COASTAL AQUACULTURE AND MARICULTURE METHODS OF COASTAL AQUACULTURE AND

UNIT 3 12
AQ-311 (2+1) MARICULTURE
Pg.
UNITS CHAPTERS 3.1. Pond culture 12
no.
3.1.1. Site Selection 12
SHORE BASED AQUACULTURE AND 1
UNIT 1 3.1.2. Criteria to locate a good coastal farm site 13
MARICULTURE
3.1.3. Design and Construction of coastal ponds 13
3.1.4. Water Supply Systems 13
1.1. Sea farming and shore based aquaculture 1
3.2. Cages 14
1.1.1. Global aquaculture production – total 1
3.3. Pens 14
1.1.4. Global aquaculture production - by environment 1
3.4. Culture methods for oyster, mussels and seaweeds 15
1.1.5. Global aquaculture production - by species groups 1
1.2.1. Marine finfish 2
1.2.2. Crustaceans – shrimps 3 UNIT 4 WATER AND SOIL QUALITY MANAGEMENT 16
1.2.3. Crustaceans - spiny lobsters 3
1.2.4.Molluscs 3 4.1. Water and soil quality management 16
1.2.4.1. Molluscs - major producers 4 4.1.1. Physical variables 16
1.2.5. Sea cucumbers 4 4.1.1.a. Temperature 16
1.2.6. Sponges 5 4.1.1.b. Salinity 16
1.2.7. Corals 5 4.1.1.c. Turbidity 16
1.2.8. Seaweeds 5 4.1.2. Chemical variables 17
1.3. Resources for Shore-based aquaculture and seafarming in india 5 4.1.2.a. Dissolved oxygen 17
1.3.1. Status of Coastal Aquaculture 6 4.1.2.b. Total alkalinity 17
1.3.2. Aquaculture Diversification Programmes 6 4.1.2.c. pH 17
1.3.4. Diversification of Coastal Aquaculture – MPEDA’s initiatives 7 4.1.2.d. Carbon dioxide 17
1.3.5. Conclusion 7 4.1.2.e. Ammonia 17
1.4. Seed resources of finfish and shellfish 8 4.1.2.f. Nitrite and Nitrate 17
1.4.1. Finfish Seed Resources 8 4.1.2.g. Hydrogen sulphide 18
1.4.2. Shellfish seed resources 8
UNIT 5 FINFISH CULTURE SYSTEMS 18
UNIT 2 TRAITS OF IMPORTANT CULTIVABLE SPECIES 9
5.1. Culture of milkfish 18
2.1. Grey Mullets 9 5.1.1. Culture systems 18
2.2. Milkfish 9 5.1.2. Fry collection 18
2.3. Pearlspot 9 5.1.3. Artificial propagation 19
2.4. Asian seabass 10 5.1.4. Grow-out 19
2.5. Groupers 10 5.1.5. Pond preparation 19
2.6. Snappers 10 5.1.6. Water management 20
2.7. Shrimps 10 5.1.7. Supplementary feeding 20
2.8. Lobsters 11 5.2. Culture of grey mullets 20
2.9. Crabs 12 5.2.1. Culture systems 20
5.2.2. Fry collection 20
 5.2.3. Grow-out operations 21
5.3. Culture of asian seabass 21
5.3.1. Source of seed 22
5.3.2. Grow-out culture 22
5.4. Culture of groupers 22
5.4.1. Biology and Seed supply 22

UNIT 6 CULTURE OF CRUSTACEANS 23

6.1. Shrimp Culture 23

6.1.2. Culture systems 24
6.1.3. Characteristics of shrimp culture systems 25
6.1.4. Considerations for the choice of technology 25
6.1.5. Grow-out operations 26
6.1.5.a. Pond preparation 26
6.1.5.b. Selection of shrimp fry (post larvae) 26
6.1.5.c. Stocking 26
6.1.5.d. Feeding 26
6.1.6. Water quality management 27
6.1.7. Aeration and Harvesting 27
6.2. Mud Crab Culture 27
6.2.1. Culture methods 27

UNIT 7 CULTURE OF MOLLUSCS AND SEAWEEDS 28

7.1. Oyster Culture 28

7.1.1. Culture techniques 28
7.1.2. Oyster culture in India 29
7.2. Mussel Farming 29
7.2.1. Grow-out 29
7.2.2. Seed collection 29
7.2.3. Growth and production 30
7.3. Culture of Pearl Oysters 30
7.3.1. Biology 30
7.3.2. Culture methods 30
7.3.3. Culture of Seaweeds 31
7.3.4. Main groups of algae cultivated for food 31
7.3.5. Culture systems 31
COASTAL AQUACULTURE AND MARICULTURE (2+1)  .Seawater ( in the sea and also in the ponds) accounted for 32.3 percent by
quantity and 30.7 percent by value (both plants and animals). Majority of
this production comes from the farming of seaweeds. While, low volumes
UNIT 1 - SHORE BASED AQUACULTURE AND MARICULTURE
of high value finfish, crustaceans and abalones are grown in seawater; low
1.1. Sea farming and shore based aquaculture value oysters, mussels, clams and cockles are grown in large quantity.
"Aquaculture" is the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs,  Brackish water aquaculture produced 7.7 percent of the total aquaculture
crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the production by quantity but a high value of 13.3 percent reflecting the
rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, dominance of more valued crustaceans and fin fish produced in this
protection from predators, health management, genetic improvement etc. Farming environment.
also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated (FAO
definition of aquaculture).
"Coastal aquaculture" is the farming of aquatic organisms in land-based facilities
such as , ponds, tanks, pens etc. in the coasts using brackish or salt water. It is also
known as ‘shore based aquaculture’.
“Mariculture” or " sea-farming" is the term used for farming of aquatic
organisms in the open sea, away from the shore, mainly in cages (fish and
crustaceans) or using rafts or long-lines (for molluscs and seaweeds).
1.1.1. Global aquaculture production - total
 Aquaculture is a relatively recent, fastest growing food production system.
 It has grown at an annual rate of 8.3 percent between 1970 and 2008, while the
world population grew at a rate of 1.6 percent during the same year.
 This has resulted in annual per capita supply of food fish from a mere 0.7 kg in
1970 to 7.8 kg in 2008 through aquaculture.
 The global production food fish through aquaculture stood at 52.5 million
tonnes valued at 98.5 billion US dollars in 2008, accounting for 45.7 percent
of the total world fish production by quantity and 51.2 % by value. 1.1.5. Global aquaculture production - by species groups
 The total aquaculture production including both plants and animals was 68.3  Carps grown in freshwater dominated aquaculture production in 2008,
million tonnes, valued at 106 billion US dollars. while mariculture and coastal aquaculture production comes from oysters,
clams, shrimps, mussels, scallops, pecten , miscellaneous mollusks and
 The output from world aquaculture has increased substantially in the last 6
salmons.
decades, up form a meager 1 million tonns in 1950 to 52.5 million tonnes in
2008 and is predicted to grow further, although the rate of increase may slow  Carps contributed 20.4 million tonnes or 71.1 percent of the food fish
down. production from aquaculture in 2008.
 Since the fish production from capture fisheries has stagnated around 90  Oysters formed the main component of production of mollucs contributing
million tonnes since the mid 1980s, aquaculture is expected to supply the ever to 31.8 percent. Other molluscs produced are clams (26.4%) mussels (12.4
increasing demand for fish. %), and scallops (10.7%).
1.1.4. Global aquaculture production - by environment  The production of high value abalones (molluscs) for luxury market grew
from 2 800 tonnes in 2000 to 40 800 tonnes in 2008.
 Freshwater production contributed to 59.9 percent by quantity and 56.0 %
by value in 2008
1
  2.4 million tonnes of crustaceans were produced in brackish waters while,
1.9 million tonnes were produced in freshwater and 0.7 million tonnes in
marine waters.
 Production of Atlantic salmon (1.5 million tonnes) dominated the
production of diadromous fish, while 0.68 million tonnes of milkfish 0.58
million tonnes of rainbow trout and 0.26 million tonnes of eels were
produced.
1.2.1. Marine finfish
Seedstock production
Hatcheries are producing greater numbers and a wider range of marine finfish
species, but the industry is still heavily reliant on capture of fingerlings for grow-
out, particularly for species that are difficult or costly to raise in hatcheries, such as
grouper or Napoleon wrasse or for which there is no established hatchery
technology, such as tunas .
In general, the availability of seed from wild sources is in decline through over-
fishing and habitat destruction . Consequently, there is a need to develop
sustainable technologies for seed production, particularly hatchery production.
Hatcheries range in size and technology. In Asia there has been considerable
development of small-scale or backyard hatcheries that have only a couple of
larval rearing tanks. These hatcheries use basic but effective techniques to produce
large numbers of seed stock of a range of marine finfish species.
2
Traditionally, much of their production has been of milkfish, but production is
diversifying to include more difficult to rear species such as groupers .
At the other end of the spectrum are the large technology-dependent hatchery
systems that have been developed in Australia and Japan. Much of the hatchery
technology in use in Australia has been adopted from Europe and modified to meet
local conditions . A major focus in developing hatchery technology in Australia in
particular is the need to reduce labour inputs because of high labour costs.
Taiwan PC has established itself as a major seed stock production centre for the
Asia-Pacific region, with around 1 000 farms involved in producing fry and
juvenile marine finfish . Marine finfish production in Taiwan PC is typified by
highly specialized production sectors: e.g. one farm may produce eggs from
captive brood stock, a second will rear the eggs, a third may rear the juveniles
through a nursery phase (to 3–6 cm TL) and a fourth will grow the fish to market
size .
Nursery
There is substantial mortality of juvenile seed stock captured from the wild .
Cannibalism among hatchery-reared juveniles is a major cause of losses in many
species. Transportation of fingerlings also results in losses.
Grow-out technology
Grow-out technology employed in the Asia-Pacific region ranges from small
floating or fixed cages used by small family-run operations, to extremely large
cages (15x15x15 m) used for amberjack grow-out in Japan or 30–50 m diameter
circular cages used for southern bluefin tuna grow-out in Australia.
Much of the marine finfish aquaculture production in the Asia-Pacific region
is from small to medium-scale farms. Many farms use relatively simple
technologies, with wooden or bamboo cages and plastic barrels or polystyrene
blocks to provide buoyancy. However, Japan and Australia in particular use larger
and more sophisticated cage systems. In the case of Australia, these are based on
European technologies. The traditional Asian cage system is suited to sheltered
inshore waters.
As coastal sites have become increasingly crowded, several countries have
begun to adopt cage designs that can withstand more open water. These offshore
cages have been based on Japanese and European designs. The ability to site farms
in more open water has opened up more coastal area for farming.
A major issue regarding the continued proliferation of marine finfish
aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific region is the environmental impact of such
operations. Although there is now a good understanding of the environmental
impacts of cage aquaculture in temperate environments, there has been relatively
little work done in tropical systems.
1.2.2. Crustaceans - shrimps In the Philippines, the preferred size at stocking is 100–300 g, and it takes 6–15
By far the greatest tonnage of farmed crustaceans are brackish water and months for the lobsters to grow to the optimum size of 0.8–1.3 kg. Survival is
marine shrimps in the Asia-Pacific region. Effectively all of this production is around 90 percent, although stocking smaller lobsters (30–80 g) reduces survival
undertaken in coastal ponds under extensive, semi-intensive an intensive systems. to less than 50 percent.
Such is the scale of shrimp farming, that it induced significant changes in market 1.2.4.Molluscs
structure and prices since the 1980s. Bivalves are a major component of aquaculture production in the Asia-Pacific
An abundance of shrimps in the region. Much of this production is based on the culture of mussel, which is a high-
medium size ranges (20-32g) caused volume, low-value commodity. In the Asia-Pacific region, Thailand and the
a fall in prizes in south east Asia. The Philippines are the largest producers of farmed mussels primarily the green mussel
decline in prizes emphasized the (Perna viridis). At the other end of the spectrum, there has been substantial
vulnerability of intensive farming production of pearls through farming, which produces an extremely low-volume
methods which have narrower profit but high-value product.
margins than many low cost
extensive farms. Production in some Despite the fact that hatchery production technologies have been developed for
countries has been adversely affected many bivalves, most tropical bivalve culture still relies on collection of seed stock
by a number of factors in recent from the wild. Artificial settlement substrates such as bamboo poles, wooden
years, notably the outbreak of stakes, coconut husks or lengths of frayed rope are used to collect bivalve spat at
diseases and fluctuation in prizes. settlement. The spat may be transferred to other grow-out substrates (“relayed”), or
cultured on the settlement substrate.
Seed stock is produced mainly in Molluscs - culture methods
hatcheries though brood stock comes
mainly from the wild in Asia. There There are two major systems commonly used for bivalve culture
is a widespread shortage of wild  On or just above the bottom –
brood stock (more on the status of shrimp aquaculture is presented in the chapter:
Shrimp Farming). This culture system is commonly used for culture of bivalves that tolerate
intertidal exposure, such as oysters and mussels. Rows of wooden or bamboo
1.2.3. Crustaceans - spiny lobsters stakes are arranged horizontally or vertically. Bivalves may also be cultured on
Tropical spiny rock lobsters (Family Panuliridae), and particularly the racks above the bottom in mesh boxes, mesh baskets, trays and horizontal
ornate lobster (Panulirus ornatus), are cultured in Southeast Asia, with the bulk of wooden and asbestos-cement battens.
production in Vietnam and the Philippines.
 Surface or suspended culture –
Lobster aquaculture in Vietnam produces about 1,500 tonnes valued at around
US$40 million per annum. Tropical spiny rock lobsters are cultured in cages. In Bivalves are often cultured on ropes or in containers, suspended from
Vietnam, fixed, floating and submerged net cages are used, the former in shallow floating rafts or buoyant long-lines. Management involves thinning the
sheltered areas where the cages can be fixed to the substrate. Submerged cages are bivalves where culture density is too high to support optimal growth and
mainly used for nursing juvenile lobsters and are located in shallow water. A development, checking for and controlling predators, and controlling
feeding pipe allows feed to be dropped into the cage, and limits the depth at which biofouling.
this system can be used. Floating cages may be used in depths up to 20 m. Seed Tropical mussels grow to market size (about 5–7 cm shell length) in less
stock is obtained from the wild. In Vietnam, coconut logs are drilled with holes to than one year, and in many cases 6–7 months, after settlement. Production can
provide an artificial substrate for puerulus/juvenile settlement. Once settled, the reach 1 800 tonnes per ha annually but may be lower in some areas. With a
juveniles are removed from the logs and placed in nursery cages. Lobsters are fed cooked meat yield of around 20 percent, this is equivalent to 360 tonnes of
exclusively on fresh fish and shellfish, using about 70 percent fish and 30 percent cooked meat per ha per year).
shellfish. In Asia, farmed mussels are generally sold as whole fresh product. Some
products are simply processed, e.g. shucked and sold as fresh or frozen meat.
3
 There has been some development of longer-life products, including canned
and pickled mussels.
1.2.4.1. Molluscs - major producers
China and Japan are the largest producers of cultured scallops, with the bulk of
production being the yesso scallop (Pecten yessoensis). Production in 2003
exceeded 1.1 million tonnes of yesso scallop. Preferred harvest size (>10 cm shell
length) is reached in 2–3 years. Giant clams (Family Tridacnidae) have been
cultured in many Pacific Island countries. Their relatively slow growth rates make
tridacnid clams suitable only for extensive aquaculture or stock enhancement.
Much of the tridacnid aquaculture production is sold to the marine ornamental
market, which provides higher and more rapid returns.
Pearl oysters are farmed in Japan, China, Australia, Indonesia and in several
Pacific Island nations, notably French Polynesia and the Cook Islands. Pearl
culture is technically intensive, particularly the process of inserting a nucleus to
promote formation of a pearl. The period between nucleus insertion and harvest
generally ranges between nine months and three years. The quality of the pearl is
related to the length of the culture period, but many insertions are unsuccessful,
resulting in the death of the pearl oyster or ejection of the nucleus. Pearl oysters
are usually grown out using suspended culture systems in which oysters are
usually suspended below rafts or on long-lines.
Due to their filter-feeding nature and the environments in which they are
grown,edible bivalves are subject to a range of human health concerns, including
accumulation of heavy metals, retention of human health bacterial and viral
pathogens, and accumulation of toxins responsible for a range of shellfish
poisoning syndromes. One option to improve the product quality of bivalves is
depuration, which is commonly practiced with temperate mussels, but rarely used
in the tropics.
A major constraint to the development of tropical mussel culture is limited
demand and low price. Although prices are higher in Australia and New Zealand,
mussels are still relatively low-priced compared with other seafood commodities.
The low economic value of mussels is compensated for by their ease of culture and
high productivity.
4
Bioeconomic evaluations of mussel culture in the Philippines indicated a low
return on investment for mussel farming, although farming in Thailand and
Malaysia compared favourably with other forms of aquaculture.
1.2.5. Sea cucumbers
 The most commonly cultured sea cucumbers are the temperate Japanese
sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus) and the tropical sandfish
(Holothuria scabra).
 Aquaculture production of H. scabra is low and is generally still in the
experimental phase.
 However, there is substantial production of A. japonicus from both land-
based aquaculture and mariculture in China and Japan. Estimated Chinese
production of A. japonicus in 2003 is 6 335 tonnes, of which 5 865 tonnes
(93 percent) were from cultured production and only 470 tonnes from the
wild fishery.
 Farming of A. japonicus is well established in northern China. Most
production is from earthen ponds, but there is also some mariculture using
sea cages on the substrate or suspended below rafts.
 The sea cucumbers are fed Sargassum and other macro-algae. In contrast,
sea cucumber farming in southern China is only beginning and is likely to
utilize the species Holothuria scabra, H. nobilis and H. fuscogilva.
 In Japan juveniles of A. japonicus are stocked in coastal waters to
replenish local stocks or to develop new harvest fisheries.
 In Indonesia, H. scabra is farmed in cages of 20x20 m or 40x20 m in
shallow (0.75–1.0 m deep) coastal areas or in coastal fish ponds. Organic
material (such as rice bran and animal dust) is added at 0.2–0.5 kg per m2
every two weeks. Holothuria scabra grow relatively slowly and it takes
approximately six months to reach the preferred harvest weight of 200–
250 g. Seed stock supply is mostly from the wild, although there is some
hatchery production of juveniles.
Seed production technology
Seed production technology for several sea cucumber species is well established in
China. Since the 1980s approximately 6–8 billion juvenile A. japonicus have been
produced. In 1994, 2.6 million seeds were produced in Japan. Techniques for
production of H. scabra have been developed in India, Indonesia, the Solomon
Islands, New Caledonia, Vietnam and Australia. Constraints to hatchery
production of H. scabra in Indonesia include accessing suitable brood stock and
low rates of survival to juvenile . Sea cucumbers require large areas for nursery
and grow-out phases because growth rapidly becomes limited as density increases.
For this reason, there has been considerable focus on their use for sea ranching.
1.2.6. Sponges
 Sponge aquaculture is generating considerable interest in the research
community, but commercial production of farmed sponges in the Asia-Pacific
region is low.
 There is a small commercial farm in Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia)
and several experimental operations in Australia, New Zealand and the
Solomon Islands.
 Sponge aquaculture is similar to seaweed culture in that sponges can be
propagated vegetatively, and little infrastructure is necessary to establish
farms.
 The harvested product (for bath sponges) can be dried and stored and does not
require infrastructure such as refrigeration. Consequently, like seaweed
culture, sponge culture may be ideal for remote communities, particularly in
the Pacific.
 However, the market acceptance and economic viability of commercial sponge
farming has not yet been established. Further assessment of basic biological
parameters such as growth and survival, as well as development of marketing
channels, is necessary before large-scale sponge aquaculture can be developed.
1.2.7. Corals
 There has been some small-scale development of coral farming in the Pacific
Islands. Both soft and hard corals have been cultured, primarily for the marine
aquarium trade, although some hard corals are sold as curios or used for
restoration of degraded areas on coral reefs.
 Corals are propagated vegetatively. Small pieces of live coral are glued to
bases, and these are placed on underwater “tables” fitted with galvanized wire
mesh. Growth is reportedly rapid, with aquarium corals reaching harvestable
size in 3–12 months. Because of the low level of capital investment needed
and the relatively simple propagation methods used, coral culture is suitable
for remote coastal communities where infrastructure may be lacking.
1.2.8. Seaweeds
Aquatic plants are a major production component of mariculture in the Asia-
Pacific region. About 13.5 million tonnes of aquatic plants were produced in 2003.
China is the largest producer, producing just less than 10 million tonnes. The
dominant cultured species is Japanese kelp (Laminaria japonica).
 There are around 200 species of seaweed used worldwide, of which around ten
species are intensively cultivated, including the brown algae L. japonica and
Undaria pinnatifida, the red algae Porphyra, Eucheuma, Kappaphycus and
Gracilaria, and the green algae Monostrema and Enteromorpha.
5
 Seaweeds are grown for
Direct consumption, either as food or for medicinal purposes; production of
the commercially valuable polysaccharides alginate and carrageenan; used as
fertilizers; and feed for other aquaculture commodities, such as abalone and
sea urchins.
Production technology
Because cultured seaweeds reproduce vegetatively, seed stock is obtained
from cuttings. Grow-out is undertaken using natural substrates, long-lines,
rafts, nets, ponds or tanks.
Production technology for seaweeds is inexpensive and requires only
simple equipment. For this reason, seaweed culture is often undertaken in
relatively undeveloped areas where infrastructure may limit the development
of other aquaculture commodities, for example in Pacific Island atolls.
Existing technologies rely on tying individual plants to lines and are time-
consuming and limit production.
Selective breeding for specific traits has been undertaken in China to
improve productivity, increase iodine content and increase thermal tolerance to
better meet market demands. More recently, modern genetic manipulation
techniques have been used to improve temperature tolerance, increase agar or
carrageenan content and increase growth rates. Improved growth and
environmental tolerance of cultured strains are generally regarded as priorities
for improving production and value of cultured seaweeds in the future.
Seaweed aquaculture is well suited for small-scale, household-level
business operations run by people living in rural coastal communities.
Seaweed fisheries are traditionally the domain of women in many Pacific
Island countries, so it is a natural progression for women to be involved in
seaweed farming
1.3. Resources for Shore-based aquaculture and seafarming in india
 Sea farming has become a promising area of aquaculture all over the world
and is one of the most important and rapidly growing components of Asian
aquaculture contributing substantially to the increased demand for high value
seafood items in the global market.
 India has a long tradition of aquaculture from time immemorial and is a leader
in the world after China, contributing to about 5.2% of the total production in
2003.
 A sub continent, with seas all around on three sides, India has a long coastline
of about 8129 km. The country’s continental shelf is estimated as 0.5 million
square km, within its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that extends to 2.2
million square km.
 The southern edge of the Indian peninsula extends in to the Indian Ocean, with
the Bay of Bengal in its eastern part and the Arabian Sea in the west. The main
land is surrounded by groups of islands both in the east as well as the west
coasts.
 The Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands are located in the Bay of Bengal,
while the Lakshadweep group of islands are scattered in the Arabian Sea.
 The sea coast along the main land and around the islands provide vast scope
for development of sea farming, which has considerable potential to augment
production of seafood for the domestic as well as export markets.
1.3.1. Status of Coastal Aquaculture
 India has a coast line of 6517 Km (mainland), a continental shelf of about 40
million hectares and brackish water area of about 1.7 million hectares.
 The east and west coast of India are productive and are suitable for
undertaking mariculture, while the edges of the seas offer scope for large scale
culture of organisms such as oysters, mussels and seaweeds.
 The open seas could be used for suspending rafts and cages for the culture of
finfish and shellfish.
 Despite the huge potentials, the development of coastal aquaculture in India
has been rather confined to brackish water shrimp culture in the maritime
states.
 In fact, the country has a rich tradition in shrimp culture, as various traditional
practices were followed in different regions to grow and harvest shrimps in its
natural habitats.
 Taking a cue from the traditional practices, scientific systems have
subsequently been evolved to culture shrimps in protected and manually
controlled regimes. Presently, over 1,67,500 ha area is under shrimp farming
in various coastal states, out of which as much as 50,000 ha is still adopting
traditional practices.
 Presently there are about 350 hatcheries in India with a built in capacity of 14
billion seed per annum to supply quality seeds of both shrimp and scampi.
Broodstock collectors, nauplii producers, nurseries, water quality analysis
laboratories, PCR Labs etc are also functioning to support the operations.
 Another vital sector for the sustainable development of coastal aquaculture is
the feed and feed inputs. Over 30 domestic feed mills are supplying shrimp
feed to the farmers, apart from the imported brands. Various forms of other
inputs such as probiotics, immunostimulants, Zeolite, BKC etc are also
marketed to help successful crops.
6
 The shrimp farms in the country have been periodically affected by white spot
syndrome viral disease and the farmers are adopting various management
measures to prevent crop loss and ensure sustainable production levels.
 The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) of
Government of India has been playing a major and significant role for
promoting coastal shrimp and scampi cultivation in the country, as shrimps
constitute the major revenue earner in the export market.
 The revolution in coastal shrimp culture started when MPEDA established two
modern shrimp hatcheries in the east coast, with overseas technological tie-up.
Subsequently, scientific commercial shrimp farming practices were also
demonstrated to farmers through pilot projects. This sector, which has
witnessed a sudden upsurge with large-scale development, faced several
challenges from environmentalists, lawmakers, financiers, etc. apart from in-
house problems such as the onslaught of diseases.
 However, the situation got stabilized and now streamlined with the enactment
of the Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act facilitating statutory and regulatory
control over coastal farms. Small and marginal farmers largely run the shrimp
culture sector in India. In order to empower these farmers, MPEDA has
mooted the concept of forming “Aquaculture Societies” in various farming
villages, through a project undertaken by MPEDA in association with the
Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Bangkok on Shrimp
Disease Control and Coastal Management in India.
 Aquaculture societies are expected to improve the socio-economic condition
of the small scale and marginal farmers by assuring them sustainable
production levels through adoption of Better Management Practices (BMPs) to
reduce the risk of diseases and improve production and productivity.
 The country is estimated to have about 1.2 million ha.of areas, suitable for
undertaking brackish water aquaculture. However, the development so far, has
been only about 15% of the available area, and the scope for further expansion
is therefore enormous.
 In order to regulate the development of coastal aquaculture in an
environmentally and sustainable manner, the Coastal Aquaculture Authority
(CAA) has been authorized by the Government of India to license the aqua
farming activity in the coastal region for which, the norms and guidelines are
already framed by the CAA. This Authority, although national in character
will be working through the state governments for the governance of coastal
aquaculture sector.
1.3.2. Aquaculture Diversification Programmes
 As stated above, the development and progress of coastal aquaculture
efforts in India have been concentrating mainly on shrimp or scampi so far
 especially in the coastal areas on the landward side due to their economic
importance, as well as the ready availability of technology and ready
market for the produce. Pilot or experimental trials have been attempted
for other species of commercial importance. The Indian research institutes
have already standardized the breeding technologies for many of the
potential species in our waters. However, commercialisations of such
efforts have not been materialized due to various reasons. The potential
candidates for mariculture in Indian coast are listed in the following
animation.
 Pioneering experimental level works on breeding and rearing of various
potential species have been carried out in India by the ICAR research
institutes like Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) and
others, as early as 1970s.
 These pilot scale attempts have proved that the breeding and rearing of the
potential species are possible and the technology was made available for
transferring to the entrepreneurs.
 However, the transfer of the technology did not result in large-scale
development of mariculture activities due to lack of policy to attract
investment in this sector. Hence, the coastal aquaculture remained as an
infant and focused only towards shrimp culture, for nearly three decades.
 However, there have been attempts by private entrepreneurs to start pond
culture of finfishes such as Seabass, Milkfish, etc. Fattening projects on
Mud crabs and Lobsters were also found to be feasible by the local
farmers.
 Further, a major project for cultivation and processing of seaweeds has
been recently started in the south east coast by a private company.
 Although molluscs culture has been primarily at sustenance level by the
local fisherman, attempts have been already made for organized culture of
mussels, oysters, clams, etc in some coastal villages.
 But such projects faced serious marketing problems due to limited
production levels. Besides, so far there has been no system in India to
classify suitable water for shellfish culture on account of water quality and
quarantine measures to meet international product standards. Hence, more
efforts are required in this direction.
1.3.4. Diversification of Coastal Aquaculture – MPEDA’s initiatives
Shrimp remains as the single largest and maximum value earner among the
seafood exported from the country. It is estimated that cultured shrimps constitute
63% of the quantity of shrimps exported from India. Therefore, in order to
diversify the export basket, the Marine Products Export Development Authority
(MPEDA) has set out on an action-oriented plan during the next five years. The
plan envisages increasing the share of non-traditional cultured varieties to about
50% of the total production from aquaculture. In order to concentrate on the
7
diversification of coastal aquaculture, MPEDA has, constituted a separate Society
viz, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (RGCA). RGCA has embarked upon
various missions to standardize and popularize the aquaculture of potential species
in Indian waters, which have commercial significance.
The following are some of the activities recently taken up by this organization.
a) Breeding of Asian Seabass (Lates calcarifer)
b) Cage culture of Asian Seabass
c) Fattening of Rock Lobsters
d) Breeding and culture of Mud Crabs (Scylla serrata)
e) Artemia production
f) Breeding and culture of Groupers
g) Tilapia culture
The MPEDA has also taken up few demonstration projects in the farmers’
pond for encouraging the farmers to take up alternate culture of species such as
Sea bass, Mullets, Milkfish, Mud crabs, Mussels, Oysters and Clams.
With a view to propagate mariculture in the country, a detailed feasibility
study was undertaken during the 1990’s; through an overseas agency to micro
survey the Indian coast for studying its potential for offshore farming. The survey
revealed that India has great potential for offshore farming, along the continental
coast of South India and the island coasts.
The meteorological and hydrographical data have shown that the maximum
wave and current actions are compatible with the best of offshore fish farming
equipment. Wave conditions in the Arabian Sea seemed to be little rougher than in
Bay of Bengal. The water quality conditions along the coast were found to be
stable and good except in the west coast during the south west monsoon, during
which upwelling is a common phenomena, creating oxygen depletion zones,
followed by algal blooms which can adversely affect farming operations. The
availability of suitable sea and land areas, service, transport facilities etc, were
generally found to be adequate except in remote island locations. On the basis of
this survey it was concluded that about 2000 sq. km. of sea surface is ideally
available to take up offshore farming and a production potential of 8 million
tonnes of high quality marine fish is harvestable through cage culture practices.
1.3.5. Conclusion
The contribution of aquaculture sector is expected to rise from the current
level of US $ 0.7 billion to about US $ 1.5 – 2.0 billion. There is a growing
demand for marine finfish, and offshore fish farming can offer new vistas for India
in aquaculture not only to achieve the set target for national economic
development but also to ensure livelihoods to many more people. This calls for a
positive strategy to formulate policies conducive for development. Sustainable
development and progress of marine farming requires substantial building of skills
in health management and market diversification as key issues, in addition to
smooth flow of finance. Concerted efforts from all sides may lead to such
developments in the imminent future.
1.4. Seed resources of finfish and shellfish
Coastal waters such as estuaries, mangroves and backwaters serve as nursery
grounds for a number of fish and shellfish from where seed of desirable species
can be collected using different type of gears. Abundant seeds of cultivable fish
and shellfish are seasonally available at various locations in India.
1.4.1. Finfish Seed Resources
Mullet seeds:
Generally mullet fry are abundant in shallow coastal waters, estuaries, tidal creeks,
tidal canals and lagoons. They are available throughout in different locations in
Indian coastal waters.
Backwaters. Seed abundance has been reported during June-August in Tuticorin
and October-January in Chilka Lake.
Lobster seed resources-
Detailed studies on the distribution of lobster seed resources in different coastal
areas are lacking. Lobsters spawn throughout the year in deeper waters. Peak
breeding is during November to December.
Molluscan seed resources
Mussel seed -
The spats of green mussel Perna viridis are found both along the east and west
coast of India. Gthey are found in rocky open coasts, harbours and mouth of
estuaries where the salinity is as much as that of the seawater. They attach
themselves to rocks, pilings and other hard objects from intertidal zone to a depth
of 15 m depth.

Milfish seeds:
The seed of milkfish are available in both the east and west coast of India. In
the east coast they are available at Vishakapatanam, east Godavari, Krishna,
Guntur and Nellore in A.P, Chinglepet, Chennai, south Arcot, Tanjore, Ramnad
and Tirnelveli in T.N. In the west coast they are available from Malabar to the
coast of D.K and Udupi dist.
Generally they are abundant during APR–JUN and occasionally in OCT – DEC.
The spats of brown mussel Perna indica have restricted distribution. They are
abundant from quilon to Cape Comorin in the south west coast and from Cape
Comorin to Tiruchendur in the south east coast of India.
Edible oyster seed -
The spats of Crossostrea madrasensis are abundant in Deltas of Godavari and
Krishna, Pulicat, Chennai, Porto Nov, Mandappam, Keral and Port Blair. The spat
are available in the south east coast from late September to early May.

The distribution and seasonal abundance of some important cultivable species is Pearl oyster seed -
shown in the following animation. The seeds of pearl oyster are very scanty and are not available in sufficient
quantities. Aquaculture of this group needs to depend solely on hatchery produced
1.4.2. Shellfish seed resources seeds.
Shrimp seed resources: Although 11 species of shrimps are available in India
only three species namely, Penaeus monodon, P. indicus and P. semisulcatus are
cultivable.These species breed in offshore waters, but their seeds enter lagoons,
creeks, estuaries and backwaters from where they can be easily collected.
The following table lists the occurrences and abundance of seeds of the two most
important cultivable species of shrimps.
Factors affecting shrimp seed abundance-
Tidal amplitude, lunar phases, current, water depth, river discharges, rain,
substratum, suspended matter, pollution etc. affect the availability of shrimp seed.
P. monodon has wider salinity tolerance, therefore, available in a wide variety of
habitats. The seed are particularly abundant during full moon and new moon night
tides.
Crab seed resources-
The seeds of mud crab, Scylla serrata have a wider distribution in the east rather
than the west coast of India. They are available in Sundarbans, Chilka lake, Vizag,
Pulicat, Parangipettai and Tuticorin. In the West coast they are available in Cochin
8
 UNIT 2 - TRAITS OF IMPORTANT CULTIVABLE SPECIES
2.1. Grey Mullets
Introduction
Grey mullets are important cultivable fishes in brackish water ponds. Their culture
dates back to ancient times. Egyptians had devised their culture methods about
2500 years ago. In Rome, mullet culture was profitably practiced since the first
century.
Grey mullets are suitable for farming because they are herbivores and detritivores,
feeding low in the trophic level. They require less supplementary feed. They are
tolerant to higher temperatures and salinities, hence can be grown in tropical and
sub-tropical areas. They are generally polycultured with other fish and shrimps.
Distinctive characteristics
Grey mullets belong to the family Mugilidae. They have a broad and flattened
head, a small and terminal mouth, two short dorsal fins and they are devoid of a
lateral line. When alive they have blue, green or olive colorations on the back. The
sides and belly are silvery and body has 3-9 longitudinal streaks. Among the 14
species only some are cultivable. Mugil cephalus is the fastest growing larger sized
mullet which is very widely distributed in the tropics and the subtropics. Other
important cultivable species are Liza macrolepis and Liza tade.
Mugil cephalus has a robust body and fatty tissue covering most of the eye.
The lips are thin, the lower one having a high knob on the symphusis. There are 6-
7 indistinct brown bands down the flanks and a dark purple blotch at the base of
the pectoral fin. This fish grows to a maximum size of 90 cm, but the common
sizes range from 35 – 45 cm.
Liza macrolepis has a moderately robust body and the fatty tissue is only in
the from of a rim around the eye. The body does not have nay bands or stripes. It
grows to a maximum size of 60 cm, with common sizes ranging from 25-30 cm.
In Liza tade the body is slender and elongate. The head is depressed and elongated.
In adults 5-7 indistinct longitudinal marks are present on the upper half of the
body.
Biology
Majority of grey mullets are marine, inhabiting shallow areas of the sea. Since they
are highly eruyhaline and eurythermal, they ascend brackish waters, bays, creeks,
swamps and estuaries.
The adults feed on algae, diatoms, crustaceans, decaying organic matter and
detritus found at the bottom. The post larvae, fry and juveniles feed on plankton.
Most species spawn in the sea, but fry form shoals along the coasts and enter
estuaries, lagoons and creeks from where they can be easily collected. Cultivable
9
mullets grow quickly in ponds attaining up to 45 cm in length and 750 g in weight
at the end of one year. Life span is 2-3 years with maximum growth in the first
year of their life.
2.2. Milkfish
Introduction
The milkfish, Chanos chanos is one of the most ideal fish for coastal aquaculture.
This commercially very important fish has many traits essential for culture. They
have fast growth rate, in the first year of its life; wide range of tolerance to
temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen; feeds on algal mats at the bottom and
resistant to most diseases and parasites.
It is cultured on a large scale in Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan for
centuries. It is much esteemed fish in the south east Asian countries.
Distinctive characters
Milkfish has a moderately compressed, spindle shaped elongated body covered
with small scales. Mouth is small, without teeth, snout is longer than the lower
jaw, which has a small tubercle at its tip.
The dorsal fin is located at about the middle point of the body; anal fin short and
situated far behind the dorsal fin base. Lateral line is present and tail fin is large
and forked. The dorsal, anal and caudal fins have dark margins.
Biology
It grows up to 180 cm in length and 20 kg in weight, but the fish caught in the sea
normally range from 70-110 mm.
The fry and fingerlings feed on microscopic algae. The fish grows to about 50 cm
in length weighing 500 – 800 g in brackish water ponds.
In ponds milkfish feed mainly on filamentous algae at the bottom along with
associated microorganisms and detritus. The fish can be fed supplementary feed
such as rice bran, oil cakes and other feed stuffs.
2.3. Pearlspot
The pearlspot Etroplus suratensis is an important cichlid fish distributed in India,
Sri Lanka and Pakistan. It is found in estuaries, tidal creeks, lagoons, backwaters
and swamps. It attains a length of more than 30 cm and weight of about 1.5 kg.
Distinctive characters
Body is oblong, compressed and elevated. There are small teeth on jaws, none on
the palate. The dorsal fin is single, with spinous portion greater in extent than the
soft portion. Lateral line present in the upper fourth of the body. Colour light
green, with eight oblique bands on the body. Most of the scales have central white
pearly spots. The dorsal, caudal, ventral and anal fins are dark coloured, pectoral
yellowish with a black base. Strong spines on dorsal and anal fins present.
Biology
It matures within one year of its life and breeds in confined waters such as ponds,
almost throughout the year. Natural breeding grounds have weeds with water
depths ranging from 50-100 cm. A female releases up to 6,000 eggs at a time. The
eggs are attached to submerged objects like stones, twigs, tiles, bamboo poles etc.
by the female after cleaning them. The male fertilizes the eggs and the female
guards over them during development and hatching.
The early fry feed on zooplankton, the advanced fry on aquatic insect larvae.
Juveniles and adults feed on filamentous algae and other weeds. Since this fish is
easy to breed and a herbivore, it is one of the ideal species for coastal aquaculture.
2.4. Asian seabass
The Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer is a prime value fish grown for luxury markets.
It is commonly distributed in Australia, Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. This fish can grow in freshwater, brackish
water and marine waters. In India it forms a by catch in the traditional shrimp
filtration fields. This fish is grown in large scale in Singapore and Taiwan in sea
cages.
Distinctive characters
Lates calcarifer belongs to the family Centropomidae. It has an elongated and
compressed body, with a deep caudal peduncle. Head is pointed with a concave
dorsal profile, becoming convex in front of the dorsal fin. Mouth is large, slightly
oblique and the lower edge of the opercle is serrated, with a strong spine.
The spinuous and the soft parts of the dorsal fin are separated by a deep notch. The
lateral line extends on to the tail. In juveniles the colour is olive brown above with
silvery sides and belly, while, in adults it is greenish or bluish above and silvery
below. No spots or bars are present on the body. The eyes are bright pink, glowing
at night.
Biology
The fish has wide range of tolerance to temperature and salinity. Grows to a
maximum size of up to 200 cm. Common sizes are 25-100 cm. It is a highly
carnivorous fish, feeds on fishes and crustaceans. Fry feed on zooplankton and
fingerlings on crustacean, worms, molluscs etc. Growth is faster in the first three
months of the first year.
For breeding, fish migrate to estuaries. They spawn in different parts of India in
different months.
In culture ponds the Asian sea bass attains 1.5 to 3.0 kg in the first year and 5 kg in
the second year. The fish is highly cannibalistic. Therefore it is suitable for grow
out in floating cages with periodic size grading.
10
2.5. Groupers
Groupers are an important group of fishes for coastal aquaculture. Epinephelus
tauvina and E. malabaricus of the family serranidae have robust, somewhat
compressed, oval-oblong and elongated body. There are 11 spines and 14-16 soft
rays in the dorsal fin and 18-20 rays in the pectoral fin.
A large blackish blotch is present at the base of the last four dorsal spines
extending on to the lower part of the fin in E. tauvina but absent in E. malabaricus,
which possesses about five, more or less distinct and slightly oblique, irregular
bars on the body. Also, three dark blotches are present on the inter-opercle in E.
malabaricus.
The head and body are grayish, covered with small, dull, orange-red to dark brown
spots. They grow to 50-65 cm and to 100 cm respectively. Hong Kong, Thailand,
Singapore and Malaysia are the major producer of groupers in sea cages.
Groupers are suitable for culture in net cages, as well as in ponds. Limited success
has been achieved in the hatchery production of groupers. Wild seed collection is
the major source of seed for culture of groupers.
2.6. Snappers
The snappers are also an important group of marine fish that have high value in the
domestic and international markets. Of the many species of snappers the Golden
snapper or red snapper are the preferred species. Lutjanus johni is culture in
Malaysia and Singapore.
It has a moderately deep body with a straight or slightly convex head profile. The
dorsal has10 spines and 13 to 14 soft rays. Longitudinal scales above the lateral
line are parallel to the dorsal fin and those below the lateral line are horizontal.
The body has a reddish or bronze – silvery colour with a dark spot on each scale,
forming a series of dark streaks in the body. A large black blotch may be present
above the lateral line in the junction between spinuous and soft part of the dorsal.
The fish grows to a maximum length of about 70 cm; but the common sizes are 40
– 60 cm in length.
Red snapper feeds on invertebrates and fishes; and inhabits shallow waters and
mangrove areas besides the sea up to a depth of about 80 m.
The red snapper is cultured in net cages in the sea; the methods for its culture are
similar to that of the Asian sea bass.
2.7. Shrimps
Shrimps are the most widely cultivated marine/brackish water species in India.
Among edible crustaceans, shrimp are considered as highly valuable commodity.
They are produced mainly for export purpose although local demand in the coastal
areas exists. Shrimps catches from the wild has been stagnating since 1990s.
Interest in the culture of shrimps started in the 1990s in India due to high export
potential and apparent high profits of the Industry.
The shrimp Industry of India is spread over the entire coastline. At present India is
5th in aquaculture production of shrimps in the World.
Although Indian shrimp industry is supported by many species, only a few of them
are suitable for aquaculture on account of their traits suitable for aquaculture. Due
to its large size and faster growth rate, Penaeus monodon is the most widely grown
shrimp in India and south east Asia. Other suitable species for culture in India are
P. indicus, P. merguiensis and P. semisulcatus. P.japonicus is grown in Japan
while P. vennamei is the most widely cultivated species in the south and central
America.
Penaeus monodon
This also called as tiger shrimp. This the largest of the marine shrimps. Attains a
maximum length of 365 mm and 440 g in weight. Found throughout the coast of
India. Maximum abundance in the north east coast of India. Juveniles and sub-
adults are found in estuaries, backwaters and mangrove areas while mature adults
are caught from the sea.
Can tolerate very low salinity. This is the fastest growing hardy shrimp, therefore
suitable for aquaculture.
Attains maturity at about 200 mm size. Spawning takes place at depths between 30
and 60 m. Fecundity is 2- 19 lakh eggs at a size range of 200 to 260 mm.
Penaeus indicus
Commonly known as Indian white shrimp. Distributed from Goa to Kanyakumari
on the west coast and throughout the east coast. Grows to maximum size of 230
mm. Juveniles are caught extensively in estuaries, adults are found in the sea.
Requires higher salinity than P. monodon in culture ponds.
Attains maturity at about 130 mm size. Spawning takes place in deeper waters.
Matures in ponds. Fecundity is 68000 to 73000 eggs per individual.
Penaeus merguiensis
The banana prawn P. merguiensis has a discontinuous and restricted distribution
along the Indian coast. It is found South of Maharashtra to Goa and North
Karnataka along the west and in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa on the west coast.
It grows to a maximum size of 240 mm and attains maturity at a size of about 140
mm. On an average it produces about 4.5 lakh eggs per spawning.
The juveniles are found in the estuary but adults migrate to sea for maturity and
spawning. However, it readily matures in captivity. Juveniles grow faster in
brackish waters.
11
Penaeus semisulcates
It is commonly called green tiger shrimp. It is found in large quantities in the Gulf
of Mannar and Palk Bay. Minor fishery exists in Gujrath, Kerala and Andhra
Pradesh. Juveniles of this species are not found in estuaries unlike the other
cultivable shrimps of India. The shrimps prefer shallow areas of the sea where
luxuriant growth of sea grass is found. Matures at a size of about 130 mm and
breed almost throughout the year.
2.8. Lobsters
Among marine crustaceans, lobsters are the most highly priced commodity of
significant interest in many countries. Supply of lobsters to domestic and
international market comes mainly from the capture fisheries through intensive
fishing in different parts of the world. Traditional lobster stocks are heavily over
fished. Therefore aquaculture of this group in a necessity. However, aquaculture of
this group is yet to take off due to very slow growth rate and difficulty in
producing seed in hatcheries due to very poor survival.
Presently undersized lobsters caught by fishermen are collected by the growers and
cultured in suitable enclosures to marketable size through appropriate feeding
schedule and water quality management. This kind of practice is called fattening.
This is successfully practiced in countries like Japan, Taiwan New Zealand.
In India currently no commercial lobster fattening or culture is being undertaken.
With the increase in prices for small and medium sized lobster, prospects for
lobster culture in India appear to be bright. Bigger species of lobsters such as P.
homarus and P. ornatus are the suitable species for culture. Following are the traits
of the above species.
Spiny lobsters are heterosexual and strictly marine throughout their life. They
attain maturity at the age of two and half years and reproduce in inshore waters.
Breeding is continuous, each species having peaks at different times in different
areas.
The life cycle involves a prolonged metamorphic phase extending for several
months. Fertilized eggs attach to the abdomen of the mother which is called
berried female. They hatch into a flat transparent phyllosoma larvae. The pelagic
larvae after a series of stages during the next 10-12 months transform in to
characteristic post larvae called puerulus. The puerulus is tiny and transparent but
resembles adults and settles to the bottom. It soon develops into a juvenile.
The lobsters are carnivorous and nocturnal. They feed on a wide variety of
bottom dwelling organisms and decaying animal matter. The most preferred food
is bivalve mollusks, polychaets and fish. Growth is relatively faster in the early
stages and they attain 20 – 25 cm in the first two years, thereafter the growth rate
is very slow being 2-3 cm per year. They have a life span of 7-8 years
Panulirus polyphagus
It attains a maximum body length of about 37 cm. Carapace rounded and
moderately curved with spines and tubercles. Antennular plate with a single pair of
anterior spines. Abdomen without groves. Body colour dull greenish. Each
abdominal segment with a distinct transverse band of white colour along the
posterior margin. Legs with indistinct blotches and short stripes.
It is generally associated with muddy sea bottom and found in maximum
abundance along Maharashtra and Gujarat coast
Panulirus homarus
Medium sized lobster growing to about 30 cm in length. Carapace rounded with
numerous spines. Antennular plate bearing two equal pairs of spines and many
scattered smaller spines in between.
Abdominal segments grooved transversely, grooves sometimes interrupted
medially. Colour of body dark greenish to blackish. Lateral border of each
abdominal segment with a white circular spot.
This species coexists with P. ornatus in the rocky coastal areas from Trivandrum
to Cape Comorin, Gulf of Mannar and Madras. P. homarus is dominant in
southern areas, while P. ornatus is dominant in Mandapam area.
Panulirus ornatus
The largest species under this genus, grows to about 50 cm. Carapace rounded and
covered with numerous spines and tubercles. Antennular plate bearing two pairs of
spines, the anterior pair being much larger than the posterior. Abdominal segment
smooth, without transverse grooves. Body colour grayish brown. Each abdominal
segment with a broad dark transverse band and two large white spots on either
side. Legs with black and light yellow stripes.
2.9. Crabs
Among marine crustaceans, crabs rank third in their importance as gourmet food
and the value of fishery they support after shrimps and lobsters.
Out of the 16 species of the crabs exploited through capture fisheries, Scylla
tranquibarica and Scylla serrata are the larger ones attaining sizes of 0.5 to 2.0 kg
and suitable for culture. They are known as mud crabs, green crabs or mangrove
crabs. Both these crabs co-exist in the inshore sea, estuaries, backwater, coastal
lakes and mangrove swamps of all maritime states of India, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
They prefer muddy and sandy bottoms. They breed in the sea and migrate to the
estuaries, megalopa onwards. Males are bigger than females of the same age. They
are omnivores feeding on shrimps, bivalves and fish among other food items. They
are continuous breeders with peaks at different times in different places.
12
Scylla tranquibarica
This is the larger of the two species growing to a maximum size of 2.0 kg. Free
living unlike S. serrata which burrows into the substratum.
Outer margin of carpus of chelipeds with 2 sharp spines. Colour of upper surface
of body light to dark green. Polygonal marking on all walking and swimming legs.
Scylla serrata
Outer margin of the carpus of cheliped with one blunt spine. Colour of the
carpapace greenish brown to ferruginous brown. No polygonal markings on legs.
Lower surface of the fixed finger of cheliped dark to pinkish red in colour.
UNIT 3 - METHODS OF COASTAL AQUACULTURE AND
MARICULTURE
3.1. Pond culture
Many species of fish and shrimp are grown in earthen ponds. This is the most
popular system of aquaculture particularly in the developing countries. Proper site
selection, designing and construction of ponds is necessary for successful
operations.
3.1.1. Site Selection
 Selection of right site is probably the most important factor determining the
feasibility of viable operations. Many farms laid out on poor sites have been
abandoned after considerable investment of money and effort leading to heavy
losses. However, ideal sites may not be always available and some
compromises may need to be made.
 Selection of site is generally based on species to be cultured and technology to
be adopted. However, some factors are common to all sites such as, agro-
climatic conditions, access to hatcheries/ seed centres, roads and
communication, access to markets, protection from natural disasters,
availability of skilled and unskilled labour, public utilities etc.
 All available meteorological and hydrological information needs to be
collected. Soil characteristics, quality and quantity of available water, ease of
filling and drainage, especially by gravity, are basic considerations.
 Land elevation and flood levels have to be ascertained. The maximum flood
level in the last 10 years and the highest astronomical tide should not be higher
than the normal height of the dikes. It will be advantageous to select land with
slopes not steeper than 2 percent. The area should be sufficiently extensive to
allow future expansion and preferably be of regular shape to facilitate farm
design and construction.
 Among other important general factors be considered are the existing and
future source of pollution, developmental plans for the neighborhood areas and
legal and social aspects of farm establishment. The possible effects of the
discharges of the farm on the environment needs to be considered. This can
greatly influence the attitudes of the local communities to the proposed
farming and hence their future cooperation.
 Sites generally available for the coastal pond farms are tidal and inter-tidal
mud flats in protected areas of near estuaries, bays, creeks, lagoons and salt
marshes. If the ponds need to be supplied water through tidal flow and
information on tidal amplitude at the site is essential.
 Data on high tides and low tides need to be collected from tide charts available
of the nearest port. The elevation of the land relative to the tides is important
to decide on the type of ponds to be constructed (whether tidal fed or pump
fed) and amount of excavation necessary for constructing the ponds.
 The construction of ponds in areas reached only by the high spring tides would
require excavation, leading to high cost of construction. For tidal fed ponds
sites with elevation of between 0 and 140 cm relative to tides is necessary.
However, if tidal energy can be replaced with other forms of energy the above
limitation would not apply.
3.1.2. Criteria to locate a good coastal farm site
1. Average air temperature of 260 C for tropical fish and crustaceans
2. Average pond temperature of 300 C.
3. Salinity of 10 to 35 parts per thousand (1.0 to 3.5%) - optimum would depend
on the species selected for culture.
4. Brackish/seawater of good quality and high natural productivity- optimum water
quality will depend on the species to be cultured.
5. Away from all sources of pollution (urban, agricultural and industrial).
6. Availability of seed for stocking
7. Land of suitable elevation to enable easy drainage of water from the ponds
8. Clay or clayey loam soil
9. Soil with relatively higher pH (>6.0)
10. Good electricity connection and supply
11. Good availability of labour
12. Road and transportation
13. Availability of communication
14. Availability of supplies
15. Proximity to markets
16. Low flood risk
13
3.1.3. Design and Construction of coastal ponds
 The design of the farm and its construction are as important as the
selection of the site in ensuring success of the project. As indicated earlier
ideal sites may not always be available. Deficiencies in sites have to be
made up by suitable designs for construction and operation.
 As pond farm design is so site-specific, one cannot conceive of a design
that can be of universal use. However, some major design feature can be
defined on the basis of the site physiography, the source and nature of the
water supply, type of stock enclosures to be used, organisms to be cultured
and the techniques of management.
 For designing coastal pond farms the most important data needed are the
seasonal variation in salinity of the available water and access to fresh
water to reduce salinity when required. When ponds have to be filled with
tidal energy, detailed studies are needed to determine the stage/duration/
frequency relationship necessary for engineering designs.
 For designing proper water management in the tide fed ponds, it is
necessary to determine the ground elevation, which actually approximates
the tidal levels of mean lower high water or mean high water at neap tide.
It is uneconomical to excavate more than 50 cm for pond construction. If
this is needed it will be better to resort to pumping rather than depend on
tides for water supply and drainage.
 As mentioned earlier pond farm designs are site specific. The aquaculturist
has to work closely with the engineer to arrive at an economically
acceptable design that will meet the operational requirements of the
species and the culture technology.
Size and shape:
The size of a farm has to be determined based on a number of factors such as
quantity of water and extent of land available; technology to be followed
(extensive, semi-intensive or intensive farming); and production and income
required to make the operation viable.
3.1.4. Water Supply Systems
 Proper water management in one of the most important factors that
governs the success of aquaculture operations. Not only water supply, but
also drainage system should be designed and constructed properly to get
good production.
 The quantity of water required for ponds will depend on the soil and
climatic conditions. The quantity of water will also depend on the type of
technology to be used and species being cultured. Intensive farming
requires more water than extensive farming per unit area.
  The water supply and drainage systems have to be designed properly to
convey the required quantity of water. Different designs have been
adopted, based on different criteria and requirements.
 It is essential to have separate supply and drainage canals as well as
separate inlets and outlets for operational safety and efficiency. Inlets and
outlets should be located on opposite sides. Outlets should also facilitate
harvesting of the produce.
 A coastal shrimp/fish farm generally has main and subsidiary canals for
water supply and drainage.
 There are many types of water control structures. The inlets may be
anything from a simple pipe to concrete sluice gates. A turn down pipe or
a sluice gate is used for outlets. Sluice gates have slots for fixing screens
or barrier planks.
 Water can be supplied either by tidal energy or by pumps depending on
the design of the farms. Drainage is by gravity; therefore ponds must be
designed accordingly.
 You will learn more about it in you course on 'Fish Farm Engineering.
3.2. Cages
 Rearing fish in cages is a traditional practice in some Asian countries. It
appears to have originated in Kampuchea two centuries ago. It has spread
to other places in more advanced form recently.
 Salmons in Norway, yellow tail in Japan and groupers and sea bass in
Hong Kong, Vietnam and Singapore are grown in cage farms.
 Cages offer great opportunities for aquaculture in open waters of the seas.
In recent years cage aquaculture has become a major source of aquaculture
production, particularly of high value fish like salmon, trout, sea bass and
groupers. Several types and designs of cages and cage farms have been
developed and commercially used.
 Majority of the cages consist of a floating unit, a framework and a flexible
mesh net suspend under it. The floating unit can consist of empty barrels,
Styrofoam polyethylene pipes, or ready made pontoons of plastic or metal.
 The buoy units are often built into a framework. The framework can be
made of impregnated wood, bamboo spars, galvanized scaffolding or
welded aluminum bars. Nylon is commonly used for net, but weld-mesh or
even woven split bamboo is also used. Cage flotillas provide safer
working conditions and enable storage of feed on site, as well as
installation of automatic feeders.
14
 Reasonably sheltered areas, with sufficient water movement to effect
adequate mixing and aeration are selected as sites for cage farms.
 The occurrence of typhoons, hurricanes and cyclones in the area and the
vulnerability of the sites are also major considerations in the design of
cage farms. Polluted sites are generally avoided.
 In cold climates, areas that receive safe heated water effluents are
preferred, as higher water temperatures generally improve growth and
productivity.
 Unused feed and fish faeces fall from the bottom of floating net cages on
to the floor of the waters bodies. Accumulated wastes decompose and
cause oxygen depletion or generation of methane or other toxic gasses
under anaerobic conditions.
 Cages also increase deposition of silt on the bottom of the site. It is
therefore necessary to have enough movement of clean water below the
floating cages. Carrying capacities of the areas should be determined to
avoid overcrowding of cages.
 The most sophisticated design of cages is use in cage farms of Norway
where salmon are grown extensively. Cages of size 100 to 500 m3 are
used. A simple unit holds a net of four vertical sides and is rectangular in
cross section. The more popular ones are circular in cross section.
 There are many ways of arranging cages in a cage farm. Where possible, it
is preferable to moor cages to a jetty with direct access to a quay, in order
to facilitate work and reduce labour cost.
 However, environmental and site conditions may require them to be
located farther away from the coast, in which case a work boat will be
needed for access. Cages should be installed on the sides of a central
walkway to facilitate day to day work on the farm.
 Feed dispensers are installed above each cage; in others, manual feeding is
done. Mooring blocks have to be sufficiently heavy and are usually made
of concrete with heavy galvanized bolts.
 Most of the presently available cages are designed for use in protected
bays and fjords. In order to utilize more open waters and high seas, special
cages with a flexible rubber framework have recently been developed.
3.3. Pens
 Pens and enclosures are transitional structures between ponds and cages.
They are used for culture of yellow tail in Japan, milkfish in the
Philippines and salmon in Norway.
  The success of pens for culture depends on the hydro-biological conditions
of the site. The design of the structures is based on adequate knowledge of
water quality, floods, waves and currents and prevalence of predatory
animals.
 Pens are formed by net barriers to partition off areas of an open water
body, such as intertidal areas of the sea, bays or lagoons.
 Different designs of enclosures have been constructed. Generally the
enclosure is formed on one side of the shore and on the other three by a
wall of nylon netting hung from pole driven into the bottom.
Pole /stick culture: Wooden or bamboo sticks are installed in rows in
shallow muddy regions of the intertidal zones. Sheltered areas free from
strong waves and wood boring organisms are selected. Seed oysters are
attached to the poles using degradable nets, or sting on which oysters are
collected are strewn round the poles for fattening and final harvest.
Raft/string culture: string/trays are suspended from floating rafts or long
lines. Raft are use in protected areas, strings in more exposed areas.
Rafts/longlines are supported by buoys. Trays are made of wood or wire
screens. Spat oysters are placed in trays and suspend for grow out.

 In many such enclosures, concrete or stone walls are built on each side B. Mussels
where it joins the shore or provide adequate support to the nets. The methods for mussels are very similar to oyster culture. Bottom culture is
widely practiced in Germany and the Netherlands; stake culture in France, Italy
 Around the rest of the perimeter, heavy posts of impregnated timber or and the Philippines; and raft and long line culture in Spain.
concrete piles are driven into the bed extending for about 2m out of water
all times. C. Seaweeds
Raft and long line culture similar to oysters and mussels is practiced for growing
 Net barriers may be hung from steel cables stung between the poles or the seaweeds. Spores are collected on nets from areas rich in spores and they are
concrete of steel piles. To prevent the lateral movements of these piles transferred to on growing areas for culture to marketable size.
some are anchored to fore and aft, to large anchor blocks using strong steel Another method of culture is using floating frames, fabricated as nets with ropes of
cables. hemp fibres, palmyra fibres or synthetic twines which serve as suitable substrata.
 The nets are generally made of knotless nylon netting material. In some The culture frames are suspended in the sub-littoral zone from poles driven into
cases, two walls of netting are used, the outer one to protect the enclosure the bottom in such a way that the flat surface of the net is close to water surface
from floating debris and to prevent escape of fish if the inner wall gets even during low tides. Fragments of plants are twisted into the ropes and allowed
damaged. to grow to harvestable quantity.
 However, if two walls of netting are used it may create hindrance to free
flow of water. The net barrier is fixed by a rope along the sea bed for 1m,
until it terminates in a lead line. The net is embedded in the sand or silt at
the bottom. As a further precaution to prevent fish escaping heavy rubble
is piled up at the bottom around the pen.
3.4. Culture methods for oyster, mussels and seaweeds
A. Oysters
On-bottom and off bottom culture are practiced for edible oysters.
1. Onbottom culture: this method of culture is followed on a fairly firm bottom;
protected from wave action and predators. Oyster spats are sowed and harvested
when grown to marketable size. Though this method is cheaper, siltation over
oysters beds can cause problems, and the areas may not always be free from
predators.
2. Off-bottom culture: Many methods of off-bottom culture viz., pole/stick
method, and raft culture methods are followed.

15
 UNIT 4 - WATER AND SOIL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
4.1. Water and soil quality management
 Fish production is influenced by hydro-biological characteristics. Fish culture
also has a pronounced reverse effect on the environment.
For example fish consume oxygen and produce metabolic byproducts such as
ammonia and carbon dioxide, which react with already present constituents of
the environment to drive an ever-changing chain of reactions to produce a
chemical environment in which fish must live. The most important water
quality parameters which affect fish in culture environments are discussed in
this chapter.
 Water quality standards for aquaculture are presented in the following table.
They are meant to be used as guide only, since certain parameters can vary
significantly from one species to another.
4.1.1. Physical variables
4.1.1.a. Temperature
 Water temperature has the greatest effect on fish since they are poikilotherms.
 It is impractical to control temperature in ponds and other farming facilities;
therefore, large-scale mariculture and coastal aquaculture must be conducted
in geographical regions having sufficiently long growing seasons to produce
marketable sized fish in reasonable amount of time.
 Temperature also affects oxygen solubility and causes interactions of several
other water quality parameters.
 Water temperatures greatly influence physiological processes such as
respiration rate, efficiency of feeding and assimilation, growth, behavior and
reproduction.
 A temperature increase of 10oC will generally cause rate of chemical and
biological reactions to double or triple. Because of this dissolved oxygen
requirements are more critical in warm water than in cold water.
 Each species has an optimum temperature and upper and lower temperature
limits beyond which it cannot survive.
 Within a species’ tolerable limits growth will increase with increasing
temperature and reach a peak beyond which it will decline just before reaching
the upper lethal limit.
 Fish will also be healthiest at it optimum temperature. Optimum temperatures
vary from species to species and must be considered before choosing a species
for culture in a particular geographic location.
16
4.1.1.b. Salinity
 Salinity is a measure of the concentration of dissolved ions in water expressed
as parts per thousand (ppt). The major dissolved ions are sodium, chloride,
Magnesium, calcium, potassium, sulphate and bicarbonates.
 Seawater varies in salinity from about 33 to 37 ppt with an average of about
34. Estuarine and brackish waters have varying salinities from full strength
seawater to about 3 ppt.
 The composition and concentration of dissolved salts in the body fluids of fish
and invertebrates must be maintained within fairly narrow limits to buffer
against changes that can cause physiological disruptions.
 Since fish and shellfish live in water, salinity of external water can disrupt
concentrations of dissolved salts in the body fluids.
 Fish maintain homeostasis through osmoregulation which is influenced by
salinity of water. Some species can osmoregulation at wide range of salinity;
they are called ‘Euryhaline’. Others have limited tolerance to salinity changes,
such species are called ‘stenohaline’.
 Every species has an optimum salinity range. When forced outside of this
range, metabolic energy is spent on osmoregulation at the expense of growth.
If salinity deviates too far fish die.
 Euryhaline species such as the Asian sea bass can be cultured in a broad range
of salinity from fresh to seawater, but stenohaline fish such as cobia can be
cultured only in full strength seawater.
4.1.1.c. Turbidity
 Turbidity is a measure of light penetration in water.
 It is produced by dissolved and suspended substances such as clay particles,
humic substances, plankton, coloured compounds etc.
 Excessive turbidity can be troublesome in fish ponds and flow-through
systems.
 Turbidity caused by plankton is usually desirable since it enhances fish
production.
 However, turbidity caused due to clay and other colloidal particles in
undesirable since it can choke the gills of fish and shellfish. It can also restrict
the growth of phytoplankton.
 Water turbidity in ponds is commonly measured with the Secchi disc. It is a
round disk having a diameter of 30 cm. the disk is divided into quadrants, two
opposite quadrants are painted white and the other two black. The disc is
attached to a rope or cable marked in increments. A measurement is taken by
 lowering the disk into water body until it just disappears from sight. The depth
at which the disk disappears is the Secchi disc visibility usually expressed in
centimeters. Optimum Secchi disc visibility in extensive and semi-intensive
ponds is 25 to 40 cm.
4.1.2. Chemical variables
4.1.2.a. Dissolved oxygen
 Dissolved oxygen along with temperature controls the metabolism of fish and
invertebrates. Together, these two environmental variables control fish
production.
 Although atmosphere contains 21% oxygen gas, it is only slightly soluble in
water. Thus, water contains only small amounts of oxygen available for fish
respiration.
 The main source of oxygen to water is dissolution from the atmosphere.
Phytoplankton and macrophytes also add oxygen to water through
photosynthesis. Increasing temperature and salinity reduce the saturation point
of DO in water.
 Fish oxygen consumption rates vary with water temperature, DO
concentration, fish size, level of activity, time after feeding and other factors.
 Metabolic rates vary by species and are limited by low DO conditions.
 Fish can acclimate to low DO conditions, but these adjustments are slow,
taking anywhere from a few hours to several weeks.
 Small fish consume more oxygen per unit weight than larger fish of the same
species.
 Oxygen consumption increases when fish are forced to exercise, and metabolic
energy demands can cause oxygen consumption to double from one to six
hours after feeding.
 In general, warm water species tolerate lower DO concentration than cold
water fish.
 Warm water fish die after short term exposure to less than 0.3 mg/L DO. To
support life for several hours, a minimum of 1.0 mg/L is required, and 1.5
mg/L is required to support fish for several days. However, for obtaining good
production DO levels should be above 5.0 mg/L.
4.1.2.b. Total alkalinity
 Total alkalinity is the total amount of titratable bases in water expressed as
mg/L of equivalent calcium carbonate.
17
 The principal ions that contribute to alkalinity are carbonate and bicarbonate
and, to a lesser degree, hydroxides, ammonium, borate, silicates and
phosphates.
 Alkalinity is a measure of pH buffering capacity or acid neutralizing capacity.
 Natural seawaters have a mean total alkalinity of about 116 mg/L. Generally
speaking alkalinity below 30 mg/L is considered poorly buffered against pH
changes. Thus in brackish waters and sea water alkalinity is rarely of concern.
4.1.2.c. pH
 pH is an indicator of hydrogen ion concentration in water.
 The mean pH of ocean is about 8.3 and remains fairly constant because of
the great buffering capacity of the oceans.
 Since the optimum range of pH is 6.5 to 8 pH is rarely a concern in
brackish and sea waters.
4.1.2.d. Carbon dioxide
 The main source of carbon dioxide to water is by respiration of organisms
and biological oxidation of organic matter.
 Carbon dioxide is not particularly toxic to fish provided sufficient
dissolved oxygen is available.
 CO2 concentration of 10-15 mg/L is recommended as maximum for fish
culture.
4.1.2.e. Ammonia
 Ammonia exists in water in two states, ionized ammonia, also called the
ammonium ion (NH4+) and un-ionized ammonia (NH3). The sum of two
is called total ammonia or simply ammonia.
 The toxicity of total ammonia depends on what fraction of the total is in
the un-ionized form, since this form is by far the more toxic of the two.
 Which fraction dominates depends on the pH, temperature and salinity of
water; out of this water pH has the strongest influence.
 At higher pH un-ionized ammonia dominates and hence more toxic. A
maximum concentration of 0.01mg/L is recommended for marine fish.
4.1.2.f. Nitrite and Nitrate
Nitrite
 Nitrite like ammonia is toxic to fish.
 Nitrite levels in fish ponds typically range from 0.05 to 5 mg/L, probably due
to reduction of nitrate under anaerobic conditions.
 The toxicity of nitrite is due to its effect on oxygen transport and tissue
damage.
 Fish deaths increase when low dissolved oxygen is coupled with higher nitrite
concentrations.
 DO levels should be higher than 6 mg/L when fish are affected by nitrite
toxicity.
 At higher levels of chloride the toxicity of nitrite is reduced. Hence nitrite
toxicity in seawater is not as serious as in freshwater systems.
Nitrate
 Nitrates are the least toxic of the inorganic nitrogenous compounds.
 The effects on aquatic animals is similar to nitrate having to do with
osmoregulation and oxygen transport, but the concentrations at which fish
get affected are much higher.
 Nitrates are more of a problem in recirculatory systems and the problem is
controlled with daily water exchanges.
4.1.2.g. Hydrogen sulphide
 Hydrogen sulphide is generated by certain heterotrophic bacteria under
anaerobic conditions.
 The distribution of hydrogen sulphide and other sulfur species is regulated
by water pH.
 The un-ionized form accounts for about 99% of the total sulfide. As the
value of pH rises, the percent of hydrogen sulfide decreases.
 Un-ionized hydrogen sulfide is toxic to fish and invertebrates at low
concentrations. Therefore, detectable concentrations should be considered
as hazardous.
18
UNIT 5 - FINFISH CULTURE SYSTEMS
5.1. Culture of milkfish
 The milkfish Chanos chanos , the only species of the family Chanidae, has
a wide distribution.
 It does not form a capture fishery of any significance and its importance is
based on the large scale farming in over 400,000 ha of coastal
impoundments in Southeast Asia. Its culture originated in Indonesia and
spread to the Philippines and Taiwan.
 Though essentially marine fish of the Indian and Pacific oceans, the young
ones spend their life in inshore estuarine areas and ascend rives to the
fresh water zones.
 They are highly euryhaline and can live in fresh to hyper-saline waters.
 They tolerate temperature from 15-40oC but the optimum is between 20
and 33oC.
5.1.1. Culture systems
 The most common culture systems are brackish water coastal farms. The
farm may include nurseries, and rearing ponds.
 Though cultured under monoculture systems they can be polycultured with
mullets and shrimps.
 They are sometimes grown in freshwater ponds or stocked in lakes and
reservoirs in the Southeast Asia.
 The more important farming system in freshwaters is the pen farming that
has developed in lakes in the Philippines (Laguna de Bay and Lake
Sampaloc).
5.1.2. Fry collection
 Milkfish don not mature and spawn naturally in captivity. They seem to spawn
near the coast and larvae occur periodically along the sandy coasts and in the
estuaries.
 Hence, most of the fry used for milk fish culture are collected from the wild.
 A variety of gears are used to collect milk fish fry from shallow coastal water.
The most common collecting equipment comprises different types of dip nets,
such as the triangular scissor net in the Philippines and the scoop net in
Taiwan. Dip nets are particularly suited for areas with large concentrations of
fry. Seine nets, drag nets and traps are also use by some fishermen.
 In traditional methods of fry capture in Indonesia special fry congregating
devices are used, such as rock walls or lure line made of fibre ropes strung
with plaited strips of coconut and banana leaves.
 Power boats are also use to tow seine nets and scoop nets. This extends the
area of collection to off the immediate coast and is more efficient. The best
collections are made at the creek mouths.
 The fry collectors sell fry to fry buyers who accumulate the fry in 2-6m3
shaded concrete tanks near the collection site in about 10 cm of water at a
density of about 40,000 fry per tank.
 Fry are then packed in polythene bag filled with water and pure oxygen and
deliver to fry dealers. Dealers hold the fry in cement tanks before selling to the
farmers.
5.1.3. Artificial propagation
 Since the supply from wild may not be sufficient to supply the demand.
The AQD of the SEAFDEC in the Philippines has developed technology
to produce milkfish in hatcheries.
 Brood fish are reared in captured from the wild and reared for several
years in captivity since this fish matures at the age of 5-7 years when it is
at least 3.5kg weight and 60 cm in length.
 The fish are induced to spawn implantation of LH-RH cholesterol pellets.
 After spawning the eggs are collected with plankton nets and hatched at
30oC they hatch in 24 hours.
 Fry start feeding in 2 days.
 They are maintained in green water, fed small rotifers and fertilized oyster
eggs.
 After 10 days live feed is replaced by commercial artificial feed. At a
density of 1500 t 6000/m2, two to three weeks after hatching fry reach
1.5cm.
5.1.4. Grow-out
Fish ponds
 Fish ponds are made coastal low lands/mudflats. The land should between
average sea level and 45 cm above sea level.
 Pond can be filled and drained through gravity.
 The elevation should be such that ponds can be dried completely. Soil
should be loamy or silty loam.
19
 The farm consists of production ponds, wintering ponds, nursery ponds
and water canals.
Production ponds
 The area of the production ponds is 3 – 8 ha, their long sides at 90o to
prevailing wind.
 Bottom is flat with a drop of 3 cm per 100 m2.
 Trenches converging at sluice gates should be made at the bottom.
 Water depth should be maintained at 45 cm.
Wintering ponds
 When temperatures fall below 15oC deeper wintering ponds are necessary.
 They comprise 2-5% of the farm area.
Nursery ponds
 Nursery ponds vary in size form 18 to 25m wide and 20 cm deep along the
length of the production ponds.
 They consist of 2-3% of the farm area.
Water canals
 Water canals are constructed to supply and drain water to and from the
ponds.
 They are connected to sluice gates and can be up to 15 m wide.
5.1.5. Pond preparation
 Decomposing algae are raked and spread evenly.
 Dykes are repaired and all leaks plugged.
 Ponds are dried to get rid of pests and to oxidize pond sediments.
 Fine mesh nets are installed in the inlets to prevent unwanted organisms
from entering the ponds.
 Natural food, lab lab is grown at the bottom. Let some water into the
ponds to the bottom wet all over.
 Apply agricultural lime at 1 ton per ha and chicken manure at 2 tons per ha
on moist pond bottom.
 A week later apply ammonium phosphate at 20 kg per ha and urea at 10 kg
per ha. The amounts of inputs may be changed depending on the
productivity and pond history.
 As lab lab grows, increase water depth to 30 cm. Fertilizers again added
after biweekly water exchange at the same or half the basal rate.
  Fry of about 5 mg size are stocked at the rate of 75 to 100 per m2. They are
harvested when they reach 5-10 g.
 Growout ponds are similarly prepared at stocked with fingerlings of size
5-10g at the rate of 7000-8000 fingerlings per ha.
5.1.6. Water management
 30cm water level is maintained for first 30-40 days with lab lab.
 It is increased to 50-100 cm when fish grow bigger and supplemental feeding
starts.
 Pumping may be necessary to keep the pond water at a higher level than
outside.
 Monitor dissolved oxygen at 6-8 AM and 2-4 PM. Aeration becomes
necessary if oxygen levels drop to 1 ppm.
5.1.7. Supplementary feeding
 The fish fed are a mixture of rice bran and oil cakes at the rate of 2-3% of
the body weight.
 Feeding should be avoided on over cast days and when oxygen levels fall
below 2 ppm.
 The striped mullet Mugil cephalus is the most widely distributed and well
known of the mullets due to its larger size and faster growth rate and hence
preferred species for culture.
 It is eurythermal and highly euryhaline tolerating salinities between 0 - 75 ppt.
 It feeds on detritus, large plants, blue green algae, green algae and diatoms.
 It is valued not only for meat but also for roe which is a delicacy inn Taiwan
and Japan where the roe fetches a very high price.
 It breeds in the sea whereas eggs need seawater but larvae migrate to coastal
waters and estuaries.
 The fry and fingerlings of the striped mullet are not abundant; hence, other
species of mullets are also cultured.
5.2.1. Culture systems
The traditional and extensive culture with other euryhaline species still continues
to be an important culture system. They are generally raised with other species in
polyculture-
 In Hong Kong with Chinese carps
 In Taiwan with Chinese carps and Tilapias

Harvesting  In Israel with common carp and tilapias

 Over wintered fry of 100 to 150 g reach marketable size of 300 to 450 g in  In India with shrimps, pearlspot and other fish in traditional prawn culture
eight weeks. systems

 New fry reach market size in 5 months.  In the Philippines and Indonesia with milkfish.

 After 2 months of stocking fish can be partially harvested by dragging gill 5.2.2. Fry collection
nets.  Most fry are obtained from natural systems.
 Final harvest is carried out when all the fry reach marketable size.  The striped mullet breeds in the sea, fry and fingerlings enter estuaries and
 A production of 2000-5000 ka/ha/year can be expected from semi-intensive congregate in shoals.
culture of milkfish.  The fry collection methods are similar to those of the milkfish. Commonly
5.2. Culture of grey mullets seines and dip nets are used.

 Grey mullets and milkfish have been the mainstay of finfish culture in coastal  The most suitable areas for collection are marginal areas of rivers, tidal
and estuarine impoundments for centuries. The formed one of the important streams, creeks, swamps and inundated fields.
group of cultured species in  They swim against slow currents and such areas are ideal sites for collection
• Vallis of the Mediterranean lagoons (Italy) Hatchery production
• Coastal harbour culture' of China
• Gangetic and Southern estuaries of India  Taiwan was the first to succeed in artificial propagation of stripped mullet.
• Coastal fish ponds of Hawaii  2.5 to 3 years old spawners are obtained from the sea and stocked in cement
 Mullets are relished by consumers in some areas but considered poor eating tanks.
quality in others.
20
 They are injected with 3-5 mullet pituitary glands mixed with 20-50 rabbit
units of synahorin (mixture of chorionic gonadotropin and mammalian
hypophyseal extract) per female or with salmon gonadotropin.
 Eggs with best chances of fertilization are released 40-50 hours after hormone
injection.
 A soft swollen belly with excretion of calcium deposits indicates they are
ready to release eggs.
 Females are stripped and eggs are mixed with milt collected from males.
 Both dry and wet fertilization can be followed.
 1.0 to 1.5 million eggs can be obtained per female.
 Eggs are incubated in flow through systems are in aquaria with static water
and aeration.
 Eggs hatch in 34 to 48 hours at a temperature of 24oC.
 Larvae are reared in indoor tanks.
 Newly hatched larvae are planktonic, they swim with heads down and bellies
up.
 Larvae start feeding three days after hatching.
 They are fed fertilized oyster eggs.
 From 5th day onwards they are fed with rotifers and copepods. In 45 days fry
are ready for stocking in grow-out ponds.
5.2.3. Grow-out operations
 In traditional coastal farming mullets are raised with other fish and shrimps.
 When tidal stocking is adopted the quantity and composition of stock can
seldom be determined. This practice leads to under-stocking and presence
slow growing species.
 The aquaculturists now supplement stock with fry and fingerlings caught from
the wild.
 Neither feeding nor fertilization is practised in traditional culture system.
 Regular exchange of water is performed. Natural food enters along with the
tidal water on which mullets and other fish feed.
 They also feed on benthic algal mat growing in the ponds. Production in this
system varies from 150 – 1500 kg/ha.
 The more intensive polyculture is done in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Israel and to a
lesser extent in Egypt.
21
 In Hong Kong mullets are stocked @ 10,000 to 15,000 fingerlings of 7.5 cm
long along with 1000 to 2000 Chinese carps per ha.
 The stock is thinned out 3500 per ha when the fish grow to 12 cm size.
 The fish are fed rice bran for the first two months and thereafter a mixture of
rice bran and oil cake.
 Organic manures are added to increase the production of natural food in the
ponds. Production varies between 2500 to 3500 kg/ha/year.
 In Taiwan stocking is done with fingerlings of 3000 mullets, 2000 milkfish,
3250 Chinese carps and 500 common carp.
 Ponds are fertilized with super-phosphate @ 60 kg/ha.
 Fish are fed a mixture of rice bran, soya bean cake and peanut meal.
 Striped mullet attains a weight of about 300g in one year and 1.2Kg in the
second year. 3 year old fish reach a weight of 2 Kg under pond conditions.
5.3. Culture of asian seabass
 The Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer is an important coastal, estuarine and
freshwater fish in the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific region.
 It supports commercial and recreational fisheries in Australia, and Papua
New Guinea.
 It is caught in the traditional prawn/fish filtration systems of Asia. It is
widely distributed from the Gulf of Arabia to Northern Australia.
 It is highly Euryhaline with a complex life history. It is a protandrous
hermaphrodite and catadromus fish.
 Spawning occurs in brackish waters of 28 to 36 ppt salinity, near river
mouths. Generally spawns from January to August, spawning is triggered
by a rise in temperature.
 There is a tide based monthly cycle of spawning, spawns usually around
full moon and new moon days coinciding with spring tides.
 It is highly predacious and cannibalistic, which is the main difficulty in
culture of this fish.
 Stringent size grading is required in the culture environments.
 The fish is fast growing and commands good price in local and
international markets, hence this is one of the species cultured in Australia,
Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand.
5.3.1. Source of seed
 Fry are generally produced in hatcheries.
 The fish can be matured in sea cages and bred through environmental
manipulation of hormonal injections.
 Wild ripe spawners can also be collected and stripped followed by dry method
of fertilization.
 Eggs hatch in 12-15 hours at a temperature of 29-31oC. They are hatched in
seawater of salinity 30 ppt.
 Larvae start feeding from the 2nd day onwards when they are fed marine
rotifer Brachionus plicatilis.
 From day 8 post hatch they are fed with Artemia nauplii or cladocerans.
 25-30 days post hatch they are fed with ground trash fish meat/sub-adult and
adult Artemia.
 Grading is essential to prevent cannibalism starting from 2nd weed post hatch.
5.3.2. Grow-out culture
 Asian sea bass has been cultivated for many years in brackish-water ponds. In
recent years floating cages are used for production of marketable sized fish.
 The main problems of grow-out as earlier told is cannibalism and feeding,
since this fish is highly predatory. Therefore grow-out is performed in two
phases.
 In the first phase fry are grown to a weight of about 20 g in special nursery
type of ponds of upto 2000m2.
 Fry are stocked at the rate of 20-30/m .
2
 Besides natural food produced by fertilization, the fry are fed with
supplementary feed consisting of ground trash fish twice a day.
 Exchange of water @ 30% per day is maintained. They are reared for a period
of 30 – 40 days.
 By frequent sorting fingerlings of similar size are separated and stocked in
separate grow out facilities for growing to market size.
 Grow-out period last for 3-4 months in countries like the Philippines, where
300-400g fish are acceptable and 8-2 months in other countries where
marketable sized fish is 700g to 1.2 Kg.
 Floating and stationary cages of different sizes (usually 50m ) are used. The
2
stocking density in cages is 40-50 fish /m3, after a growth of about 3 months is
stock is thinned out to 10-20/m3.
22
 Fish are fed chopped trash fish or pelleted feed specially formulated for Asian
sea bass. They are fed @ 10% of the biomass twice daily for two months after
which it is reduced to 5% once a day.
 Weekly size grading is and full and frequent feeding is necessary until fish
reach 15cm in length to avoid cannibalism.
 In ponds both mono- and polyculture is practices.
 In poly culture fish are reared with forage fish such as tilapias in the ratio of
1:20. The ponds are first stocked with the forage fish which reproduce rapidly
and produce fry and fingerlings as food for the sea bass. When sufficient food
is produced sea bass juveniles are stocked at a rate of 3000 to5000 per ha.
 In monoculture system sea bass juveniles are stocked at 10,000 to 20000 per
ha with artificial feeding.
 Intensive culture of sea bass has proved to be economical and a production of
about 3-3.5 tonnes can be obtained.
 The stocked fish in ponds grows to 500g in 6 months; 800 g in one year and to
3 Kg in one and half to two years. When stocked in freshwater reservoirs the
fish is reported to have grown to 10 Kg size in three years in Australia.
5.4. Culture of groupers
Groupers are a high value marine fish. Grouper culture has high potential for
growth. In 2008 total global production of grouper was about 76000 tonnes value
at about 290 USD.60% of it was from China.
5.4.1. Biology and Seed supply
Biology
 Groupers are carnivorous fish associated with reefs.
 They are found both in marine and brackishwaters.
 Feed on small fish and shrimp.
 Distributed primarily in South East Asian countries.
 They are protogynus hermophrodites – mature as females and convert to
males as they grow larger.
 In Epinephelus tauvina sex reversal begins at the age of 6 years and the
proportion of males increases thereafter.
 Most fish become males after the age of 9 years.
 For hatchery production of fish males can be got younger by hormonal sex
reversal.
  Functional males of E. tauvina could be obtained by feeding methyl
testosterone for 14 days @1mg/kg fish per day.
Seed supply
 Both wild and hatchery reared seed are used. Survival rates of larvae in
hatchery is still poor.
 Hence majority of the seed is from the wild. Fry measuring 3.5-5 cm are
available during the breeding season.
 Fishermen collect them with small seines and transport them for sale to
fishermen.
5.4.2. Culture techniques
 Majority of the grouper production comes from open sea cage culture.
They are also grown in coastal ponds and recirculatory systems.
 Wild fry or fingerlings are initially held in hapas for a month or more.
Hapas measuring 2x2x2 m are stocked at a rate of 400-600 advanced fry
or fingerlings.
 Fry and fingerlings are fed @ 10% biomass with mysids and small shrimp
after a couple of days of acclimatization.
 When they have reached lengths of 12-15 cm they are transferred to
nursery cages of 5x5x3m, each holding about 1100 fish. Cages are made
of polyethylene net of mesh size 2.5cm.
 They are fed trash fish which is minced or chopped to size suitable to the
size of growing fish at the rate of 8% of the biomass.
 After about 2-3 months they are transferred to production cages
 Floating cages made of polyethylene netting of mesh size 2.5-5.0cm,
supported by wooden framework are kept afloat with metal or plastic
drums and anchored with concrete blocks.
 Fish are stocked at the rate of 2-4/m3. They are fed with trash fish or
pelleted feed @ 5% body biomass.
 E. tauvina reaches marketable size of 800g within about 6 months and two
crops can be raised per year. Survival ranges from 60-90%. A production
of 150 to 250Kg per cage is possible.
Pond culture:
 Groupers can be grown in earthen ponds and concrete tanks.
 Pond are prepared by drying liming and fertilization.
 The ponds are stocked with 5000 to 10,000 tilapia per hectare surface area.
Tilapia fingerlings serve as food for groupers.
23
 Grouper fingerlings of size 7.5cm or more are stocked @ 5000 per ha one
month after stocking tilapia.
 The fish are fed chopped trash fish at 5% of grouper biomass.
 Feed trays are used for monitoring of feed intake. Water depth is maintained at
1-1.3m, temperature at 24-31oC and dissolved oxygen at 5-9ppm.
 Fish are selectively harvested at a size of 400-600g using drag nets.
 Under sized fish are returned to the ponds to grow to marketable size. Duration
of culture is 6-8 months. A production of 1.5 to 2 Kg/m3 is obtained by this
method. Survival in pond culture of groupers varies from 70-90 percent.
UNIT 6 - CULTURE OF CRUSTACEANS
6.1. Shrimp Culture
Shrimps had formed a subsidiary species in most types of fish culture in coastal
ponds in Asia; and in countries like India, rice fields have been used for a form of
extensive culture of shrimps for centuries. Intensive culture and semi-intensive
cultures of these crustaceans are of recent origin.
Interest in their culture, particularly shrimps was triggered by the increase in
export demand and the inadequacy of capture fisheries to meet the demand. As the
expanding markets were in economically advanced countries like Japan and USA,
the prospects of an export market and opportunities for earning foreign exchange
attracted support from the governments of developing countries and led investment
by private entrepreneurs. Shrimps and prawns became high value commodities in
many developing countries because of their market potential. In India shrimps are
the mainstay of coastal aquaculture.
Major cultivated species of shrimps
 Attention so far has been directed to the culture of tropical and sub-
tropical species of shrimps. In Asia important species are P. monodon,
P. merguiensis, P. semisulcatus and P. chinensis. P. penicillatus is a
species cultured in Taiwan. Metapenaeus monoceros, M. brevicornis and
M. ensis form subsidiary species in shrimp farms in several Asian
countries.
 The most important species in Central and South America are P.
vannamei and P. stylirostris. P. japonicus is the major species in
temperate countries like Japan and Taiwan and in a less intensive way in
France, Italy and Brazil. P. orientalis = P. chinensis is the major species
grown in China and Korea. P. setiferus is the species of interest in
temperate USA.
  The tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon is the fastest growing species among
shrimps. This is the main species cultured in Asia including, India. It is
highly euryhaline tolerating salinities from freshwater to full-strength
seawater, even though 15-25ppt has been considered optimum. The
optimum temperature is around 26-30oC. It cannot tolerate temperatures
below 21oC and above 37.5oC.
 P. indicus and P .merguiensis are the other species cultured to a lesser
extent in Asia. Both have similar habits in many respects, but the former
exhibits a preference for sandy bottom and the later muddy ones. Both
species require salinities higher than P. monodon for good growth, both
cannot tolerate salinities outside the range of 5-40ppt.
 Among the species cultured in south and Central America, P. vannamei is
highly euryhaline and can withstand salinities from 0-50ppt. and
temperatures ranging from 22-32oC. It has higher survival rates than other
species and hence its preference for pond farming.
6.1.2. Culture systems
 Mainly there are two types of culture systems – traditional and modern
scientific. In traditional systems, natural stocking is achieved through
intake of tidal water carrying large number of shrimp larvae along with
unwanted predators and competitors. They are held in the pond over a
period of time to grow and are then harvested.
These culture systems more appropriately termed as ‘catch and hold’
culture systems evolved thousands of hundreds of years ago in the
Mediterranean and are still commonly used today where labour and land
costs are low. This approach can still be profitable with low risk although
profits can also be low. The Pokkali field prawn filtration, Bheries of West
Bengal, Gazanis of Karnataka and Khazans of Goa are the examples of
this system of prawn/shrimp culture.
 While catch and hold approach requires minimal labour, capital and skill,
it is also low yield and unpredictable. Neither stocking densities nor
species composition are controllable. And improvement over catch and
hold system is a grow-out system where pond source water is screened to
control unwanted entrants, and the pond is then stocked with a known
quantity of desirable species of shrimps.
Shrimp seed are collected from wild are normally late post larvae or
juveniles which are either stocked directly or nursed to a larger size before
stocking. Although additional labour and skill are needed for this kind of
approach, greater control is exercised over density, species, survival and
24
growth and size at harvest. The grow-out locations can be far removed
from the source of seed, greatly expanding potential farm sites.
 Although this system is commonly still used, it does have limitations. Seed
availability is unpredictable since it fluctuates from season to season and
year to year. Therefore there is potential for the farms to be under stocked
or not stocked at all. This can lead to economic hardships. Additionally, it
requires skill to distinguish seed of fast growing species from slow
growing species. Ponds are often stocked with a mixture of species that are
less optimal and results in reduced yields.
 The evolution of modern shrimp culture required captive reproduction and
seed production through larviculture in hatcheries. The Japanese scientist
Motasako Fujinaga (published under the name Hudinaga) laid the
technical ground work for this development. He spawned wild spawners of
P. japonicus in the laboratory, hatched eggs and reared the larvae to the
size of post larvae suitable for stocking. Some species mature in captivity
while others don’t. Eyes stalk ablation technique was subsequently
developed to mature the spawners in captivity. This ensured year round
availability of spawners and hence the seed could be produced anytime.
Modern shrimp farming
Modern shrimp farming can be divided into four types
1. Extensive
2. Modified extensive
3. Semi-intensive
4. Intensive.
 Extensive shrimp farming is characterized by large ponds, low stocking
densities, with very little input and low levels of management and low
yields per unit area. In places where labour is cheap and land is plenty,
seed are abundant and inexpensive this form of shrimp culture is quite
profitable. Neither use of expensive formulated feed nor high levels of
pond management are necessary.
 Semi-intensive shrimp farming on the other hand requires high stocking
densities in smaller ponds, high feed and high energy inputs, and
continuous management attention and gives higher yields.
 Modified extensive shrimp farming falls between extensive and semi-
intensive systems. Intensive system of shrimp farming is followed in
advanced countries and is characterized by very high stocking densities
and very high inputs of feed and energy with a concomitant high level of
management attention aided by automatic systems. This kind of farming is
 not followed in developing countries where most of the shrimp farming Site selection
occurs. This is one of the most important steps in the development of successful farm. The
6.1.3. Characteristics of shrimp culture systems following criteria should be taken into consideration while locating a shrimp farm
1. Estuarine water of high quality and natural productivity should be
Modified available.
Characteristics Extensive Semi-intensive
extensive
2. The area should be free from pollution.
Pond size >5ha 1-2 ha <1ha
3. Flood risk should be low
Engineered for
Engineering 4. Site should be of suitable elevation to drain and fill the ponds whenever
Not required Moderate sustainable
requirement required.
production
Availability of 5. The soil should be clay or clay loam.
Widespread Widespread selective
sites 6. Soil pH should be >6. Acid sulphate soils should be avoided.
Initial 7. Electricity supply should be easily available
Low Moderate Very high
investment/ha
8. Cheap labour should be available
Electricity Not required Partial backup Complete backup 9. All weather road and transportation facilities are required.
10. Availability of year round seed and feed and other essential supplies is a
Stocking densities
`1-1.5 5-10 15-30 necessity.
(No./m2)
Feed Natural Natural + formulated Formulated 11. Proximity to processing facilities will be an advantage.
Feeding frequency - 1-4/day 3-6/day 12. Existing farms in the vicinity should be assessed to discover potential
problems.
Tidal when Upto25% per day Upto 40% per day
Water exchange 13. Water should be of optimum quality as follows:
necessary using pumps using pumps
Supplemental Parameter Optimum level
None In emergencies Continuous
aeration
Dissolved oxygen >3.5mg/L
Survival (%) 50-90 70-80 70-80
Temperature 26-30oC
300- 1.5-3.0 4.0-7.5
Production Salinity 10-25ppt.
800Kg/ha/crop tonnes/ha/crop tonnes/ha/crop
Size at harvest (g) 20-60 20-50 20-40 Total ammonia <1.0ppm
FCR - 1:1 to 1:1.5 1:1.5 to 1:1.7 Total nitrate Nitrogen <1.0ppm
6.1.4. Considerations for the choice of technology Sulphide <0.003ppm
The choice of technology depends on the following considerations: pH 6.8-8.7
 Availability and type of sites BOD <10ppm
 Nature and source of water COD <70ppm
 Commitment to farm management
Secchi disc visibility >25cm
 Availability of finance.
25
6.1.5. Grow-out operations
1. Pond preparation
2. Selection of shrimp fry
3. Stocking
4. Feeding
6.1.5.a. Pond preparation
Ponds are prepared to improve control over pond conditions and to provide
optimum environment for optimum growth of shrimps.
Step-1: Flush out all the slurry from the previous crop repeatedly by keeping the
inlets open. Pumps with nozzles can also be used to stir up sediments. This step
should be carried out immediately after harvest.
Step-2: Seal all the inlets and outlets and allow the pond soil to dry for a minimum
of 7-10 days till the soil can support the weight of a person. It should crack (sandy
soils don’t crack). Drying facilitates oxidation of organic matter, ammonia,
hydrogen sulphide, methane and ferrous iron, all of which are toxic to shrimps.
Drying also disinfects the pond by killing pathogens. It eliminates unwanted fish
eggs, crabs and other potential predators and competitors. Over drying should be
avoided since it is counterproductive.
Step – 3: the pond soils should be limed to correct the pH of soil and water.
Liming neutralizes acids in the soil, helps in decomposition of organic matter and
sterilizes the soil killing pathogens. Calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium
carbonate or dolomite can be used for liming the shrimp ponds.
Apply lime uniformly to the pond soil and till lightly.
Step – 4: Fill ponds with 30cm of water and leave for 3 days. Drain when colour
becomes light green.
Step – 5: Apply urea @ 50-100Kg/ha and single super phosphate @ 7.5-15Kg/ha.
This facilitates growth of diatoms which form good food for shrimp post larvae.
For modified extensive shrimp farming apply poultry manure or cow dung @
1000-1500Kg/ha to facilitate growth of natural shrimp food.
Step – 6: Fill water 10cm every day up to a depth of 100-120cm. Check the water
pH, it should be between 7.5and 8.5, if not correct using required quantity of lime.
The pond should be ready for stocking in about 5-7 days. The following indicator
should be used to judge whether the pond is ready to be stocked or not.
o Secchi disc reading 40-25cm
o Stable pH
o Algal blooms – the water should be brown with yellowish hue
o Water temperature should be above 25oC.
26
6.1.5.b. Selection of shrimp fry (post larvae)
The most important criteria for selecting shrimp fry is the stage of development.
The age of the fry influences size variation at harvest and the survival. Usually
PL15 to PL20 are stocked. PL20 is the most ideal size to stock. If fry of size less
than PL20 are stocked in the ponds it will result in least size variation but also low
survival. If fry of more than PL20 are stocked in the ponds, it will improve
survival but results in greater size variation.
What to look for in the fry
 Fry should be transparent and not cloudy or with white spots or covered
with stains
 Rostrum and head should not be wrinkled
 Abdomen should have long black line along the body – indicates that the
gut is full and therefore fry are healthy since they are feeding well
 Uropods should be well spread out
 Fry should be of uniform size
 Fry should swim against the currents.
The fry should be transported in polythene bags filled with water and oxygen
in the ratio of 1:3.
6.1.5.c. Stocking
Fry should be stocked in the ponds at a density indicated for the type of culture
(extensive, modified extensive, semi-intensive). The fry should be acclimated
before stocking in the ponds the following way.
1. Transfer fry to plastic basins
2. Slowly add pond water to the basins
3. Tilt the basins slowly after acclimatization, if the fry swim out it indicates
that they are acclimatized
4. If not they need further acclimatization.
Stock the fry during cool hours preferably in the night or early morning.
6.1.5.d. Feeding
Quality of feed has a direct impact on the growth and production of shrimps.
Choose a feed of a reputed company with proven track record. During the first two
weeks feed the fry @ 1Kg/1lakh seed. The feed quantity is doubled the next two
weeks.
From the second month onwards, feeding is based on the biomass/body weight of
the shrimp. Feeding rate should be adjusted according to manufacturer’s feeding
guides. Actual feeding rate will depend on results of the check trays. Place 4-8
check trays per ha of the pond area. Place 1% of the feed in each check tray.
Inspect the check tray two hours later for shrimp of size less than 10g; one and half
hour later for shrimps size10-20g and after one hour after feeding for shrimps
more than 20g in size.
If there is too much left over feed in the trays, it indicates over feeding. If no feed
is left in the trays after one hour it indicates under feeding. Adjust the feed
accordingly. Biomass in the pond and individual average weights of shrimps
should be periodically determined by sampling and feeding rate should be adjusted
accordingly. The feeding frequency should be as follows:
1st month - 3 times per day
2nd month - 4 times per day
3rd month onwards - 5 to 6 times per day
6.1.6. Water quality management
Health and growth of shrimps depends on water quality. Hence water quality
should be maintained at optimum levels. The water quality can be maintained by
proper water exchange, aeration and addition of chemicals such as lime, zeolite,
dolomite etc.
Water should be exchanged when water quality parameters go beyond optimum
levels. Required quantity of water should be let out from the pond and it should be
replaced with fresh brackish water. The rate of water exchange depends on the
density of shrimps in the pond and feeding rate. Higher the density, more the feed
applied to the pond, hence higher the rate of water exchange.
During the first month it may not be necessary to exchange water. In modified
extensive pond water is exchanged every neap and spring tide. One third of the
water is let out every day and replaced with fresh brackish water each day for three
consecutive days.
In semi-intensive culture there is a progressive increase in the rate of water
exchange over the culture period. The rate of exchange initially may be 5% per
day increasing to 30% per day during the end of the culture period. The amount of
water to be exchanged should be judged by the water quality parameters.
Therefore, regular monitoring of the water quality would be required.
6.1.7. Aeration and Harvesting
Aeration
Aeration is necessary in semi-intensive culture. Aeration is carried out using 10-12
1HP paddle wheel aerators per hectare. The aerators are switched on when the
dissolved oxygen content falls below 4 mg/L. This happens usually during the
night time when oxygen is not supplied by the photosynthesis by phytoplankton.
27
Sometimes aeration is also carried out in the afternoons to break the thermal
stratification in the ponds which could hinder penetration of oxygen from the air.
Harvesting
The shrimp are harvested when they reach marketable size of 20-40g in 3-5
months. A bag net is fitted to the outlet and water is let out during low tide.
Shrimps are carried by the out-flowing water which gets collected in the net fixed
to the outlet. Shrimps are periodically collected from the net, washed with clean
estuarine water, ice-chilled and sold to the processors.
6.2. Mud Crab Culture
Crabs are a high value export commodity. Increase in demand and decrease in
supply has prompted the development of crab culture technology.
Advantages
Rehabilitation of fisheries
Abandoned shrimp ponds can be used for crab culture.
Possible to supply prescribed product ( e.g. size, sex, maturity stages, soft
shelled crabs) specifically catering to consumer demand
Weaknesses
 Absence of proper technology
 High labour and production cost
 Lack of seed stock and commercial crab farms.
Species suitable for culture
 Scylla serrate
 Scylla tranquibarica
 Scylla oceanica
6.2.1. Culture methods
 Select a suitable site, free from pollution, year round brackish water supply.
Best salinity is 18-30ppt, temperature 25-30oC.
 Rectangular ponds 0.5 to 1 ha with water depths 0.6-1.0m are constructed.
Shelters are provide for crabs to hide during moulting. They are placed in
strategic places all over the pond. Canals and trenches also serve as hide outs.
 The ponds are drained and dried for two weeks. Piscicides are used to remove
unwanted fish. To prevent crabs from escaping the ponds by crawling over
bunds, install nylon net fencing of 1-2 mesh close to the perimeter of the
ponds. Support the nets vertically using bamboo poles or wooden posts and
horizontally with bamboo splits. Install plastic sheets along top edge of net
fence.
 Grow natural food following methods used for fish/shrimp culture. Introduce
water to a depth of 0.6-1.0m. One to two weeks after water culture stock the
ponds with juveniles of size 30-40g at the rate of 5000-10000 per ha.
 If the juveniles are small nursery rearing in net cages placed in the ponds is
necessary. Stock the ponds at the rate of 120 juveniles per square meter. Feed
with trash fish/Acetes. Cover net cages with coconut fronds. Sort the stock
every week and stock 5cm juveniles in grow-out ponds.
 Exchange 10-30% water every spring tide. Check for leaks in dikes, gates and
net fence. Feed chopped trash fish, animal waste, snails etc. @ 10% biomass
initially and gradually reduce to 6% as culture progresses. Feed twice a day in
morning and evening. The feed may be placed in trays or broadcast. Monitor
and maintain optimum water quality.
 Selectively harvest crabs more than 250g using scoop nets or traps. After 3-5
months when all the remaining crabs have attained marketable size harvest
totally by draining the pond and hand picking of crabs.
UNIT 7 - CULTURE OF MOLLUSCS AND SEAWEEDS
7.1. Oyster Culture
Marine aquaculture may well has begun with oyster culture. It has been cultivated
for centuries.
Two groups of oyster are cultured
1. Flat oysters – Osrea spp
2. Cupped oysters – Crossostrea spp
Oysters are distributed throughout the world. They are filter feeders feeding
mainly on plankton and suspended detritus. In tropics they spawn throughout the
year while in tropics they breed with rising temperatures. The larvae pass through
trochophore and veliger and metamorphose to spat and settle on solid surfaces.
7.1.1. Culture techniques
In nature oyster grow on hard substratum found at the bottom or column of coastal
areas and estuaries. Most primitive methods of culture involve spreading clean
oyster shells called cultches on the bottom. The spat settle on the empty oyster
shells and grow. This is method is known as bottom culture and is still practiced in
USA Canada and France.
In 1673 a Japanese culturist Gorohachi Koroshiya discovered that oyster spat also
settle on bamboo poles erected in water. This observation led to the development
of off-bottom culture techniques.
Four methods of off-bottom culture techniques are being followed. They are
 Raft culture
 Rack culture
 Long line culture and
 Stake culture.
28
Of the above four methods raft culture is the most productive and commonly used
off-bottom culture technique.
Raft culture
The technique involves collection of spat for natural spat settlement areas and
grow-out for market.
Spat collection
Various types of spat collectors are used. Most commonly used ones are empty
oyster shells strung on GI wires suspended from rafts or long lines; or lime coated
tiles stacked on racks. They are set in collection areas and left over their till spat
grow to 10-20 cm. The time of collection is crucial. They should be set during the
period of maximum spat fall. If set out early barnacles and undesirable organisms
settle. If they are set out late spat collection will be scanty. Plankton samples
should be analysed, when maximum spat are available spat collectors should be set
out.
Growing to market size
Raft culture is practiced mainly in Japan. The sites selected for raft culture should
have the following characteristics.
 The farming area should be in sheltered places like bays, fjords etc. free
from strong wave action.
 Tides should be sufficient and frequent to change water.
 Salinity should be 23-28 ppt and temperature 15-30oC.
 They area should have sufficient phytoplankton as food for the growing
oysters.
 The area should be free from industrial, agricultural and domestic
pollution.
The rafts are made of bamboo poles tied together using strong polythene ropes.
They are suspended using floats made of used empty cans or Styrofoam floats
coated with cement. Rafts of size 16x25m are generally used.
One month old spat attached to oyster or scallop shells from collection areas are
restrung on galvanised wires 20cm apart using bamboo/plastic spacers. 500 to 600
wires with spat can be suspended from each raft. The spat are allowed to grow to
marketable size of 30-60g individual weight. Duration of culture will depend on
water temperature. In Japan it takes around 6 months for the oysters grow to
marketable size.
Long line culture
This method of culture is followed in Northern Japan where wind and wave action
is heavy. Unlike rafts the long lines can withstand more water agitation. They are
also cheaper than rafts.
Pair of ropes 45-75m long is attached to a pair of floats on both side and anchored.
Smaller floats are attached in between. Rens with empty oyster or scallop shells
containing spat are attached to the long ropes. The spat are grown to marketable
size similar to those in the rafts.
Each ren on a raft or long lines yields about 6 kg in 6-8 months. It works out to
140 tonnes of whole oysters or 20 tonnes of oyster meat.
The main problem in oyster culture either on rafts or long lines is fouling by
barnacles, mussels and algae which affect the growth of oyster by competition for
food space and oxygen. Periodic manual cleaning of rens should be carried out
remove the fouling organisms.
7.1.2. Oyster culture in India
Rack and tray culture method for growing the cupped oyster Crossostrea
madrasensis has been tried by the Tuticorin centre of CMFRI. Trays made of
metal rods and nylon net; measuring 90x60x15cm is placed on wooden platform
fixed in shallow mud flats.
2 rows of 10 trays were place on each platform. Spat collected on empty oyster
shells were placed in each tray. The oysters grew to 90 mm in 12 months yielding
about 120-150 tonnes/ha of whole oysters. Commercial farming of oysters in not
yet undertaken in India.
7.2. Mussel Farming
Sexes are separate, fertilization external. Larvae pass through trochophore and
Mussel farming has one of the highest potential for increasing protein rich food for veliger stage, both are planktonic.
aquatic environment. Mussels give the highest conversion of primary production
(phytoplankton) to human food and production in water column enhances yield When they reach a shell length of 0.25 to 0.3mm, after 10-15 days, they attach to
several fold. hard substratum such as rocks by means of byssus threads. They can detach and
reattach to different substrates. They conglomerate and form thickly populated
The important genera of mussels farmed around the world are Mytilus and Perna. beds on rocks and other substratum mainly in the sub-tidal areas of the sea.
The major mussel producing countries are Spain, the Netherlands, France and
Italy. 93% of the total world production of mussels through aquaculture comes 7.2.1. Grow-out
from the above four countries. The species cultured in different countries are as CMFRI has developed techniques to farm the green mussel Perna viridis using raft
follows: culture method. Rafts are fabricated using wooden/bamboo poles tied together
 Mytilus edulis – the Netherlands, France and Spain with nylon/coir ropes. The poles are treated with coal tar to enhance their life. Raft
 Mytilus galoprovincialis – Italy,Yugoslavia and Russia of 6x5 or 8x8m are constructed. The rafts are mounted on 5 empty sealed drums of
 Mytilus smaragdinus = Perna viridis – the Philippines. 200L capacity, painted with anti-corrosive paint. A few wooden planks are fixed
on the raft to provide for working space. The rafts are anchored in the protected
Life History areas of the sea using 3 iron anchors each weighing 100 kg at a depth ranging from
Mussels filter feed on phytoplankton and suspended organic matter. Large 8-10m in the sea 1-1.5Km way from the shore. Ropes with seed attached to them
quantities of seawater are filtered for this purpose. They reach sexual maturity in are suspended form the raft for growing to marketable size.
first year. 7.2.2. Seed collection
They spawn with rising temperature in the temperate region and almost throughout Seeds are collected from the natural mussel beds. They are cleaned in seawater to
the year in tropics. remove mud and epifauna. The size of the seed ranges from 20-30mm. The seed
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are secured to nylon/coir ropes by enclosing them in a knitted cotton cloth of 25cm
with and stitching it around the rope. 500 to 700 juveniles are attached to each
meter of the rope. The diameter of the coir rope used is 20-25mm, while that of the
nylon rope is 14mm. The lengths of the ropes are 5-8mm. The seeded ropes are
attached 0.5 to 1m apart to the rafts suspended in the sea. Seed mussels get
attached to the ropes by byssus threads in 2-3 days and the cloth cover
disintegrates in about 10 days.
7.2.3. Growth and production
The seeded mussels grow to 36g in 5 months. Each rope will yield about 5.1-
12.3Kg/m. 100 ropes of 6m length in a raft of 8x8m will yield 4800Kg per raft
assuming an average production of 8Kg per m of the rope. It works out to 150
tonnes per hectare in 5 months.Cultured mussel have better meat yield (35-40%)
compared to wild mussels (27-32).
Management of rafts
 Collected mussels should be seeded within 24h.
 Periodic inspection of rafts to detect leakage in floats, damage to rafts or
ropes
 Farm area should be demarcated with lights and flags to avoid damage by
fishing boats.
 Periodical cleaning and thinning of mussels to improve growth rates
Fouling organisms
Fouling is a serious problem in mussel farming. Barnacles attach themselves to
ropes and mussels with 30 days of seeding the ropes. More fouling takes place in
the upper 2 m of the rope.
Heavy fouling by a bivalve Mytilaster arculatula takes place in the months of
November and December. Other fouling organisms are tubiculous polychaetes,
Ascidians, Cnidarians and Bryozoans. Fouling organisms should be manually
cleaned periodically to remove competition for food and space and to improve the
growth mussels.
Predation
Predation by fish Rhabdosargus sarba has also been reported. Net enclosures
around the rafts will eliminate predation.
7.3. Culture of Pearl Oysters
Pearls are the most universal and oldest of gems. They were the first gems to be
used by mankind and need no polishing. Besides being ornamental they have
medicinal value, they are used in cosmetics and tooth pastes.
The species of pearl oysters found in India are Pinctada maxima, P. fucata and P.
margaritifera
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7.3.1. Biology
 Pinctada fucata is commonly used for pearl production because it
produces fine pearls. In nature it is found attached to hard substratum by
means of byssus threads. It is stenohaline although it survives short term
salinity fluctuations. It is a filter feeder, feeds mainly on phytoplankton,
occasionally on bivalve eggs and copepods.
 Life span is 5-6 years, maximum size 10cm. Annual growth rate is about
50mm. environmental factors such as depth, transparency, temperature,
salinity, currents, calcium content of water, food and foulers influence
growth rates.
 Sexes are separate; however, hermaphroditism and change of sexes from
one spawning season to another are not uncommon. It attains maturity at a
size of 25-30mm. Has two peak spawning seasons, one during July to
August, another from November to December. Individual oysters spawn
more than once in spawning seasons.
 Eggs and sperms are shed in water, fertilization is external. Hatching takes
place in about 4 hours. Spat settle when 0.3mm in size.
 Spat availability in the wild fluctuates, hence hatchery produced spat are
used for culture.
Development of pearl
Natural pearl is formed when a foreign material enters the body of pearl oysters.
Epithelial layer of mantle forms a sac around the foreign body which secretes
nacre over the nucleus (foreign body) layer after layer resulting in pearl formation.
Shape of the pearl depends on the shape of the nucleus/foreign body.
Nucleus/nuclei can be implanted along with a piece of mantle tissue as graft into
the gonads oysters which results in formation of cultured pearls.
7.3.2. Culture methods
The suitable sites and culture methods are almost similar to edible oyster. Cages
are stocked with seed oyster and suspended from the rafts or long lines in
protected bays. Oysters are allowed to grow for four months when they become
ready to receive nucleus.
The oysters from cages are brought to the laboratory for implantation of nucleus.
They are kept in glass troughs containing filtered seawater. A few menthol crystals
are sprinkled into the troughs to anesthetize the oysters. After one hour the oysters
are ready to receive the nucleus.
Graft tissues are prepared by sacrificing a few oysters. Pieces of mantle are cut,
cleaned and trimmed to 3x2mm pieces. They are smeared with weak eosin solution
to avoid deterioration.
Nuclei are made from chank shells of shells of freshwater mussels. Nuclei range in
size from 2-8mm.
The anaesthetized oysters are mounted on a stand. An incision is made at the base
of the foot and a canal is cut through the gonad. A graft tissue is first implanted
into the gonad through the canal followed by insertion of nucleus using special
instruments made for the purpose. Depending on the size of the oyster and the
nuclei, 1-8 nuclei can be inserted into the same oyster.
After implantation of the nuclei, the oysters are acclimatized in the laboratory and
returned to the farming sites, but this time they are placed in frame nets which
have compartments for individual oysters. The frame nets are suspended from the
rafts/long-lines for development of the pearl.
The outer epithelium of the graft tissue grows over the nucleus and forms pearl sac
in about a week. The pearl will form in about 3 months. The time of harvesting
depends on the size of the pearl required. 3-20 months are required to produce
pearls of 3-8mm respectively. Six months are required to coat nacre 0.2mm thick.
The oysters are harvested after the formation of required size of pearls. They are
sacrificed to recover pearls. The harvested pearls are bleached in hydrogen
peroxide to remove any blemishes.
7.3.3. Culture of Seaweeds
Seaweeds are macroscopic algae growing in the sea. They are one of the important
marine resources. They are found in shallow coastal areas many of them grow on
substratum. They are grouped into green, brown, red and blue green algae. They
have been harvested since many centuries. In Japan and China they form staple
food. They are also used as fodder and fertilizers.
They contain 60 trace elements whose concentration is higher than terrestrial
plants. Seaweeds are the only source of agar, algin and carrageenan –
phytochemicals that have wide application in food, confectionary,
pharmaceuticals, dairy and paper industries as gelling, stabilizing and thickening
agents.
In India there are vast resources of seaweeds near many coasts and estuaries.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep have rich resources of seaweeds.
The total resources of seaweeds in India are about 70,000 tonnes.
Large scale sea farming of aquatic plants originated in Japan around three
centuries ago with the culture of ‘nori’ or the laver Porphyra spp., which continues
to be the most important cultivated species for human consumption. Culture of
Laminaria has advanced rapidly in China. Their use as condiment or vegetable is
limited to the oriental countries and among certain ethnic groups.
Their protein content is high (35.6% in dried nori), they also contain high levels of
vitamins A, B, B2, B6, B12, C and biotin. They also contain higher amounts of
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important minerals like calcium and iron than vegetables and fruits. Unsatisfied
demand for good quality seaweeds prompted expansion of seaweed culture.
7.3.4. Main groups of algae cultivated for food
 Red algae (Rhodophycea) – e.g. Porphyra spp.
 Brown algae (Phaeophyceae) – e.g. Undaria pinnatifida, Laminaria spp.
 Green algae (Chlorophyceae) – e.g. Enteromorpha compressa, Monostroma.
All the above are marine species but there is a difference in their salinity and
temperature tolerance. Many cannot withstand exposure to wide variations in
temperature and salinity. Many edible seaweeds require temperatures between 10-
20oC for rapid growth. They are largely intertidal and subtidal species.
They reproduce both sexually and asexually. Some red algae exhibit biphasic
(gametophyte, carposporophyte) type of alternative generation. Others are
triphasic (gametophyte, carposporophyte, tetrasporophyte).
7.3.5. Culture systems
Porphyra (Nori) culture consists of placing bundles of twigs or rocks or concrete
blocks for monospores to settle on. These are then transferred to shallow areas for
development of thali to desired size. The most common method now is the use of
nets with large mesh (15x15cm) and blinds made of 10x15 cm to collect spores
and transfer to suitable areas for grow-out.
Blasting rocks surfaces or rocky reefs to expose for additional surface area for
propagation is common practice, particularly for Laminaria and Undaria culture.
In commercial culture of Euchema in China, cuttings of plants are inserted in sub-
littoral reefs by divers. A new method in recent years consists of fastening cuttings
to coral branches with rubber strings and dropping them onto reefs. Divers
rearrange them if required.
Raft and rack culture are followed in Japan and China. Laminaria is cultured on
long lines in China.
In some Asian countries like the Philippines and Taiwan, Gracillaria and
Caulerpa are grown in ponds following procedures common to fish culture, such
as pond fertilization, water management and disease and pest control. Culture of
these species is largely for industrial use.
Large scale seaweed culture for waste recycling and industrial uses is practiced in
North America. Unattached masses of algae are grown in raceways and
greenhouses flushed with seawater.