Organic manures are are rich in carbon and contain nutrients such as N and
 pH P in small amounts.
 Organic carbon  They decompose slowly and release the nutrients slowly
 Available nitrogen  They promote the growth of zooplankton through saprophytic food chain
 Available phosphorous  They promote sustained growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton for
Pond bottom is important for productivity since process of mineralization of organic longer periods of time
matter and release of nutrients to the overlying water takes place  Several types of manures such as cow dung, poultry litter, pig dung, horse
Liming helps in improving the quality of the pond soil, thus enhancing productivity. dung etc., can be used to fertilize fish ponds.
It also corrects soil pH; the desirable pH is 6.5 – 7.00  Most common manures used in fish ponds are cow dung and poultry manure
A range of liming materials are used such as  Raw cow dung is generally applied at a rate of 5-10 tons/ha 15 days before
 Agricultural lime or calcite (CaCO3) stocking.
 Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)]  It can be also applied in phases; 2/3 of the amount as basal dose and a
 Calcium hydroxide/slaked line Ca(OH)2 second dose after a week of stocking
 Calcium oxide/quicklime - CaO  Poultry manure is 2-3 times richer than cow dung in the content of nitrogen
and phophorus.
The dose of a particular variety of lime depends on its effectiveness and soil pH
Generally 200-500 kg/ha of line is used for application to pond soil  Hence half the dose of cow dung is used, when poultry manure is applied to
After application, the lime should be mixed with the top soil with light ploughing. the ponds.
Quick lime is preferred for applying to soil and calcite agricultural lime for Inorganic fertilizers
application to water after stocking of the ponds  These are concentrated forms of nutrients such as N and P
Liming helps in  Urea or ammonium sulphate is used as a source of N while single or triple
 Correcting soil pH super phosphate is used as a source of P
 Mineralization of organic matter  Inorganic fertilizers promote the production of phytoplankton on which
zooplankton production depends.
 Release of soil sound phosphorous to water
 Disinfection of the pond bottom
5
  Their action is very fast and when used in excess quantities promote blooms  Common predatory fish are murrels (Snakeheads), Catfishes such as
of undesirable Blue Green Algae (BGA) Wallago attu, Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustis fossilis, Ompak sp. Etc.,
 Hence they should be used cautiously in fish ponds  Weed fish include Puntius, Barbas Danio, Aplocheilus, Anabas etc.,
 A combination of organic manure and inorganic fertilizers will promote the  Most predatory and weed fish breed prior to the onset of carp breeding
growth of phytoplankton quickly which will sustain for a longer period of  They infest the ponds before carp fry and fingerlings are stocked
time because of fertilizing with organic manures.  Hence their eradication prior to stocking of carps is necessary
3.2.3. Control of Aquatic Weeds  Dewatering followed by sun drying is most effective way to control weed
Large earthen ponds are usually infested with submerged, emergent floating and and predatory fish.
marginal weeds.  In ponds which cannot be dewatered, piscicides are used.
Weeds cause several problems in fish ponds A suitable piscicides should have the following characteristics
 They compete for nutrients with phytoplankton thereby reducing the natural  Effective at low dose
productivity fo the ponds.  Not injurious to people and animals
 Prevent light penetration and suppress the production of phytoplankton  Doesn’t make fish unsuitable for human consumption
 Cause oxygen super saturation during day & oxygen deficiency during night  Gets detoxified quickly
 Harbor aquatic insects and predatory fish  Easily available and economical
 Hinder free movement of fish and reduce their living space Types of piscicides
 Cause problems during harvesting by hindering netting operations.
Following are the three types of piscicides that can be used to eradicate weed fish
 Increase siltation in the pond, reducing pond depth over a period of time and predatory fish
Therefore growth of aquatic weeds needs to be controlled and their density reduced  Plant origin
in fish ponds
 Chemicals
Aquatic weeds can be controlled by employing methods such as  Pesticides (Chlorinate hydro carbons and organophosphates)
 Manual Piscicides of plant origin
 Mechanical
Derris root powder
 Chemical and
 Rotenone is the active ingredient
 Biological
 It is a contact poison
The method selected depends on factors such as
 Lethal to other organisms also such as zooplankton, Benthos and insects
 Pond size  Dosage is 4-20 ppm (mg/l)
 Extent of weed infestation  The powder is mixed thoroughly with water and sprayed all over the pond
 Time available  It is effective only on sunny days when the temperature is above 250C
 Cost  It is less effective in cold waters.
3.2.4. Eradication of Predatory and Weed fish Mahua oilcake
 Predatory fish severely affect survival of fish primarily in nursery and
 The active ingredient is saponin
rearing ponds.
 It causes lysis of the RBC and kills fish, frogs, snakes and turtles
 Weed fish compete with stocked fish for food, space and oxygen and result
 Dosage is 250 ppm
in reduction in production of desirable fish.
6
  The cake is soaked in water for 2-3 hrs and applied all over the pond.
 Detoxification takes about 25 days
 The toxicity can be reduced to 10 days through aeration and application of
oxidizing agents.
The other less widely use fish toxicants of plant origin are
 Tea seed cake – 60 ppm
 Tamarind seed husk – 50-100 ppm
 Jaggery – 1%
Stocking and post-stocking management
3.3.1. Stocking
 Nursery, rearing and stocking ponds are stocked with spawn, fry and fingerlings
respectively. They need to be acclimatized in ponds before stocking to prevent
abrupt changes in water quality which will stress them resulting in poorer
survival.
 Generally mono-culture is followed in nursery and rearing ponds, while poly-
culture of carps in followed in grow-out ponds. When rearing space is limited
polyculture is also followed in the rearing ponds. Grow-out culture of carnivores
is done under monoculture.
 The stocking densities followed vary according to the level of management that
can be under taken. For example when carp spawn are stocked in earthen nursery
ponds, a stocking density of 300 to 500 numbers per m2 of pond area, while,
stocking densities of 1000 t0 2000 numbers per m2 followed when they are
stocked in cement tanks where, higher level of management is followed.
 Rearing ponds are stocked with carp fry @ 20 to 30 numbers per square meter in
rearing ponds while carp grow out ponds are stocked @ 5000-1000 numbers per
hectare when polyculture is followed.
 Stocking has to be done in cool hours, early morning is better, but they can be
stocked in evenings or nights. One disadvantage of stocking early in the morning
in fertilized ponds is that if plankton bloom is heavy, dissolved oxygen could be
less in the early morning. The disadvantage if stocking in the evenings is that the
temperature of the water may be high resulting in stress to the stocked fish.
These aspects should be taken care of while stocking ponds with spawn, fry or
fingerlings.
3.3.2. Supplementary feeding
When fish are stocked at high stocking densities, the natural food produced
through fertilization and manuring may not be sufficient to sustain high growth in
shorter period of time. Hence, the stock has to be fed with supplementary feeds.
7
Commonly, supplementary feeds such as mixture of rice bran or wheat brawn mixed
with oil cakes such as groundnut cake or mustard cake or cotton seed cake and other
cakes are used in a ratio of 1:1. In order to improve the quality of feed to get better
growth and production, extra ingredients such as fish meal, soya flour, vitamin and
mineral mixtures could be added to the feeds. The feed mixture is generally mixed
with appropriate quantity of water and made in dough which is then shaped into a
form of ball or cake is either broadcast into the ponds or kept in feeding trays at
several places in the pond.
Feeding rates vary according to the size of the fish. Spawn are fed at a rate of 8-10%
of the biomass, while fry when stocked in rearing ponds up to fingerlings stage are
generally fed @ 6-8% of the standing crop. In grow-out ponds the fish are fed
initially at a rate of 5% which is gradually decreased to 2-3% biomass till harvest.
Periodic sampling of the stock is necessary to estimate the biomass and adjust
feeding rates.
3.3.3. Supplementary fertilization
Ponds are fertilized prior to stocking fish with manures and fertilizers, when
they are applied as a basal dose. Due to overfeeding by fish on the plankton and
other natural fish food organisms, the plankton biomass may get depleted. In order to
maintain the crop of fish food organisms, supplementary feed post-stocking may be
required.
When the water starts to lose its plankton turbidity, amounts less than basal dose
of fertilizers need to be applied to ponds and fortnightly intervals. For example in
carp rearing and grow-out ponds are manured with cow dung as a basal dose of 3-4
tons/ha. The ponds are subsequently fertilized with cow dung at a dose of 0.5 tons/ha
at fortnightly intervals.
However, supplementary fertilization should be followed with caution since
application of excess of fertilizers and manures may lead to poor water quality of the
pond, or undesirable blue green algae such as Microcystis may develop which apart
from being toxic, will not form food for the fish.
3.3.4. Water quality management
Good growth and production of fish not only depends on availability of good
quality feed, but also and the quality of the water in which they live. Physico-
chemical properties of the water should be within the range of tolerance of the
species being cultured.
Normally water quality will not be an issue with lower stocking densities and
lower yields (extensive and lower level of semi-intensive culture). However, when
higher stocking densities are followed, water quality tends to deteriorate, particularly as the India major carps. Together they are called major carps since they grow to
when the stock grows and biomass increase relatively large size.
The most important water quality parameters are the dissolved oxygen. Oxygen Biology
dissolves from the atmosphere and also produced by photosynthesis phytoplankton Cultured carps are all riverine , typically found in large river systems. The food
and higher macrophytes which produce liberate oxygen during the day but consume habits of species differ from each other.
oxygen during night. The levels of DO in culture systems should be above 5 mg/L. Summary of feeding habits of the major Carps
When oxygen tends to fall below this level, which usually occurs during night,
aeration of the ponds becomes necessary. Various types of aerators are commercially Species Feeding habit
available, which may be expensive. A simple way to aerate is to circulate the pond Silver carp Zoo- and phytoplankton, filter feeder, prefers
water such that bottom water comes to the surface and surface water goes to the phytoplankton, surface feeder.
bottom. This can be done using a pump whose intake (foot valve) is lowered into the Omnivorous, prefers higher aquatic plants and submerged
Grass carp
pond and water is pumped such that the water splashes back into the same pond. grasses
Aeration may also become necessary during cloudy weather since lack of sunlight
prevents photo-synthetic production of oxygen by the algae and higher plants. Catla Plankton feeder, prefers zooplankton and surface feeder
Accumulation of metabolites and decayed matter will also result in poor water Rohu Omnivorous planktophage; predominantly a column feeder
quality in ponds. Ammonia may get accumulated which is toxic to fish. In order to Mrigal Omnivorous, prefers detritus, predominantly a bottom
maintain water quality, water exchange may be required to be carried out. The feeder
frequency and amount of water to be replaced with freshwater depends on the quality
Common Omnivorous, predominantly feeds on benthic worms; a
of the water. This requires experience as well as analysis of the water quality.
carp bottom feeder

Unit 4 - Cultivable fish and their culture methods All the major carps grow to about 1m in length. Generally Chinese carps
4.1. Culture of indian major carps and exotic carps grow to a larger size than Indian major carps. Under culture conditions they
Carps are major source of animal protein for millions of people in Asia. World are harvested in their second or third year, often at a weight approaching 2-3
cyprinid aquaculture production in 2009 was 22,228,344 metric tons valued at USD kg.
29,399,045. They are the most cultured species in the world with 40% production by 4.1.1. Farming of carps
volume. The major countries producing carps through aquaculture are China and The distinctive features of carp culture are that the practices
India.
Carps belong to the family Cyprinidae which is typically a freshwater group  Tend to be semi – intensive
with very wide distribution. They are distinguished by the presence of pharyngeal  Almost always use poly-culture
teeth in one to three rows with not more than eight teeth in any row. Lips are usually  May be integrated with other forms of farming (Integrated systems)
thin and an upper jaw that is usually bordered only by premaxilla.  Are carried out in ponds and pens but rarely in cages and raceways.
There are about 1600 species in the family cyprinidae making it the largest Poly-culture is thought to have originated in China. Polyculture is farming of
family of fish. Despite large number of species of carps only 29 species of carps is two or more compatible species with different feeding habits in the same pond to
cultured globally (FAO statistics list the production figure for 29 species only). maximize utilization of all the niches (food and space) of a pond. It maximizes the
There are only six species which are cultured on a large scale. They are grass carp, synergistic fish-fish and fish–environment relationships and minimizes antagonistic
silver carp and common carp in China and Catla, rohu and mrigal in India and relationships. Under same level of management production will be generally higher
elsewhere. The former three species are termed the Chinese carps and the later three in polyculture systems and more number of species can be grown for market than in
monoculture systems.
8
 A concerted experimental effort occurred in India to develop suitable Nursery phase
polyculture system using both Indian and Chinese carps. The basic species Carp spawn, 72-96h old are reared up to fry size (25mm) in this phase in small ponds
combination in the Indian composite polyculture system was catla, rohu, mrigal, of size 200 to 1000 m2 with a depth of 1.0 – 1.5m. The rearing period lasts for about
silver carp, grass carp and common carp. At a stocking density of 5000Nos., / ha 15-20 days.
(120-250 kg/ha) the yield was nearly 9 MT/ha/yr, when fertilized and provided with
All the pond preparation procedures explained in the previous unit are followed. The
simple supplementary feed such as mixture of rice and oil cake. The polycutlure of
steps followed are
Indian and Chinese carps together was termed “Composite fish culture”.
 Drying – 3-5 days
Despite experimental findings in both India and China farming practice tends to
depend on two or three species of either Indian or Chinese carps. This trend is  Ploughing
primarily influenced by consumer preference of indigenous species.  Liming
Both in India and China two or three species of either Indian or Chinese carps are  Fertilization
polycultured.  Eradication of insects
The dominate species in India is rohu and in China it is silver carp.  Stocking
Over the last three decades carp farmers have developed their own protocols. This is  Supplementary feeding and
best exemplified in Andhra Pradesh where only two species of Indian major carps  Supplementary fertilization
namely rohu and catla are cultured. Rohu is the dominant species in polyculture
which is stocked at 80% of the stocking density, catla being stocked at 20%. Additional steps in undrainable ponds include

The pond area often exceed 1ha and the ponds are stocked with 6-12 month old
(100-150g) juveniles@ 5000/ha. Ponds are generally fertilized with poultry manure
and inorganic fertilizers. They are provided with supplementary feeds such as simple
mixture of rice bran and oilcake. Production in Andhra Pradesh averages about 8000
kg/ha with a range of 5300-14620 kg/ha. Fish are harvested when they are more than
1.5 kg in size.
On the other hand, Chinese carps are grown along with common carp in China.
There are also regional differences in Chinese carp culture. The most important
difference is in the dominant species in polyculture. For example silver and bighead
carps dominate in central China, while grass carp dominates in Southern China.
The wide range of practices adopted by the farmers makes it different to assess
potential yields from different systems. For example in Andhra Pradesh where two
operational systems are observed – one utilizing two species (Rohu and Catla) and
other utilizing three species (rohu, catla and mrigal) gross yields ranged from 1730
to 14830 kg/ha/yr. There was no evidence to indicate that two or three species
system performed better than the other.
4.1.2. Culture Practice
Carps are mostly cultured in three stages namely.
 Nursery Phase
 Rearing Phase and
 Grow – out phase
 Control of Aquatic weeds
 Eradication of predators and weed fish
Pond Fertilization:
 Nursery ponds are fertilized with inorganic and organic manures to promote
production of phyto- and zooplankton. The fry of carps feed initially on
zooplankton such as rotifers and cladocerans
 The ponds are first applied with lime @ 200-500 kg/ha and ploughed into
the soil lightly. The ponds are then filled with water to a depth of 1.00 to 1.5
m. One week post liming cow dung is applied @ 5-6 tones/ha or with
poultry manure @ 2-3 tones/ha, a fortnight before stocking.
Control of aquatic insects
 Insects and their larvae feed as carp spawn and fry or sometimes kill them
by piercing their bodies. They also compete for food and space leading to
poor survival of the stocked spawn. The population of insects increases
enormously post fertilization. They multiply rapidly and spread from pond to
pond by flying.
 Application of soap oil emulsion @ 56 kg soap to 18 kg cheap oil is a simple
and effective means of insect control. These insects are air breathing. The
soap oil emulsion floating at the surface of the water chokes their respiratory
apparatus when the swimming up to the surface for breathing.

9
Stocking:
 The spawn ( 72-96h old) are transferred from hatcheries to nurseries during
cool hours preferably in the morning.
 The optimum stocking density recommended for earthen nursery is 3-5
million /ha
 Higher densities of 10-20 million/ha can be followed for nursery rearing in
cement tanks.
Mono-species culture is usually followed at nursery stage. If rearing space is limited
polycutlure can be followed.
Supplementary feeding:
 Spawn are fed with finely powdered mixture of oilcake and rice bran in 1:1
ratio to supplement the natural food.
 They are fed @ 600 g/lakh fry for the first five days and 1200 g/lakh spawn
for subsequent days in two equal installments during morning and evening
hrs. In about 15-20 days fry attain a size of about 25mm at which size they
are transferred to rearing ponds.
Harvesting fry :
 Harvesting is done by repeated dragging with a fry net of 1/8 inch mesh. The
quantity harvested is measured in perforated cups.
 Number harvested is estimated by multiplying the number of cups and
average number of fry per cup.
 Survival rates vary from about 40-50% from June to September. 2-3 crops of
fry can be raised in earthen ponds and 4-5 crops in concrete tanks.
4.1.3. Production of carp fingerlings
 Though a crucial phase for production of good quality seed of carps, this
stage is often ignored due to paucity of space. Farmers often stock the grow
– out ponds with fry resulting in poor survival.
 Ponds of size 500-2000 m2 are generally used for rearing carp fry to
fingerling stage.
 The control of aquatic insects is not necessary in rearing ponds, but control
of weeds, predators and weed fish is necessary in undrainable ponds. The
pond preparation steps are similar to those of necessary ponds.
Pond fertilization
Ponds are manured with cow dung @ 3-4 tons/ha as basal dose 7-10 days before
stocking and one week after liming at a dose of 200-500kg/ha. Thereafter cow dung
is applied @ 500 kg/ha every fortnight. When poultry manure is use half the dosage
of cow dung is used.
10
Additionally urea and single super phosphate @ 10 and 15 kg/ha are used for
sustaining plankton growth.
Stocking
Fry (25mm) are transferred from nursery to rearing ponds, during cool hours.
Either monoculture or polyculture is followed. Recommended combined stocking
density is 2-3 lakh/ha
Supplementary feeding
Fry are fed @ of 8-10% of biomass for the first month, followed by 6-8 and 4-
6% during the second and third month. The commonly used feed a mixture of rice
bran and oil cakes particularly groundnut oil cake in the ratio of 1:1. Other
ingredients such as fishmeal, soybean floor etc., can be incorporated for improving
feed quality.
Post stocking pond management
Maintaining water level of 1.0 – 1.5m and intermittent fertilization as mentioned
earlier are the other management measures required.
Harvesting
Fingerlings are harvested after 2-3 months at a size of 80-100 mm/ 8-10g.
Survival rates of 70-80% can be obtained with good management measures.
Transportation of fry and fingerlings
Long distance transport of fry and fingerlings can be done by packing them in
sealed polyethylene bags filled with water and pure oxygen in the ratio of 1:2 to 1:3
water to oxygen.
The number of seed per bag depends on the size of the seed and duration of
transport.
Fry and fingerlings are conditioned by crowding them in hapas and starving the
seed for 24-48 hours. They are then packed during cool hours in polythene bags with
water and oxygen. The polyethylene bags are supported by suitable boxes/bags to
prevent damage during transport. Ice can be added to bags to reduce temperature and
metabolic rate of the fish.
4.1.4. Grow-out culture
Carp culture is the main stay of Indian aquaculture. Catla rohu and mrigal are
cultured traditionally in ponds and tanks due to their higher growth and consumer
preference. Due to their compatible nature all the three species are grown under
polyculture. Catla is a surface feeder feeding predominantly as zooplankton while
rohu is a column feeder. It is an omnivorous planktophage. Mrigal is a bottom feeder
feeding on benthic detritus. The exotic silver carp, grass carps and common carp are
also stocked along with the three Indian major carps.
 India possesses 2.3 million ha of potential freshwater resources in the form of
tanks and ponds, but utilize only about 40% on the average for carp farming. The
average national carp culture productivity is only 2 tons/ha/yr while the potential
production is be 3-4 tones under semi-intensive culture. Hence there is an enormous
scope for increasing carp production in India. This is possible through bringing more
average under culture and also by following scientific technology of carp production.
The scientific carp culture practices involve the following steps.
Pre-stocking preparation
Control of aquatic weeds and eradication of predators and pest fishes are one of
the important steps for achieving higher production. The ponds should be dried until
the bottom soil cracks. Application of lime @ 200-500 kg/ha and ploughing the soil
removes obnoxious gases, oxidizes the organic matter in ponds, sterilizes the soils
and kills unwanted animals.
After filling the ponds to a depth of 1.5m the ponds should be manured with cow
dung @ 3-4 tones/ha as a basal dose 15-20 days before stocking. Alternatively,
poultry dropping @ 1.5-2.00 ha/ha can be used. If mahua oil cake is used for
eradication of predatory and weed fish the basal dose of organic manure is avoided.
15-20 days after application of manures the ponds are ready for stocking.
The carp culture ponds are stocked with surface, column and bottom feeders at
proper ratios to utilize all the pond niches efficiently. 30-40% of surface feeders, 30-
35% of column feeders and 30-40% of bottom feeders should be stocked. Grass carp
may be stocked if terrestrial grasses or aquatic weeds can be supplied from outside.
The grow–out ponds are stocked with fingerlings of 8-10g after proper
acclimatization. A stocking density of 5000 fingerlings/ha is recommended to get a
production of 3-5 tonnes/ha/yr. The density could be raised to 8,000 – 10,000
figerlings/ha for achieving production of 5-8 tons/ha/yr. The stocking density
depends on the level of management and input use.
Post stocking management
The management of carp, ponds after stocking involves intermittent liming and
fertilization, water management and health care.
In average production ponds cow dung is applied @ 500 kg/ha/fortnight, along
with 15 kg/ha single superphosphate and 10 kg/ha area. However the dose and
frequency of fertilization depends on plankton production and water quality. Other
manures such as poultry manure or duck droppings can be used at half the dose of
cow dung.
Supplementary feeding is provided to the stocked fish. At high stocking
densities natural food produced through fertilization will not be sufficient.
11
Supplementary feeds could be simple mixtures of rice bran and oil cake in a
ratio of 1:1. The quality of supplementary feed can be improved by mixing fishmeal
and soya bean meal with vitamin and mineral mixture to the simple mixture of rice
bran and oil cake. Commercial fish pellets are also available which may give better
yields. The carps are fed @ 5% of the body weight for first month which is gradually
decreased to 3-2%. The biomass of the fish should be assessed monthly and feed
ratio should be adjusted accordingly. The daily ratio is split into two doses and fed in
the morning and evening. The mixture is made into dough by adding correct quantity
of water and making in to balls.
The balls are kept in feeding trays at different places in the pond. In Andhra
Pradesh simple mixtures of rice bran and powdered ground nut oil cake are filled
into gunny bags with small holes, which are hung in the ponds on poles at different
places. Fish will nibble at the holes and get feed. When grass carp is stocked in the
ponds aquatic weeds such as Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum, Najas, duck weeds or tender
terrestrial grasses should be provided.
Harvesting
The carps take about 10-12 months to grow to marketable size when fingerlings
of 8-10 g are stocked. In this period catla grows to a size of about 1 kg, while, rohu
and mrigal attain a size of about 600-750g. Silver carp grows to more than 1 kg
while grass carp can grow to a size of 3-5 kg if fed at 100% of its body weight. The
fish are usually harvested by large seine nets by repeated dragging. If the ponds are
drainable a finally drain harvested in carried out. A production of 3-5 tones/ha/yr can
be obtained through scientifically managed semi-intensive culture of carps.
4.2. Catfish culture
Owing to their unique taste and texture, cat fishes are considered a delicacy by
some consumers. However, large scale commercial culture of these fish is currently
not being carried out in India, except the culture of recently introduced exotic Thai
catfish Pangasiodonhypothalamus.
Experimental and pilot scale culture for some native fish such the magur
(Clarias batrachus), singhi (Heteropneustis fossilis) and the butter cat fish (Ompak
bimaculatus) has been developed by several research Institutes in India. Government
of India has now identified catfish farming as a national priority as a part of
diversification of aquaculture practices.
Air breathing cat fish such as magur and singhi have a greater potential for
culture in shallow, swampy, marshy and derelict water bodies. Non-airbreathing
catfish such as Pangasius pungasius, Wallago attu, Ompak sp, Mystus sp., etc can be
grown in normal pond conditions. However, culture techniques for these species
needs to developed.
4.2.1. Culture of Magur (Clarias batrachus)
This is the most popular catfish owing to its good taste and texture. Being an air
breathing fish, it can survive in poor water quality conditions. This fish can be
cultured at very high stocking densities. The fish can be sold live and hence fetches
higher price than carps.
The techniques for breeding, seed production and grow out of magur have been
standardized. A few farmers have already adopted these techniques in different parts
of the country.
Larval rearing
The aerial respiration in the larvae starts 10-12 days post hatch. They are
obligate air breathers and hence need atmospheric oxygen irrespective of dissolved
oxygen. Since they lie at the bottom and have to make vertical trips to surface for
breathing air the water depth is an important factor to be considered.
Initially, a water depth of 8-10 cm is kept in the larval tank to avoid loss of energy
spent for making vertical trips. The depth in gradually increased with the increase in
rearing period.
The Hatchlings are stocked @ 2000 – 3000 / m2 in well aerated rearing tanks.
They subsist on yolk for about 3 days. Subsequently they are fed with live plankton
or Artemianauplii. 50% of the water is exchanged on alternate days. They are reared
for 12-14 days when they reach a size of 10-12mm size (30-40mm). They are
harvested and transferred to outdoor rearing tanks and stocked @ 200-300 Nos./m2 .
The tanks are fertilized in a similar manner as carp rearing tanks. Floating weeds
such as water hyacinth or duck weeds are provided as shelter. The fry are fed
formulated crumbled feed pellets of 35% protein or a mixture of finally mined trash
fish/molluscan meat and rice bran @ 1:1 ratio, @ 5-10% of the biomass. The fry
grow to a fingerling size of 3-4 cm (0.8-1g) in about 30 days. They are harvested by
draining the tanks.
Grow–out culture
Grow out culture is carried out in earthen or stone pitched ponds. Since magur
may migrate out during rainy season, fencing is provided around the ponds. They are
stocked @ 50,000 – 70,000 finger lings/ha. The ponds are fertilized in a similar
manner as carp ponds.
The fish are fed mixtures of groundnut oil cake, rice bran, fish meal/trash fish.
They are fed @ 3-5% biomass in the form of dough placed in baskets or in pellet
form at different places in the pond. The feed should contain 30-35% protein. The
tanks should be covered with nets to protect them from predation by birds. Broken
pipes or tiles are provided as shelters to reduce cannibalism. Water loss through
evaporation should be compensated periodically by letting the water in.
12
Magur attains marketable size of 100-120g in 7-8 months. Harvesting by netting is
difficult, hence ponds needs to be drained and fish handpicked. Average production
of magur from this system is 3-4 tones/ha/7-8 months.
4.2.2. Culture of stinging catfish
Heteropneustis fossilis commonly known as singhi has a good potential as
aquaculture candidates. This is an air breathing fish which can thrive well in shallow
derelict water bodies with poor water quality.
Larval rearing
The larvae are very delicate and require good water quality at this stage. The
optimum DO is 5-6 ppm; pH 6.5-7.5 and water temperature 26-28OC. Initially the
larvae are fed mixed zooplankton, Artimia nauplii and tubifex worms. Regular
cleaning of debris, uneaten food and dead or weak larvae is necessary. They grow to
12-15 mm during 14-15days rearing period.
After attaining fry stage they are stocked in well prepared small, cement tanks.
The water depth should be shallow to allow fry to come up for breathing. The fry are
stocked @ 300-500/m2. Finely minced trash fish, molluscan meat with rice bran in
equal proportion is fed to the fry. In about a month they reach fingerling size.
Grow-out culture
Singhi can be grown in monoculture or poly culture with carps and magur. It is
stocked in well prepared ponds and fed with compounded diets or slaughter house
waste/trash fish, silkworm pupae. Its production potential has been estimated to be 4-
15 tons/ha in 4-12 months culture under AICRP.
Other species of catfish : Other species of catfish such as Pangasius sp., Wallago
attu, Ompak sp., Mystus sp., Rita rita and Bagarius bagarius grow to large size and
have good market demand. It is necessary to have greater thrust on research to
develop technologies for culture of these catfish.
4.3. Freshwater prawn cutlure
The giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii is one of the highly priced
species cultured in freshwater.
It is distributed in the major river systems of the country. Although the
freshwater prawns live in freshwater their larvae require brackish water to survive
and grow. Adults migrate to estuaries to breed and post larvae migrate back to fresh
waters. Freshwater prawns are omnivores, their feed includes decaying plants and
animals at the bottom. The food in the stomach can be viewed through the
transparent carapace. They are cannibalistic in nature and attack newly molted and
weak prawns. Therefore provision of adequate feed and shelters need is essential in
their culture systems.
The Biology and management of size variation
Size variation in the population, particularly of males – a typical characteristic
of Macrobrachium rosenbergi - is a major obstacle to prawn culture and its
profitability. The price of the prawn depends on its size and those below minimum
size are discarded by growers. The harvest consists of a large fraction of small
unmarketable individuals and a fraction of large prawns.
However, removal of large prawns leads to a rapid compensatory growth of the
smaller individuals. Size variation is the result of heterogeneous individual growth
(HIG) which is a complicated biological characteristic of the giant freshwater prawn.
It reflects a complex population structure composed of three sexually mature
morphotypes (small male, orange claw male and blue claw male), which differ in
their morphology, physiology and behavior and transform from one morphotype to
another.
The growth regulation of prawns – suppression as well as enhancement - is achieved
by means of social interactions among individuals.
The blue claw (BC) male is characterized by its extremely long claws. The
stunted small male (SM) is differentiated from younger juveniles by their greater
age. The intermediate orange clawed (OC) male has golden colored claws which are
30 to 70% shorter than those of the blue claw males.
Harvested mature prawn populations are composed of three distinct male
morphotypes (sM, OC and BC) which represents the normal male developmental
pathway from SM to BC through OC.
Prawn populations display a disproportionate increase in size variation with time
because individual prawns grow at different rates i.e., they show heterogeneous
individual growth. The fastest growing individuals are called “Jumpers” and slowest
growing individuals are called “laggards”.
When jumpers are remove from the population some laggards will transform
into jumpers. In other words presence of blue claw male suppresses the growth of
SM and OC individuals. When BC males are removed some OC males transform to
BC Males and some SMs become OC males. Then harvesting of larger prawns will
result in faster growth of small individuals resulting in higher yields.
Grow – out systems
The management of size variation is an extremely important and complicated
aspect of culture of freshwater prawns, because of the uneven growth rate of
individual prawns especially males.
4.3.1. Systems of management for reducing HIG
There are three to four systems of grow-out culture of freshwater prawns, the are:
13
1) Continuous System:
This system involves regular stocking of post larvae (PL) and selective
harvesting of prawns of marketable size. There is no defined “cycle” of operation
and ponds are drained only occasionally.
This system can be practiced in places where there is year – round water
availability and optimum temperature is present throughout the year.
Also if selective harvesting is inefficient, large dominant prawns remain and
have negative impact on the PLs which are introduced at subsequent stocking,
resulting in lower average growth rate.
Long terms continuous system is not recommend for above reasons.
2) The Batch System:
Batch system consists of stocking the pond once and allowing the individuals to
grow to average market size. The ponds are drained totally and harvested HIG
remains as a problem in this system.
3) The combined system:
The ponds are stocked only once. Cull – harvesting starts when the first prawns
reach marketable size, removing the fast growing prawns for sale and leaving the
smaller ones to grow with less impact of HIG. After several cull- harvesting, the
ponds are finally drain-harvested.
The total cycle usually lasts for about 9-12 months in tropical regions. This is a
recommended system for culture of freshwater prawns for better management of
HIG to more uniformed sized prawns.
4.3.2. Farming intensity
Depending on the stocking density and management of the system three levels of
culture are recognized.
1) Extensive prawn culture:
In this system prawns are reared in ponds, reservoirs, irrigation ponds and rice
fields. Production is less than 500 Kg/ha/yr. Stocking is mostly form wild sources.
They are stocked with either PLs or juveniles at a density of 1-4/m2. There is no
water quality management. Organic fertilization is rarely applied and there is no
supplementary feeding.
2) Semi – intensive prawn culture:
This system involves stocking of PLs or juveniles usually from hatcheries at a
density of 4-20/m2 in ponds. Fertilization is used and balanced feeds are provided.
Predators and competitors are removed and water quality and health are monitored.
This level of culture is most common in tropics and yields more than 500 kg/ha/yr.
3) Intensive prawn culture:
The prawns are reared in small earthen ponds or concrete tanks up to 0.2 ha,
provided with high water exchange and continuous aeration. They are stocked @
20/m2. High degree of management is required. Nutritionally balanced feeds are
provided. A strict control over all aspects of water quality is maintained. This system
requires more research particularly on the management of size variation. Therefore
semi-intensive mono-culture of prawns is currently not recommended.
4.3.3. Semi – intensive mono culture of Freshwater prawns
Pond preparations:
After the final harvest of last batch ponds are drained to remove all predators,
pond banks or dykes are repaired and inlet and outlet screens are checked. The ponds
are dried for 2-3 weeks. If sediment has built up over years they should be removed
by scraping the pond bottom.
The bottom is ploughed during drying to oxygenate the pond soil. The pond bottom
should be applied with lime @ 1000 kg/ha.
If the ponds cannot be dried, predatory and weed fish can be controlled by applying
mahua oil cake @ 2000 – 2500 kg/ha of water (200-250 ppm).
The use of pesticides is not recommended to eradicate predators since they are
potentially toxic to prawns. Also they may bio-accumulate in prawn tissues. These
will be dangerous to consumers.
The ponds are fertilized with cattle manure @ 1000-3000 kg/ha. This will increase
the benthic fauna which form food of prawns.
Stocking:
Ponds are stocked with PL/Juveniles immediately after filling them with water.
This has no predators and no photo-synthetically induced pH changes. There may be
slight reduction in growth rates, but increased survival will offset the reduced
growth. Stocking rate will depend on the level of management and harvest desired.
In semi – intensive culture a stocking density of 4 and 20 PL/m2. The lower stocking
rates will result in larger sized prawns at harvest.
Feeding and fertilization:
Adequate phytoplankton density should be maintained to provide cover and
control the growth of weeds. Often it is unnecessary to fertilize the ponds
intermittently, since feeding alone will not provide adequate nutrients for plankton
growth. Sandy soils may need fertilization. 25 kg/ha/month triple superphosphate
will keep the water green.
Animal manures can be used to promote benthic biofauna which are an important
part of the ecosystem. However instead of animal manures other organic materials
14
such as distillery byproducts or other plant residues such as oil cakes are better
organic fertilizers. Commercial pellets can be used as supplementary feeds. Prawns
are initially fed @ 8-10% biomass which is gradually reduced to 2-3%.
Harvesting:
When the larger prawns reach harvestable size they are caught by seining and sold.
Cull harvesting can done to regularly remove larger prawns after 10-12 months the
ponds are drained harvested and the cycle is repeated.
Unit 5 - Impact of exotic (Introduced) species
Introductions are movements beyond the present geographical range of a species
and are intended to insert totally new taxa into flora and fauna.
 Species are introduced beyond their geographical range for the purpose of
aquaculture; ornamental fish trade, enhance genetic characteristics or re-
establish a species that has totally failed.
 About 168 species from 37 families have been reported to be introduced
world over. Out of these, 67 species have established themselves in the new
environment and 7 species have become pests.
 A few of the important species that were introduced into India are the
Chinese carps namely silver carp, grass carp and common carp. They are
used in composite fish culture along with the Indian major carps catla, rohu
and mrigal. The Chinese carps were also introduced into the reservoirs to
enhance fish production.
 Tilapia was also introduced into natural water bodies, where it has
completely established itself.
 The illegal introduction into India was the African catfish.
 Clarias gariepinnus which is a highly predatory has a serious potential to
destroy native species. It has already established in many parts of India and
is presumably causing extensive harm to the native species.
 The Thai catfish Pangsiodan hypothalamus has recently been introduced to
India to augment fish production.
 Apart from these the mosquito fish Gambusia affinis was introduced to
control mosquito larvae – the adult mosquitoes spread the malaria parasite
Plasmodium
 Many ornamental fish have been introduced all over the world away from
their natural habitat.
5.2. Adverse impacts of Introductions
When introduced, species escape from the farm; or, when they are deliberately
introduced into natural ecosystems such as lakes, reservoirs and streams, they have
potential to cause adverse impacts on the ecosystem and biodiversity into which they
are introduced. A few of the following adverse impacts are listed below:
 Depletion of biodiversity
 Endangering native species
 Compete for food and space with native species.
 Introduce new parasites and diseases
 Genetically interact with local species and contaminate the gene pool of the
native species.
 Degrade ecosystems
 Have adverse impacts on the socio – economic aspects of human life.
The introduced species will have more adverse impact on the freshwater
because; although freshwaters represent only 0.1% of the earth’s water it
contains 40% of the total fishes on the earth. Out of these, 20% of the fauna
is already extinct or are at the verge of extinction. Introduction will further
aggregate the situation and may lead to extinction of more species.
Case study -1
In Lake Victoria of Africa there were about 300 endemic species of fish. 99% of
the population (8 million people) of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania depended on Lake
Victoria for their lively hoods and food.
The Nile perch Lates niloticus was introduced into this lake with the intention of
enhancing fish production. Majority of the endemic fish became extinct, affecting
the livelihood of the 8 million populations.
Case study – 2
Introductions within the country into a different habitat can also cause severe
adverse effects on the local flora and fauna. Grass carp a native of China was
introduced to Danghulake in China. It resulted in complete destruction of
macrophytes leading to plankton blooms.
Big head carp and silver carp, also natives of China were introduced to control
the resulting algal blooms. Algal blooms were not completely controlled, but the
number of benthic species came down to 26 from the original 113 and zooplankton
from 203 to 71. The drinking water supply was completely affected.
15
5.3. The way forward
The introductions of non-natives into a new region must be considered with
great caution. Once in a new location the ecology of the ecosystems must be closely
monitored. Care must be taken not just with the species concerned but also with the
associated organisms, which may be accidentally introduced with it. There should be
strict quarantine of the species indented for introduction before they are introduced
in aquaculture facilities.
The escapements should be contained by the following measures.
 Regular inspection of the pond walls – sluice gates and farm effluent outlets.
 The ponds should have secondary back-up containment facilities.
 Predator deterrence should be followed
 Underwater predatory netting around net cages should be provided
 Site surveys, prior to farm construction covering flood frequency, height
above water table etc., should be undertaken
 All in-farm fish handling operations to be conducted within continued area.
Introduction can be both harmful and beneficial. Care should be taken to
avoid possible adverse effects of introduction of exotic species.
Unit 6 - Sewage Fed Fish Culture
Fish production in ponds fertilized with waste water is a common practice in
some parts of Asia. Sewage fed fish culture is now well established since it is
perceived to be more attractive than intensive farming. The systems include fish
culture technology and sanitation engineering – it can result in substantial energy
saving also.
Waste fed aquaculture dates back to more than a century in Germany where
ponds receive effluents from other biological treatment systems. Net fish production
from waste fed aquaculture is Germany averages 500 kg/ha/7 months, with loading
rates equivalent to waster water generated by 2000 persons/ ha/yr. Munich with 233
ha designed to treat waste water from 500,000 people produces a gross fish yield of
100 – 150 mt./yr. The main fish species used are common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
and tench (Tinca tinca). The German system was designed to operate in temperate
regions and thus yields are low due to low stocking densities than the tropical waste
fed aquaculture systems.
The concept of using aquaculture as a tool for waste water treatment has been
evaluated through a systematic research programme carried out over a 5 year period
by the CIFA, Bhubaneshwar. In collaboration with the Public Health Engineering
Department, Govt. of Orissa, the Indian Aquaculture Sewage Treatment Plant was
designed comprising of duckweed and fish culture. Three species of Indian major
carps and three species of exotic carps were stocked in treated water. Production
levels of 3-4 metric tons/ha/yr were realized.
In spite of the development of the Aquaculture Sewage Treatment plant, West
Bengal, the only state in India where sewage fed fish culture is practiced, uses raw
sewage for fish culture.
Fish is grown in Bheries using raw sewage from Kolkata city in about 10,000 ha
area.
6.2. Sewage and its characteristics
The term sewage is used loosely to include the combined liquid waste
discharges of domestic and Industrial sources within a given area. It is a cloudy
liquid having minerals and organic matter in solution, colloidal form and solids
floating as suspension.
It contains about 90-99% water. It also contains bacteria and protozoa. It is rich
in phosphorus (1-14 mg/l) and nitrogen (18-120%). It contains traces of heavy
metals such as zinc, copper, chromium, Manganese, nickel and lead. The BOD and
COD of the sewage are very high. The direct use of raw sewage is detrimental to fish
because of its high BOD, low DO, High CO2, high levels of ammonia, hydrogen
sulphide and bacterial and organic load.
Problems related to sewage fed culture system
 Accumulation of silt and high organic matter at the pond bottom.
 Incidence of parasites and fish diseases.
 Possibilities of pathogens being transferred to humans.
 Accumulation of heavy metals in the system.
Solutions
 Regulation of treated sewage intake into ponds
 Dilution with freshwater and use of prophylactics.
 Depuration of fish in freshwater before marketing.
6.3. Use of raw sewage for fish culture
The raw sewage needs to be treated before using in fish ponds.
Mechanical, chemical and biological treatments are the three steps involved in
treatment of raw sewage.
Mechanical Treatment
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This step is required to remove suspended and floating solids from the raw sewage.
The solids are removed first by using screens and then by skimming. Finally they are
removed by sedimentation.
Chemical treatment
Chemical treatment of raw sewage involves steps such as coagulation/chemical
precipitation, deodorization, disinfection and sterilization.
Biological treatment
Sewage is treated biologically by using natural bacterial activity for the oxidation of
organic matter.
The treated sewage can than be used for fish culture after suitable dilution with
freshwater.
6.4. Sewage fed fish culture of West Bengal
 As stated earlier, West Bengal is the only state in India where raw sewage is
used for fish culture.
 The sewage fed fish culture is carried out in Bheries where raw sewage from
Kolkata city is let into the Berries in small quantities at monthly intervals.
 In small Bheries fish and paddy are grown alternately while in bigger Bheries
only fish is grown. The sewage is let into the ponds to a depth of 90 cm along
with tidal water in a ratio of 1:4, sewage to water. The water is allowed to
settle for 15-20 days after which it becomes clear and odourless. Subsequently
plankton will grow in the Bheries.
The ponds are then stocked with fingerlings of Indian major carps of size 7.5 –
15 cm in the month of April. Some farmers also stock silver carp and common
carp. Harvesting begins in September and ends in February. The weight of the
stocked fish is about 500-550 kg/ha and the final yield from this system is
about 3000 kg/ha/year.
 Tilapia can also be grown in sewage fed ponds since they are capable of
tolerating poor water quality prevalent in sewage fed ponds and production of
up to 9000 kg/ha/yr of 70-200 mm Tilapia can be obtained.
 Raw sewage has the potential to cause human health hazard. Therefore only
treated sewage should be used for fish culture.
 Other countries such as Far East, Middle East, Germany, Hungary and Israel
use treated sewage for fish culture.
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