SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICIES OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Group 5
UNDERDEVELOPMENT, SCIENCE, AND
TECHNOLOGY
Francisco Sagasti
Characteristics of Underdeveloped countries:
1.       Domination
- uncontrollable external factors
- dominated country heavily
influenced by dominant country
- dominant country has control over
raw materials, financing and
technologies through transactional
corporations
2.       Disarticulation
- Cultural, social, economic diversity
- High social stratification
- Socio-economic improvements felt
by a minority
3.     Incapacity to provide an adequate
standard of living for the majority
- low income, life expectancy, infant
mortality
- poor housing, nutrition
- lack of education opportunities
Oscar Lange
- Capital stock of capital goods are not
enough to employ all labor force
using modern production techniques
Two options:
o Option 1
- Labor intensive production with
backward techniques
= insufficient economic surplus,
low levels of unemployment
o Option 2
- Capital intensive techniques
= high productivity, high
unemployment
- Used by developing countries,
generates surplus that is
transferred abroad
“Surplus not sufficient for economic growth, it
has to be transformed into capital goods that
has appropriate technological characteristics”
Development
- A dynamic structure of cultural change
characterized by:
- Sustained GNP growth, elimination of
disarticulation and scientific/
technological progress transforming
surplus into capital goods
- The Development Process must be self-
reliant
- -capacity of independent decision
making is fully developed
- -large economic surplus that is not
wasted
- Interrelationship of science and
technology and underdevelopment
- -Industrialization led to technological
dependence
- Underdeveloped countries lack suitable
technological alternatives
- Scientist orient themselves towards the
international scientific community
- Scientists in the developing countries are
generally unaware of the political, social,
and economic considerations influencing
their research
- Development and Underdevelopment
- Two phases of western capitalism that
started in the 19 century
th
- Evolved simultaneously as a part of a
single system
- Developed (capacity for growth,
dominant) and Developing (passive,
dependent, dominated)
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND
DEVELOPMENT
Normal Clark
Characteristics of Developed Countries
Harvard’s Lant Pritchett usefully
defines development as a four-fold process of
modernization, culminating in the following
conditions in each:   to undeveloped countries.
Economic:  An economy characterized by
high levels of productivity, typically
dominated by large corporations with
professional management.
Political:  A polity in which the citizens
collectively constitute the state, which in turn
exists legitimately only as an expression of
their will.  Universal equal treatment of all
citizens by the state.
Administrative:  State functions are
administered by a civil service bureaucracy
characterized by merit-based recruitment,
tenure in office not linked to personal or
political patron, hierarchical structures, and
performance through an impersonal
application of rules.
Social:  All citizens perceive themselves and
other citizens as members of a national
community.   -
1. Economic
- Wide range of industries: Mining,
processing, manufacturing, education,
health, scientific research and
technology/ farming, primary
production.
- Global trade:
- Low international debt
- High average income
2. Social
- Gender Equality: Developed countries
often experience gender equality, both
males and females have opportunities
and choices with regards to education,
employment, community
participation and recreation.
- Birth rates: Access to contraception,
choice with regards to family planning,
career choices and education
contribute to more cases of lower birth
rates in developed countries compared
- Education and Employment:  High rates
of education and employment are
characteristic of most developed
countries. People often have choices
with regards to the level of education
and the type of career they pursue.
- Social security and legal systems:  High
levels of economic development and
stable political systems increase the
ability of governments in developed
countries to provide social security
payments for those in need. Individuals
who are unemployed or unable to work
as a result of illness or disability are
often provided with financial assistance
to assist in promoting their well-being.
- Health systems: Developed countries
also have health systems. People are
usually able to access basic health care
when they need it.
Access to technology: Technology is
more accessible in developed countries.
This is due to a combination of
economic resources, infrastructure and
education.
- Others: Food, Housing, Infrastructure
FRAMEWORK FOR SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY POLICIES
Roger Posadas
Conceptual Framework for Science and
Technology Policy
i. The Meaning of a National S&T policy
1. Integrated sum of strategies,
principles, methods, and actions to
carry out the following
a. Long-term development of national
STP (scientific and technological potential)
b. Effective application and
utilization of potential to meet
national development needs
ii. Components of the national STP
1. National STP is made up of the
following
A. Human Resources – quality and
quantity of scientists, techno-
logist, engineers, technicians,
teachers, manager etc.
B. Infrastructural Resources – sys-
tem of S&T buildings, facilities,
and equipment
C. Informational Resources – system
of formal and informal
institutions and mechanisms for
collection, processing, storage,
retrieval, packaging, dissemi-
nation, and exchange of S&T
activities
D. Financial Resources – public,
private, and foreign funds which
are available for S&T activities
iii. The relationship between the Dual
Aspect of the National Science and
Technology Policy
1. The allocation of resources to STP
does not automatically result in the
modernization of industry,
agriculture, health services, etc.
2. The development of STP must be
complemented by the stimulation of
technological innovation (process
how S&T are applied, utilized, and
diffused in the production and service
sectors)
3. DUAL ASPECTS
0. Policy for S&T – measures for
developing the national STP
a. Science and Technology for Policy
– measures for the utilization of
S&T technology for national
development
4. Adequate STP arising from a well-
planned and persistent policy for
S&T = effective application of S&T
policy
5. Without a forceful application of
S&T policy, the implementation of
policy for S&T may just be costly
academic exercise divorced from
national development efforts.
6. In less developed countries, errors
in S&T policy-making are due to an
overemphasis on one aspect of S&T
(includes Philippines).
7. To have an effective S&T policy,
there should be a harmonious and
balanced coordination,
complementation and integration
of these dual aspects
iv. The Scope and Linkages of National
S&T Policy
1. National development needs in terms
of supply and demand
0.  Demands: new S&T knowledge
and services in utilizable form
a. Supply: S&T system is mobilized
to supply needs
2. S&T policy must concern itself with
the improvement of the national
system for Research and
Development, STS, and S&T
education and training.
3. National S&T policy should be
integrated with overall national
development plans and policies
a. Demand side: national socio-
economic policies
b. Supply side: affected by national
educational and cultural policies
4. To insure a balance between
demand and supply, there should be
a permanent and close relationship
between S&T system, production
system, and educational system.
b. Policy-making functions of S&T
a. S&T Policy-making structures and
mechanisms
o Governmental Structures for S&T
Policy-Making and Administration
1. First Functional Level (National
S&T Policy-Making Bodies)
a. Requires a scientific and technical
Secretariat composed of scientists,
technologies, and social scientists. If
necessary, will be assisted by an
Advisory Committee of experts
 b. In charge of decision-making with
regards to the National S&T Plan and
annual State budget through the full
Cabinet or an interministerial
committee for S&T policy which is
composed of ministers from the
“technical ministries”.
c. Interministerial coordination is carried
out during the preparation of the S&T
Plan and Budget as well as throughout
the implementation of these policy
instruments as approved by the
Government.
1. Second Functional Level (Sectoral S&T
Management Bodies)
a. The principal functions at this level -
promotion, financing, and scientific
coordination - are carried out through
the allocation of research grants or
fellowships to individuals; grants to
research programs; grants to R&D
institutions; or research contracts.
Promotion of R&D is also undertaken
through the creation of national R&D
laboratories and institutes in various
branches of S&T, the organization of
S&T conferences, the publication of S&T
journals, and the dissemination of S&T
reports and abstracts.
b. Usually called the National Research
Councils or National Science and
Technology Councils, but due to most
countries being multisectoral, they
replaced them with Sectoral Research
Councils
c. To ensure the optimum efficiency
and effectiveness of Sectoral
Research Councils, most countries
have adopted the following
principles:
- Administrative autonomy
- Fiscal autonomy
- Election of members
- Fixed term of membership
- Democratic participation
- Peer evaluation
1. Third Functional Level (Execution of R&D in
various institutions)
a. The institutions at this level comprise
the operational network of scientific and
technological institutions in which R & D
and STS is actually performed.
b. The R & D institutions are usually
classified as follows:
- University research institutes and
units where most basic research are
done.
- Government R & D centers or
laboratories where most mission-
oriented R & D are carried out.
- Industrial R & D laboratories where
most industrial research and
technological development are carried
out.
c. Of the various STS, the most
important in terms of vital support to R &
D are the following:
- S&T library, information, and
documentation services
- Metrology, standards, and
instrumentation services
- Analytical and testing services
- Computer services
- S & T surveys and observatories
1. Fourth Functional Level (Performance of
STS in support of R&D)
A. Efficiency and Effectiveness of the R &
D and STS System
B. In the evaluation of R&D and STS, two
concepts are usually applied:
- Efficiency - This is something
intrinsic to S&T for it is a measure
of how far resources invested in
R&D or STS have been productive
within reasonable time limits.  It
may be considered as the ratio of
the new S&T knowledge actually
produced to that which might have
been theoretically expected on the
basis of the given resources.
- Effectiveness - This is something
extrinsic to S&T for it measures the
output of R&D or STS, both
 qualitatively and quantitatively,
against the socio-economic
“benefits” which may be expected
from investment in R&D and STS.
C. It is, however, important to caution
against the indiscriminate application
of the concepts of efficiency and
effectiveness to R&D, especially basic
research, because of the inherent
uncertainties involved in exploring the
unknown.  Evaluation of research on
the basis of input/output ratios,
whether qualitative or quantitative, is
extremely difficult because research
outputs do not yet lend themselves to
econometric calculations.
4.2 Infrastructural Resources
Facilities are essential components for
high-quality S&T manpower training,
effective STS, and to carry out R&D. They are
as of follows:
a.  Properly Designed and Furnished
Laboratories
b.    Adequate Laboratory Equipment and
Spare Parts
c.    Adequate Library and Documentation
Facilities
d.     Adequate Computer Facilities
e.     Instrument Service Facilities
f.      Analytical Testing Facilities
University-Linked Science Complexes
Given the inadequate scientific and
technological potential of LDCs, the
importance of optimizing the use of present
resources has often been stressed. According
to UNESCO, wherever the research potential
is limited, scientific resources should not be
dispersed. Otherwise researches cannot be
effectively performed.
In line with this idea and the need to
strengthen the interlinkages between S&T
training, research (basic and applied), and
experimental development, there has now
been a trend to establish university-linked
“science complexes” or “science parks”
wherein R&D and STS institutions are
clustered around selected universities. The
advantage of such is it can provide a physical
environment for stimulating cross-
fertilization among researches and
cooperation.
Centers for Advanced Studies and
Research
The basic rationale for “centers of
excellence” or “centers for advanced studies
and research” is the need to expand and
strengthen indigenous capacity to provide
advanced scientific and engineering
manpower training of internationally
recognized standards.
An LDC can establish such “centers of
excellence” by identifying its top university
science and engineering departments and
building them up to international standards
in terms of faculty, facilities, and degree
programs. Furthermore, an LDC must also
establish at least one national research center
of international caliber in various fields of
sciences.
Establishing independent national
research centers outside universities has
serious disadvantages in an LDC where there
is an acute shortage of available first-rate
research scientists because they tend to
siphon off top scientists from universities.
The guiding principle that LDCs ought to
follow in establishing research centers is the
one adhered to by the Max Planck: first find a
distinguished scientist or a group of
outstanding researchers and then build a
research center around them rather than first
build a research center and then seek out the
people to staff it.
4.3 Informational Resources
While buildings, facilities, and equipment
constitute the “hardware” of R & D,
informational resources provide the
“software” without which R & D can become
sterile.
In building up S & T informational resources,
the main requirement is the establishment
of formal and informal systems for
collecting, storing, evaluating, retrieving,
and disseminating information from
outside and within the country.
Scientific communication - the flow and
common sharing of scientific information -
involves both external scientific
communication (interaction of local
scientists with scientists of other countries)
and internal scientific communication
(interaction among local scientists).
Standard measures that are taken to facilitate
external scientific communication:
(a)     Providing local scientists in LDCs with
means or services for the fast acquisition of
foreign scientific preprints, reports, journals,
and books.
(b)     Providing them with regular
opportunities and means for periodic
sabbatical leaves or extended visits to leading
research centers abroad.
(c)     Providing them with yearly travel grants
which would enable them to spend two to
three months abroad for attending
international scientific  meetings, visiting
leading research centers, and interacting with
foreign colleague
(d)     Hiring foreign scientists to serve as
visiting professors and /visiting researcher in
local universities and institutes.
(e)     Establishing bilateral links between
universities, departments, and research units
in LDCs and HCDs for the exchange of
personnel, coordination of research, training
of students, etc.
(f)     Establishing for each discipline  regional
cooperative programs in connection with
research, journal publication, scientific
training, etc.
Measures that are usually taken to improve
internal scientific communication:
(a)     Establishing first-class science libraries
with complete. Up- to-date books, periodicals,
and documentation services.
(b)     Supporting the local seminars,
workshops, and annual conventions of
national  scientific societies;
(c)     Supporting the publication of local
scientific journals;
(d)     Supporting the production of high-
quality local university textbooks in science
and technology.
(e)     Providing scientists with local travel
grants for visiting colleagues in other parts of
the country or giving seminars in various
local institutions.
        Financial resources for S & T comprise
the total amount of public, private, and
foreign funds which is available for national
expenditure on R & D and other related S & T
activities. Such resources will be discussed
here in terms of (1) the optimum level and
growth rate of the national S & T
expenditures, (2) national schemes for S &
T budgeting, and (3) national schemes for S
& T financing.
National S & T Expenditure
World Plan of Action for the Application of
Science and Technology to Development
recommends that LDCs should spend a
minimum of 1% of their GNP on R & D and
STS by 1980 and that of this minimum
national S & T expenditure, at least 50% (i.e.,
0.5% of GNP) should be allocated to R & D
proper.

National S & T Budgeting
    The S & T content of the functional State
budget is usually broken down into four
subcategories:
(a)   S & T planning and general
administration
(b) R & D training of scientists and
technologists
(c)  Research and experimental development
(R&D)
(d)  Scientific and technological services (STS)
*the total national R & D expenditure, at
least 10% should be allocated by LDCs to
basic research.
National S&T Financing.
 The main forms of State financing for S & T
are the following:
(a)     Financing through the State budget -
The funds for S & T in this case are taken from
government revenues and tax collections.
(b)     Financing through special funds -
These are autonomous or semi-autonomous
State funds for S & T which are maintained by
public and private contributions.
   
(c)     Financing through selective indirect
taxation - This generates funds for R & D in
specific sectors (e.g., oil, steel, etc.) by
selective taxation on certain goods or
services.
(d)     Financing through foreign loans  -
This seeks to provide funds for R & D through
government borrowing from external
sources.
    Among the schemes for encouraging
greater S & T expenditures on the part of the
private sector are the following:44
(a)     Encouragement of private science
foundations.
(b)     Statutory regulations requiring well-
established industries to spend 1% to 5&%
of their turnover for R & D.
   
(c)     Tax concessions on R & D investments
by industrial firms.
   
(d)     Encouragement of cooperative
industrial research associations through
partial government subsidy of their R & D
budget.
4.5 - International S&T Resources
International S&T Resources:
Foreign S&T sources which a country can tap
for the build-up of its own scientific and
technological potential and for the scientific
and technological solution
Ways through which international S & T
resources can be tapped:
1. International S&T Assistance -
assistance given by HDC to LDC
2. International S&T Cooperation -
bilateral and multilateral schemes for
cooperation in S&T activities
International S&T Assistance
S&T assistance provided by an HDCs
to LDCs can take one or more of the ff forms:
1. Human aspects
0. Advanced R&D training in HDCs
a. Enable HDC scientists and
technologists to work in LDCs
0. Infrastructural aspects
0. Donations or grants for S&T
equipment or buildings
0. Informational aspects
0. Library donations
a. Sharing of non-proprietary
information
0. Financial aspects
a. Loans and direct financial aid for
S&T development
International S&T Cooperation proposed linkage of this type is the
Important reasons for international S&T “scientific adoption” of an LDC research
Cooperation group by an HDC research group.
1. -Need to pool limited human,
infrastructural, informational and Based on an in-depth study of bilateral links
financial resources between S&T institutions in Britain and
-Reduce costs of R&D and STS Thailand:
-Avoid unnecessary duplication of
work Conditions which are conducive to successful
0. -Need to maintain international bilateral cooperation between S&T
standards in R&D institutions in LDCs and HDCs are:
-Keep up with international 1. Links initiated through direct contact
developments in S&T between scientists in the two institutions
3. Need for world-wide study of global 2. Objectives should be set by the LDC
natural phenomena institution
4. Need for international coordination of 3. Visits by HDC scientists to the LDC
legislation pertaining to scientific institution should be short but frequent
technological issues 4. Funding for such links should be given
directly to the cooperating institutions
Types of Cooperation Schemes 5. Small links are more effective than large
International S&T cooperation may be ones
classified as follows:
1. Institutionalized Cooperation - common
S&T programmed of action and common
budget fed by national contributions
0. International research centers -
created by special international arguments
a. National S&T institutions with
international vocation
2. Concerted Cooperation - coordination of
national research projects according to a
commonly planned working programme
with heads of national research  team
meetings
3. Reciprocal Cooperation - formal and
informal, bilateral and multilateral
linkages among universities, research
centers, departments, or research groups
for exchange of personnel, reciprocal
training of postgraduate students,
coordinations of research, etc.

The most important form of scientific

cooperation between LDC scientists is the
linkage between research groups. A

D. TECHNOLOGICAL POLICIES
0. Differences between Science and Technology Policies at the National Level
 Science Policies Technology Policies

Objectives Generate scientific knowledge Acquire the technology for the

production of goods and services

Activities Covered Basic and applied research Development, Engineering,

Technology Transfer, Reverse
Engineering

Appropriation of the Dissemination of results while Results remain with who generated
Activities Covered ownership is ensured them while ensured by patents

Reference Criteria Internal to the scientific External to the technical and

for their community engineering community
Performance

Scope of Activities Universal Localized

Amenability to Results depend on the capacity of Little new knowledge acquired,

Planning the researchers to generate and systematic use of existing knowledge
large uncertainties are associated while less uncertainties are
associated

Dominant Time Long and medium term Short and medium term
Horizon

b. Principles for technology policy

1. Attending to the creation of local technology  while there is a regulation of
importation of foreign technology
2. Establishment of an explicit and coherent policy closely related to science,
economic, labor, educational, and industrial policies
3. The formulation and implementation must have a solid national and
geographical basis
4. The world economy must not be ignored
5. The supply and demand of technology are taken into consideration
6. The characteristics of productive sectors and branches are considered
7. The policy is flexible and is implemented gradually
c. Lines of action for technology policy
1. Increase the demand for local technology
2. Increase the demand for technological absorption
3. Regulation of importation of technology
4. Increase the capacity of technology in priority areas
d. Activating technology policies
1. Technological behavior at the national level is the result of decisions made
by enterprises, research centers, and government agencies
2. Technological decisions of enterprises determine the technological capacity
of the country and the pattern of demand of technology