FACLITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 1

METACOGNITION

OBJECTIVES:

In this module, the students should be able to attain the following outcomes:
1. Explain metacognition in their own words.
2. Apply metacognitive strategies in their own quest for learning as a novice or an expert learner.

INTRODUCTION

Metacognition is such a long word. The most important goal of education is to teach students
how to learn on their own, It is vital that the students acquire the skills of how to learn; and that
these skills enable them to learn not just while they are in school but for a lifetime. These entails
awareness of how one processes information, the ability to evaluate his own thinking and to
think of ways to make his own learning process more effective.

Activity I: Answer attached activity sheet.

Metacognition
“Thinking about Thinking”

Metacognition and Metacognition Application of Learners who do not

Development Knowledge Metacognition leads use metacognition
Variables one to be an expert remain to be novice
learner learners

Teaching Person
Strategies to Develop Variables
Metacognition
Task Characteristic of Characteristics of
Variables Expert Learners Novice Learners

Strategy
Variables

COURSE CONTENT

WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

It is not at all that complicates. In fact we do metacognitive activities so often in our daily lives.
When you sense that you are experiencing some difficulty with a topic you are studying and you
try out different strategies to learn better, you are practicing metacognition.
The term metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
experiences or regulations. Metacognition, simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or “learning
how to learn”. It refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over
the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired
knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive
processes. John Flavell divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of
person variables, task variables, and strategy variables.

Person Variables - This includes how one view himself as a learner and thinker. It refers to
knowledge about how human beings learn and process information as well as individual
knowledge of one’s own learning process. For example, you may be aware that you study more
effectively if you study very early in the morning than late in the evening or you work better in a
quite library than at home where there are lot of things that make it hard for you to focus.

Task Variables - It includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of
processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is knowing what exactly needs to be
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of efforts it will demand from you. For
example, you may be aware that it takes more time for you to read and comprehend a book in
educational philosophy than it is for you to read and comprehend a novel.

Strategy Variables – Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are
using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you think your strategy
is not working, then you think of various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn
better. Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that
work best for you.

Omrod includes the following in the practice of metacognition:

* Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities.
* Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time,
* Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
* Using effective strategies for the retrieval of previously stored information.
* Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure that
a goal is met. For example, doing homework. “I know that I (person variable) have more difficulty
with my science assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variaable), so
I will do my homework in science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan (strategy
variable). If one is only aware about one’s cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of
the task but does not use this to guide or oversee his/her own learning, then no metacognition
has been applied.

Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the following types of
questions:
* What do I know about this subject?
*Do I know what I need to know?
*How much time will I need to learn this?
* What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
* Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
* How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfactions?

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE LEARNING

Children already have the capacity to be more aware and reflective of their own learning.
However, not many have been taught and encouraged to apply metacognition.

The challenge then to future teachers is to integrate more activities that would build the your
students’ capacity to reflect on their own characteristics as learners (self-knowledge), the task
they are to do (task knowledge) and the strategies that they can use to learn (strategic
knowledge). Metacognition involves knowledge and skills which you and your students can
learn and master.

Examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example : Have a student monitor a
peer’s learning/thinking)
2. Teach students study or learning strategies.

TQLR – This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is metacognitive strategy
before listening to a story or presentation.

T is for Tune in. Paying attention is important, and that he is ready to learn.
Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about what he will
soon learn
L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen.
R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.

PQ4R – This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This strategy
is used to study a unit or chapter.

P – Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check out the
objectives. Look for outlines or advance organizes that will give you sn ide about the important
topics and ideas in the chapter.
Q – Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions about the
topic.
R –Read. Check out sub headings as you read. Pay attention on words that printed in bold or
italicized. Find out the meaning of the meaning of the words that are not clear to you.
R – Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R – Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read in order to understand better.
R –Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main points
you learned? How is this relevant or useful to you?

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they
have read.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures.
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what’s going on
around them.
6. Help students to know when to ask help.
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or
tasks.

NOVICE AND EXPERT LEARNERS

Cognitive psychologists are able to differentiate expert learners from novice learners. A very
important factor that separates these two types of learners mentioned is metacognition. Expert
learners employ metacognitive strategies in learning. They are more aware of their learning
process as they read, study and do problem solving. Expert learners monitor their learning and
consequently adjust their strategies to make learning more effective.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NOVICE AND EXPERT LEARNERS

Aspects of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners

Knowledge in different Have limited knowledge in Have deeper knowledge in

subject areas. the different subject areas.
Problem Solving Satisfied at just scratching
the surface; hurriedly gives a
solution to the problem.
Learning/thinking Strategies Enjoy rigid strategies that
may not be appropriate to
the task at hand.
different subject areas
because they look for
interrelationships in the
things they learn.
First try to understand the
problem, look for
boundaries, and create a
mental picture of the
problem.
Design new strategies that
would be appropriate to the
task at hand.

Selectivity in Processing Attempt to process all Select important information

Production of Output
information they receive. to process; able to
breakdown information to
manageable chunks.
Do not examine the quality Check their errors and
of their work, nor stop to redirect their efforts to
make revisions. maintain quality output,

Note: Topics presented are excerpts from the book Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
by Ma. Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D., Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.

WORKSHEET NO. 1

1. Make a collection of metacognitive strategies that can make learning more effective and
efficient.
2. Make a collection of teaching strategies that develop metacognition in students.
3. Write a 3-paragraph insights on the lesson being studied.

From the Module on Metacognition, I realized that metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 MODUELE 2

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)

OBJECTIVES:

In this module, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the 14 principles.

2. Advocate the use of the 14 principles in the teaching-learning process.

INTRODUCTION

The learners are the center of instruction and the world of instruction revolves around them. The
psychological principles focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under
the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or psychological factors. However, the
principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact
with these internal factors.
The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning
situations, Thus, they are best understood as an organized set principles; no principle should be
viewed in isolation.

Activity I: Answer attached activity sheet.

Cognitive and Motivational

Metacognitive Factor and Affective Factors
(6 principles) (3 principles)

14
Learner-Centered
Principles

Developmental and Individual Differences

Social Factors Factors
(2 principles) (3 principles)
 COURSE CONTENT

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The Learner-Centered psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological
Association. The 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process. The
14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational
and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual differences factors influencing
learners and learning.

Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the learning process. - The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
* There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit formation in motor learning
and learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
* Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assuyme personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

2. Goals of the Learning process. – The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
* The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.
* To construct useful representation of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies, students must generate and pursue personally-relevant goals.
3. Construction of knowledge. – The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
* Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base. However, unless new knowledge becomes
integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains
isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new
situations.

4. Strategic thinking. – The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
*Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem
solving and concept learning.
*Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying and
assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking – Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
* Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goal, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress toward these goals.

6. Context of learning. – Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices.
* Learning does not occur in vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner
and the learning environment.
* The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also
have significant impacts on student learning.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. Motivational and emotional influence on learning. – What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual’s emotion states, briefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
* Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influenced on motivation. Motivation and emotional factors also influenced both the quality of
thinking and information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.
* Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance. However, intense negative emotions generally detract from motivation, and
interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. – The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn, intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal
novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and
control.
*Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally
relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and
on which they believe they can succeed.
* Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to learn by
attending to individual differences in learners’ perception on optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort.-Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended

learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert
this effort is unlikely without coercion.
* Effort is another major indicator o fmotivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort along with
persistence over time.
* Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance positive
emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners ‘ perception that
a task is interesting and personally relevant.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

10. Developmental influence on learning. – As individuals develop, there are different

opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into
account.
* Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
* Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains, achievement in different instructional donains may also vary.
* Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness – such as reading readiness – may
preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance.
11. Social influence on learning. - Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations and communication with others.
* Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks.
* Learning settings that allow for social interactions and that respect diversity encourage flexible
thinking and social competence.
* Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking,
feeling and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in
the learning process, and create a learning community.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

12. Individual differences in learning. – Learners have different strategies, approaches and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
* Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
* Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify
them, if necessary.
* Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to
learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by
varying instructional methods and materials.

13. Learning and diversity. – Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,
cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account.
* The same basic principles of learning, motivation and effective instruction apply to all learners.
However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs and socioeconomic status al can influence learning.
Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for
designing and implementing appropriate learning environments.
* When learners perceived that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, culture and
experiences are valued, respected and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of
motivation and achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment – Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic process and outcome
assessment – are integral part of the learning process.
* Assessment provides important information to both the learner nd the teacher at all stages of
the learning process.
* Effective teaching takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately
high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as wel as
current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials od an
optimal degree of difficulty.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas:
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of al future learning.
Previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new
information.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skils to reflect and regulate trherir
thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacogniyion).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation(from within), reasons for wanting
to learn , personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks al have a crucial role in the learning
process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person
because each learner has its own unique combination of genetic and environmental faxtors that
influence him.
5. Situation or context. – Learning happens in the context of a society as wel as within an
individual.

Note: Topics presented are excerpts from the book Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
by Ma. Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D., Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.

ACTIVITY NO. 2

1. Examine the title “Learner-Centered Psychological Principles” and quickly list down 10 words
that come to your mind.

2. Go back to each word and write phrases about why you think the word can be associated
with Learner-Centered Psychological Principles.

3. Use the written phrases to make a one-paragraph description of LCP.

Worksheet No. 2

1. Describe what you can do to advocate the use of the 14 Learning –Centered Psychological
Principles.

2. Explain briefly in your own words the meaning of the phrase “Thinking about thinking”

Write a 2-paragraph insights on the lesson being studied.

From the Module on Learner-Centered Psychological Principles, I realized that . . . . . . . . . .