MODULE 6

LEARNERS WITH EXEPTIONALITIES

OBJECTIVES:

In this module, the students should be able to:

1. Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners.

2. Define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap.
3. Demonstrate “people first” language when referring to exceptional learners and advocate for
its use.

INTRODUCTION

One significant factor that highlights the individual differences and diversity in learning is the
presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as persons
who are different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. The term “exceptional learners”
includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning,
physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these
learners requires a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related
services if they are to reach their full potential of development.

Activity 1: Answer attached activity sheet. Last page.

Learning Mental
Disabilities Retardation

Exceptionalities Sensory
Impairments

Emotional and
Behavioral Physical Disabilities
Disorders and
Health Impairments
Autism
 COURSE CONTENT

As a future teacher, you would probably encounter learners with special needs, more so if
special education is your major. It is therefore necessary that you have both the right
information and proper attitude in dealing with special learners.

Disability. A dis ability is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s
ability, for example to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to physical, sensory, or mental
condition.” Our very own 1987 Philippines Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word
“disabled” in paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with
training.
Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as disability. A handicap is a
disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or
the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and
the environment. Two persons may have the same disability but not the same degree of being
handicapped. Example: both have hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read
lips while the other cannot.

CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES
There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special education
practitioners would have varying terms and categories.

- Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes

like perception, language, memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like
mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments. Example:
dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations), and dysgraphia (writing).

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either both of these: (1.)

difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention (2.) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior

Speech and Communication Disorder. There is difficulty in spoken language including voice
disorders, inability to produce the sounds. . .correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language
comprehension and significant hamper classroom performance.

- Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction

and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with autism usually
have an intense need for routine and a predictable environment.

Mental Retardation. Refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive

behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves
appropriately in social situations.

Emotional/Conduct Disorders. Thid involves the presence of emotional states like

depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning
and performance in school.
- Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-
term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength (2) reduced mental
alertness and or (3) little muscle control.
Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different types
of disability, at a time at a profound level. The combination of disabilities makes it necessary to
make specific adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.

-Sensory Impairments
Visual Impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic
nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lens.
Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders
perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

-Giftedness
Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is
unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in
academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.

People-First Language

What is People-First Language? Just as the term would imply, this language trend involves putting
the person first, not the disability (e.g. a person with disability not a disabled person) What
conditions people have, not what they are. Example: “ person with AIDS, rather than “AIDS
victim” Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities include:

* Avoid generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to mentally retarded)
* Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to confines
to a wheelchair)
*Avoiding euphemism ( such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as condescending and
avoid the real issue that results from a disability
* Avoiding implying illness or suffering. (had polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and has
multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis)

Using people-first language and applying guidelines above will remind you to have a more
respectful and accepting attitude toward learner with exceptionalities. They are learners who
may turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of compassion (not pity nor
ridicule), will make you a more effective teacher, one with the hand and the heart who can
facilitate their learning adjustment.

Note: Topics presented are excerpts from the book Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
by Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D., Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.

.
 MODULE 7

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

OBJECTIVES:

In this module, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the basic principles of behaviorism.

2. Make a simple plan supplying the primary laws of learning.
3. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.

INTRODUCTION

The behaviorist theory centers in the study of observable and measurable behavior. It stresses
that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). The mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind is not given
much attention.

Activity1: Think of a teacher in the high school that is most unforgettable to you and list the
things that you encounter at present (using the senses) that reminds you of your former teacher
with regards to rewards and punishment due to behavior. What makes the teacher unforgettable
for you? Were the rewards and punishment effective? To be submitted.

Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning Connectionism Operant conditioning

(Pavlov/Watson) (Thorndike) (Skinner)

Primary Laws Reinforcement

Law of
Effect
Shaping of
Law of Behavior
Exercise

Law of
Readiness
 COURSE CONTENT

Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov – A Russian psychologist and is known for his work in classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution. His most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.
His purpose was just to measure the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. In here he
stumbled upon classical conditioning.

Stage 1 - Before conditioning

Bell
(neutral stimulus) No response

Stage 2 – During conditioning

Bell
(neutral stimulus)

Paired with

Meat (unconditioned Salivation (unconditioned

stimulus) response)

Stage 3 – After conditioning

Bell (conditioned Salivation

stimulus) (conditioned response)

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s findings:

Stimulus Generalization – Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will
salivate at other stimulus sound.

Extinction - If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response
to the bell.

Spontaneous recovery – Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time but
will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination – The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order-Conditioning – Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as alight maybe flashed at the same time the bell is rung.
Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Edward L. Thorndike – Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of
behavioral psychology. He explained that learning is the result of association forming between
stimuli (S) and responses (R). Such association or “habits” becomes strengthened or weakened
by the nature of frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S_R theory was trial and error
learning in which certain responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards.
Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed.

The three Primary Laws of Learning are:

Law of Effect - States that the connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when
the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the response
is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he
found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds and some seemingly
pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.

Law of Exercise – The more an S_R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the stronger it will
become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. The law of exercise also had
to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.

Law of Readiness – The more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger
will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made
to respond, it becomes annoying to the process. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to
respond to a stimuli and is ask to respond, that also becomes annoying.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards. (Law of effect/exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
(law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson - An American psychologist who work with Pavlov’s idea. He was involved in animal
studies, then later became involved in human behavior research. He said that all other behavior
is learned through stimulus-response association through conditioning. He believed on the
power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make
them into anything you want them to be, basically through making stimulus-response
connections through conditioning. ( Have a research on Watson’s experiment on Albert and the
white rat.)
Burrhus Frederick Skinner - Like the other theorists, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response
pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes of observable behavior,
excluding any likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind. He pointed out how the
principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law,
religion, economics and education. His work differs from that of the three behaviorists before
him in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behavior used in operating on the
environment). His theory came to be known as Operant Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that
occur in the environment. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced
(rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement – is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforce is anything that
strengthened the desired response. There is a positive reinforce and a negative reinforce..
Positive reinforcer – is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. Example:
Extra time to play given to those who behave well during the lesson.
Negative reinforcer – is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when
it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment in fact it is a reward.
Example : Students with an average of 1.5 for the two grading period are exempted to take the
final exam. “Removing” from the final exam is the negative reinforcer which we realized is a form
of a reward.

Implications of Operant Conditioning ( For programmed instruction)

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which expose
the students to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receieves immediate feedback.
3. Tryto arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcement such as
verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly

effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that response can be reinforced
(shaping).
3. Reinforcement will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”) producing
secondary conditioning.

Note: Topics presented are excerpts from the book Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
by Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D., Brenda B. Corpuz Ph. D.
 Worksheet No. 7

Choose a topic you want to teach. Think of ways you can apply the three primary laws of learning
while you teach the topic.

Primary Law How I would apply the Primary Law

Law of Readiness

Law of Effect. Indicate

specifically how you will use
positive/negative
reinforcements (rewards).

Law of Exercise
 MODULE 8

NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA

OBJECTIVE:

In this module, the students should be able to:

1. Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism.

2. Explain Bandura’s social learning theory.
3. Give specific applications of each theory in teaching.

INTRODUCTION

New theories came into view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded
others, and added new ideas which later came to be associated with the cognitive views of
learning. A transitional group , neo-behaviorists, bridge the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive theories of learning.

Activity 1: Recall the first time when you enter the newly constructed Robinson’s Place Ormoc
alone. After passing the entrance and you were already inside window shopping, how did you
manage not to be lost inside and was able to find your way out using the back exit?
If you will be ask to return inside using the back exit as entrance, and repeat the window shopping
that you had and use the entrance as exit in going out, which of the two route do you think is
easier to manage? And why?

Neo Behaviorism

Tolman’s Bandura
Purposive Behaviorism Social-Learning Theory

Goal-Directedness Principles

Cognitive Maps Modelling

Latent Learning Four Conditions

For Effective Modeling

Intervening
Variables
 COURSE CONTENT

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

People create mental maps of things they perceived. These mental maps help them respond to
other things or tasks later, especially if they see similarity. At first you may apply trial and error
(behavioristic) but later on your response becomes more internally driven (cognitive
perspective). And this is what neobehaviorism is about.

Two Theories Reflecting Behaviorism

1. Purposive Behaviorism (Edward Tolman)

2. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

Purposive behaviorism – also called as Sign Learning Theory and is often seen as the link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. And that
learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then
revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal- directed behavior. He stated in his sign
theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior. Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli
rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that the new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated
with already meaningful stimulus (the significate) through a series of pairings; there is no need
for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In the activity that you have the new stimulus or
“sign” (using the exit as entrance) became associated with the already meaningful stimuli, the
significate (using the entrance in entering). So you may have connected the two stimuli, entrance
as exit and entrance for entering; and use your knowledge and experience in doing the former to
respond to the latter.

Tolman’s Key Concept

Learning is always purposive and goal oriented. He believed individuals do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward
goals. He saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.

Cognitive maps in rats. In his famous experiments about rats in a maze, the group that has the
food in the same location performed much better in locating the food than the group with food
placed in different location. It signified that rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them
perform well and that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

Latent Learning. Is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is
learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even without
reinforcement. The rats apparently “learned the maze” by forming cognitive maps of the maze,
but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.
Applied in human beings, a two year old boy learns how to operate a remote control of the TV,
turning on and off, changing channels because he sees his dad operate the TV. Through latent
learning the child knew the skills beforehand, even though he has never done them before.
The concept of intervening variable. Are variables that are not really seen but serve as
determinants of behavior. Example , is his experiment with rats he found out that hunger was an
intervening variable.

Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential
for learning, although it provide an incentive for performance. He observed that a rat was able
to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e. to develop a cognitive map, even in the
absence of reinforcement.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Activity 2: A 10-year old boy who died hanging himself from a bunk bed apparently was
mimicking the execution of former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein after he had previously watched
a news report on Saddam’s death.
“It appears to be accidental “the police said. “Our gut reaction is that he was experimenting.”
His uncle before the incident told the boy it was because Saddam was hung because he was real
bad . And the boy just said, “Ok”. And that was it.
Clinical psychologist Bischop of California sais Children of that boy’s age mimic risky behaviours
they see on TV without realizing the dangers. He said TV appeared to be the stimulant in the
boy’s death.

1. What do authorities say might be the reason why the boy hanged himself?
What facts made them give this reason?
2. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
3. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people (preschool to
college)? Cite specific examples.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

According to Bandura, Social Learning Theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learns from one another, including such concept as
observational learning, imitation and modeling. The boy who watch Saddam’s execution must
have imitated it.

General Principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.

2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Social learning theorists say that because
people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their
performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change.

3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in
its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or
punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.

4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.
How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling

People are often reinforce by modeling for the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:

1. The observer is reinforce by the model. Example, student changes dress to fit in with a certain
group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group.

2. The observer is re4inforced by a third person. Example, observer modeling the actions of
someone else, for example a class leader. The notices this and compliments and praises the
observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.

3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn
from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.

4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.

This is known as vicarious reinforcement. Model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response. Example, model hitting an inflated clown doll
and one group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced,
the group of children began also to hit the doll.

Cognitive factors in social learning

1. Learning without performance. Bandura makes a distinction between learning through

observation and in actual imitation of what has been learned.

2. Cognitive processing during learning. Social learning theorists contend that attention is a
critical factor in learning.

3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the

consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. Certain behaviors may bring
reinforcement and others to bring punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when
the learner is aware of that connection.

4. Reciprocal causation. Behavior can influence both the environment and the person. In fact
each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an
influence on each other.

5. Modeling: there are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person
demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action
portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

1. Attention – The person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention – The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed .
One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.

3. Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model
has just demonstrated. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion.

4. Motivation – The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation. Learner must
want to demonstrate what they have learned.

Effects of modeling on behavior

1. Modeling teaches new behavior.

2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.

Educational Implications of social learning theory.

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors
and decrease inappropriate ones.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using
shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for
teaching new behavior.
4. Teacher and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teacher should expose students to a variety of other models.

Note: Topics presented are excerpts from the book Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
by Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph D., Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.
 WORKSHEET NO. 8

1. Choose 3 key concepts of Bandura’s social learning theory then state how you apply the
concept as you teach. Use the Table provided for this purpose.

3 Key Concepts of Albert Bandura How I apply it in my teaching

1. 1.1

1.2

2. 2.1

2.2

3. 3.1

3.2

2. In your own words and in not more than 5 sentences each, explain:

a) Tolman’s purposive behaviorism

b) Bandura’s social learning theory

c) Give at least one teaching application of each theory.

 MODULE 9

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

OBJECTIVE:

In this module, the students should be able to:

1. Describe the different Gestalt principles.

2. List ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning process.
3. Demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of gestalt principles in the teaching-learning
process.

INTRODUCTION

Gestalt psychology was the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It serve as the foundation of
the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanic focus of behaviorism.
It considered the mental processes and products of perception.

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt Principles Insight Learning Lifespace (Lewin)

Law of Proximity Inner Forces

Law of Closure Outer Forces

Law of Good Continuation

Law of Good Pragnanz

Law of Figure/Ground
Activity 1: Examine the picture below.

Answer: 1.What was your experience in figuring out the pictures

2. What helped you perceived the interesting pictures?
3. How did you go about examining the pictures? (the background, the foreground, the
shape)

COURSE CONTENT

GESTALT PRINCIPLES

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance
of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt means “form”
or “configuration” Psychologists such as Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka studied perception and
concluded that perceivers (or learners ) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that
learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in
order to understand it. This is perceptual process.
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by certain
principles of laws. These principles or laws determine what we see or make of things or situations
we meet.
Insight Learning

Gestalt psychologist adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight. The idea
of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described experiments
with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. Only one of
Kohler’s apes could solve the problem.
A much difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This
problem required the ape to stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by
building a stable stack.
In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but
coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this
behavior as insight or discovery learning.
Kohler’s theory suggested that learning could occur when the individual perceives the
relationships of the elements before him and recognizes these elements and comes to a greater
understanding or insight and could occur without reinforcement.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

Psychologist Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His theory focusing on “life space”
adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that affect
his perception and also his learning. Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and
feelings. Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates. All
these forces interact and impact on the persons’ learning.

Note: Topics presented are excerpts from the book Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
by Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D., Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.
 WORKSHEET NO. 9

1. In your own words, describe the different gestalt principles.

a. Law of Proximity –

b. Law of Similarity –

c. Law of Closure –

d. Law of Good Continuation

e. Law of Good Pragnanz

f. Law of Figure/Ground

2. In your own words, describe Kurt Lewin’s theory focusing on “life space”, the inner and outer
forces that affects perception and learning.