DEVELOPMENT

STUDIES
MODULE 1-8 NOTES

MASUNGA SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

TOPIC GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to: Learners should be able to: Module 1: Measuring & Investigating Development
Development Explain the concept and practice - Explain the concept of development;
of development within the - Explain the following divisions: First,
context of their social, Second and Third world, Newly What is development?
economic and political Industrialised Countries, North, South, - Development is a process of change that makes people happier,
environment. Least
Developed Countries and Developed freer, better fed, richer and take part in decision making
Countries; - Development is a process of change and growth in societies which
- Give reasons for the differences in the improves people’s quality of life.
development levels in different countries;
- Identify and discuss different development
- Development is when the economy grows, standards of living rise,
indicators including Gross Domestic quality of life improves, wealth is shared more fairly and more
Product (GDP), Gross National Product people take part in decision making
(GNP), health, life expectancy, education
and energy consumption. - Development is when societies change for the better
- Show why political aspects of development
are difficult to measure;
- Describe the characteristics of the
developed and developing countries;
- Analyse and evaluate theories of
development: modernisation, dependency,
sustainable development and alternative
strategies;

THE ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Societies develop when various systems interact to cause change. These
systems are called aspects of life.
- Economic aspect of development is when a country
produces more or enough for everyone and gets richer or
wealthier. This is characterised by more industries, better
improved technology and higher income.
- Economic Development is when the country’s
production increases so that the people become richer or
wealthier
- Social aspect of development is when people’s basic
needs are fully met. For example people will have better
and more shelter, access to clean water.
- Political aspect of development is when people have
more freedom and justice in a country. This means that
all the basic human rights are guaranteed by law.
- Political development is when there is more freedom
and justice, and people are free to participate in decision
making; respect for human rights/safety and security, for
example, democracy, equality, justice, etc.
- Political Development is when people’s participation in
marking decisions about their lives increases/ when
people take control of their lives/ when people enjoy
human rights
THE REASONS WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO MEASURE
POLITICAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
- The political aspects of development are difficult to
quantify because are intangible or immeasurable, for
example, they can neither be seen nor touched.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
- Political aspect of development is difficult to measure
because most countries prohibit independent human rights
groups to monitor human rights violations.
- In developing countries most people are illiterate and
unaware of their rights.
- Political aspects of development are affected by cultural or
religious beliefs, for example, women being marginalised or
there are gender inequalities.
- The issue of sovereignty makes it difficult to measure
political aspect of development because countries belief that
they are independent therefore nobody can tell them how to
treat their citizens.
- Political aspects of development are affected by different
political systems, for example, dictatorship prohibits human
rights because they are no voting, no freedom of speech.
DIVISION OF THE WORLD
The world can be divided into three groups based on the levels of
development, namely;
1. Developed/ Industrialised countries/ Countries of the North
2. Newly Industrialised Countries (NIC’s)
3. Less Developed Countries/ Countries of the South/ Developing
Countries
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 THE DIVISION OF THE WORLD SHOWN BY WORLD MAP They can be divided into two categories based on the ideology that
they followed:
• First World Countries/ Capitalist Countries
• Second World Countries/ Communist Countries

These two categories are also known as Countries of the North or

Industrialised Countries or High income countries.
Today the second category is almost non-existent because the
countries have either ceased to be communist or they have
embedded capitalism in their mode of production, besides
Capitalism has now become a world system.
Example are mostly found in Western Europe, United Kingdom,
Fig.1 France,
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS OF COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH Germany, Spain etc
[DEVELOPING
North America: USA
COUNTRIES]
- The geographical location of countries of the South is that there and Canada Japan,
are found in Central America, for example, Mexico. Australia, New Zealand.
- The countries of the South are found in South America or Latin
America, for example, Brazil and Argentina. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPED
- The countries of the South are mostly located in Africa, for COUNTRIES
example, Botswana, Nigeria, Ethopia, Kenya, Egypt, Algeria,
Tunisia, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, Mozambique, Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics
Somalia, South Africa and Cameroon. • High industrialised  High standards of living
- The countries of the South are found in South Asia, for • High employment levels High levels of literacy

example, India. • High levels of income Good and adequate social

- The countries of the South are located in Far East, for example, • Highly developed facilities, for example,
Malaysia. infrastructure clinics/ hospitals and
- The countries of the South are found in East Asia, for example, • High GNP/ GDP  schools High calorie intake
China. • High energy consumption or food intake
- The countries of the South are located in the Middle East, for  Low birth rates and low
example, Saudi Arabia. population growth rate
 High levels of urbanisation
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ARE HIGHLY
DEVELOPED
• Developed countries use advanced technology to produce
goods and services.
• Developed countries have long history of urbanisation.
• Colonialism is the other reason why developed countries are
highly developed.
THE ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE • Developed countries are highly developed because of
NORTH importation of raw materials at cheap rates from Less
Developed Countries.
- The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that
• Developed countries are selling or exporting expensive
there is high use of complex technology to produce goods.
manufactured goods
- The countries of the North have high development of transport
• In developed countries, there are highly skilled and productive
and telecommunication networks or high infrastructural
work forces.
development.
• Developed countries have control and domination of the World
- The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that
Trade
they dominate international trade or they have high share of
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
international trade.
Also known as;
- The countries of the North have high income or high wages.
• Less Developed Countries
- The countries of the North have high energy consumption
• Third World Countries
because people own many electrical appliances such
• Countries of the South
computers, televisions and refrigerators.
• Least Developed Countries
- The countries of the North have high industrialization or mass
• Under Developed Countries
production or high manufacturing of goods.
• Middle income or low income Countries
- The economic characteristic of the North is that they export
finished goods and they import raw materials.
Example: Most African countries, for example, Botswana, Malawi,
- The countries of the North have low percentage population
Zambia etc
depending on agriculture because few people practise
South American countries such as Peru, Colombia, Nicaragua, Chile,
commercial agriculture.
Bolivia etc.
- The countries of the North have high GNP because they have
Asian countries such as Iran, Iraq, Bangladesh etc.
many industries that produce goods and services.
- The countries of the North have high GNP per capita.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that
they have high GDP.
Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Developing countries depend on • Developed countries • Neo-colonialism, for example, domination of the economies by
raw materials for export, for have low standards developed countries through Trans National Companies.
example, crop and minerals. of living.
 Developing countries have low • They have high levels of NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES
levels of industrialisation. illiteracy or low education These are countries that have achieved industrialisation in the last thirty
 They have high levels of levels.
years. They used to be less developed.
unemployment • Developed countries have
Developed countries poor and inadequate social
 For example, Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Hong Kong, India, Brazil,
have low incomes and facilities, for example,
widespread poverty. school and hospitals. Indonesia, Mexico etc.
 • Developed countries have
Developed countries have poorly
developed infrastructure. low life expectancy. THE WORLD MAPS SHOWING LOCATIONS OF NEWLY
 • They have low urbanisation INDUSTRIALISED
They have low GNP/GDP
 Developed countries have levels, for example, most COUNTRIES (NICs)

dependence on subsistence people live in the rural

areas.
agriculture.
• Developed countries
have few stable
democracies.
• Oppression of women.

THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ARE

UNDERDEVELOPMENT/LESS DEVELOPED
• The slave trade which depleted Africa’s human resources.
• Colonialism /imperialism that exploited Africa, for example,
took raw materials.
• Developing countries use backward or poor technology.
• Developing countries depend on cheap raw materials for
export.
• Developed countries set unfair international trading terms that
disadvantage developing countries.
• Developing countries have unskilled and less productive labour
force.
• Huge foreign debts.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Fig.2 - Newly Industrialising Countries are located in the Middle East,
for example, Saudi Arabia and Turkey.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED

Fig.3
THE LOCATION OF THE NEWLY INDUSTRIALISING
COUNTRIES IS AS FOLLOWS:

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in Southern Africa,

for example, South Africa.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are located in the Far East

countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines,
South Korea and China.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in South of North

America, for example, Mexico.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are found in Northeast of South

America, for example, Brazil.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in South Asia, for

example, India.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 COUNTRIES
Economic Characteristics
 NIC’s have fast growing industrial
 sector
NIC’s have greater dependence on
 exports of manufactured goods.
They have rapidly
commercialised agricultural
 sector, for example, from subsistence to
commercial agriculture.

NIC’s have raising income levels.
They have emergence of new Trans
National Companies, for example,
Samsung, Daewoo, Kia, all from South
Korea.
Social Characteristics
• NIC’s have rapid
urbanisation
• They have improving
standard of living.
• NIC’s are having higher
levels of education
therefore high literacy.
• They have improved
provision of social services
• NIC’s have rising life
expectancy.
• They have falling birth and
population growth rate.
• They have cheap labour costs that helped to attract foreign
investment.
• NIC’s had agricultural and land reform that helped to
modernize and improve productivity.
• They have heavy investment in modern infrastructure.
THE CHALLENGES WHICH ARE FACED BY THE NEWLY
INDUSTRIALISING COUNTRIES
- The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that
of high inflation rates/ weak currencies/ high fuel prices.
- The Newly Industrialising Countries faces the challenge of having
foreign debt or debt crisis.
- The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that
of the wide gap between the rich and the poor or huge disparities
of wealth.

THE REASONS WHY THE NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED
COUNTRIES (NIC’s) DEVELOPED SO FAST
• The NIC’s have heavy investment in science and technology
education.
• They have large scale foreign direct investment, for example,
Multi-National Companies/ Trans National Companies.
• Export Oriented Industrialisation based on the production of
consumer goods for the world market.
• Foreign Aid from the developed western countries in an
attempt to stop the spread of communism, for example, South
East Asia.  NIC’s got loans from international financial
institution, for example, World Bank and International
Monetary Fund.
• NIC’s have technology transfer from the Western countries
- The Newly Industrialised Countries are faced with the challenge
of dominance of the industrial process by Multi-National
Companies who move their investment of the country.
- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
depletion of their natural resources or damage to the environment.
- The challenge faced by Newly Industrialising Countries is that of
fast growth of the private sector which makes it difficult to be
controlled by the government.
- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
exploitation of workers by the employer.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - The Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge
of declining exports because of tough competition from the mostly
developed countries or in the world market.
- The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that
of high expenditure on imports and less on exports.
- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
declining real income.
- The Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge
of corruption.
- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
urban poverty.
THE DIFFERENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT LEVELS IN DIFFERENT
COUNTRIES
Explain why there are differences in the levels of development
between developed and developing countries.
- The differences in levels of development between developed and
developing countries is that developed countries export finished
goods whereas developing countries export raw materials.
- Developed countries have skilled manpower because they have
many educational institutions and developing countries have
brain drain because most of skilled people prefer working in
developed countries.
- The difference in levels of development between developed
countries and developing countries is that developed countries
dominate or control world trade whereas developing countries
have less control over world trade.
- Developed countries have many Multinational companies which
contribute towards government revenue by paying tax and
developed countries have huge debts because they have only few
companies that export finished goods.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- There is peace in developed countries whereas developing
countries are involved in political instabilities caused by wars
and civil strife.
- Developed countries policies are directed to high infrastructural
development while developing countries policies are directed
towards poverty and disease eradication.
- The difference in levels of development between developed
countries and developing countries is that developed countries use
advanced technology to produce goods whereas developing
countries use simple technology to produce goods.
- Developed countries have high skilled manpower whereas
developing countries have shortage of skilled manpower.
- Developed countries have created dependency syndrome in
developing countries by giving them aid or assistance, for
example, foreign aid in the form of grants and loans.
THE FACTORS THAT SLOW DOWN DEVELOPMENT IN THE
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- The factor that slows down development in the developing
countries is lack of funds.
- Developing countries have slow down development because
of use of poor technology to produce goods and services.
- The slowdown in development of developing countries is
caused by lack of skilled labour because of poor education.
- The factor that slow down development in developing
countries is caused by wars and conflicts.
MODULE 1-8
 - Developing countries have slow down development because - Give three reasons why political aspects of development are difficult to
measure.
they have high populations.

- The slowdown in development in developing countries is

caused by corruption and mismanagement of public funds by
most of the leaders for their own personal benefit.

- Developing countries have slowdown in development due to

brain drain because many skilled people in developing
countries prefer working in developed countries.
- The factor that slows down development in developing
countries is dependency syndrome. This means developing
depend on developed countries in order for them to develop.
- Developing countries are involved in foreign debts which
slow down their development, for example, they get loans
from financial institutions such as the World Bank,
International Monetary Fund and developed countries.
- Describe any two aspects of development other than social development
- Suggest ways by which the government of Botswana is promoting social
development
- How can developing countries encourage economic development?
- Describe actions that the government takes to promote economic development
in Botswana.
- Suggest ways by which income generating projects can help people to achieve
social development

Study Fig.2, which shows the division of the world into countries of the North and
countries of the South

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

- What is development?

- Identify and define three aspect of development

- Describe is a process of change which involves economic, social and political

development. Describe these three aspects of development

- What is meant by political development?

Fig.2

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Describe the geographical locations of countries of the South Fig.3

- Describe the economic characteristics of countries of the North - Describe the geographical locations of Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs)
shown in Fig.3.
Study Fig. 3 which shows Newly Industrialise Countries (NICs) in different countries - Suggest factors Less Developed Countries (LDCs) could copy from Newly
Industrialised Countries (NICs) to speed up development.

- Describe the social characteristics of Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs)

Indicator Economic Development
Developed Developing
GNP High Low
GDP high Low
GNP per capita High low
Energy consumption High low
Employment High low
Number of people in Less people in agriculture More people in agriculture
Agriculture
Study Fig. 4, which shows the New industrialising Countries (NICs), and answer questions
Social Development
MEASURING DEVELOPMENT/ INDICATORS OF below. Indicator Developed Developing
DEVELOPMENT Infant Mortality Rate Low High
(IMR)
Life expectancy High Low
Death rate Low High
Birth rate Low High
Doctor-patient ratio Low High
Teacher-student ratio Low High
Number of people per Low High
telephone
Number of people per tap Low: Many houses with High: few houses with
water water
Dependency ratio Low High
Literacy rate High Low
Adult literacy rate High Low
Calorie intake High Low
Daily food intake High Low
- Describe the location of the Newly Industrialising Countries.
Political Development
- Explain why countries of the South are less developed than the countries of the North.
Indicator Developed Developing
Democracy
- Suggest why development is slow in most Southern African Countries.
Peace Civil wars/civil strife
Elections More Few
Women in managerial positions More Few
Human rights
Freedom
Masunga Senior Secondary School DevelopmentNumber
Studies Notesimprisonment
of wrongful MODULE 1-8
Number of political parties in a country
Percentage of people who vote during
elections
 - Describe the factors that slow down development in developing countries

Fig.1

SOCIAL INDICATORS ECONOMIC POLITICAL 1. INFANT MORTALITY RATE

INDICATORS INDICATORS
Infant Mortality Rate Gross National Product per Number of political parties
Capita in a country
What is infant mortality rate?

Life expectancy
Adult literacy rate
Number of people per doctor
Number of pupils per teacher
Birth rate
Death rate
SOCIAL INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
Gross Domestic Product
Gross National Product
Energy Consumption per
Capita
Number of people employed
in agriculture
Employment rate
Manufacturing production
Fig.2
Percentage of people who
vote during elections
Freedom of expression
Percentage of women in
managerial positions
Number of wrongful
imprisonment
Human rights
Justice
- Infant mortality rate number of babies who die before their first
birthday per thousand per year in a country.
- Infant mortality rate is the percentage of babies who die before
their first birthday in a country
THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES HAVE A HIGH INFANT
MORTALITY RATE
- Developing countries have high doctor patient ratio/ inadequate
access to health care because there are few trained doctors and
nurses.
- There is poor nutrition in developing countries leading to such
health conditions as kwashiorkor

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

- In developing infant mortality rate is caused by teenage pregnancy
which may lead to delivery complications.
- Infant mortality rate is caused by pandemic diseases such
HIV/AIDS because some of the babies are born with the virus.
- The reason why developing countries have high infant mortality
rate is Poor sanitation / unhygienic conditions
- Developing countries have high infant mortality rate because of
poor care / parent negligence
2. LIFE EXPECTANCY
What is life expectancy?
- Life expectancy is the average number of years a person is likely
to live in a country.
What is life expectancy at birth?
- Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a new
born baby is likely to live in a country.
THE REASONS WHY LESS DEVELOPED/ DEVELOPING /THIRD
WORLD
COUNTRIES HAVE HIGHER INFANT MORTALITY RATE
- The reason why developing countries have high infant mortality
rate is that of shortage of health facilities where health care can be
provided by doctors and nurses.
- High infant mortality rate in developing countries is caused by
widespread of diseases and epidemics, for example, cholera,
malaria and HIV/AIDS.
- Developing countries have high infant mortality rate because of
poor nutrition which may lead to kwarshikor due to high
unemployment rate or poor farming methods.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- High infant mortality rate in developing countries is caused by poor
sanitation and hygiene.
- Infant mortality rate is high in developing countries because of
poverty which lead to low living standard
THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE LOWER
INFANT
MORTALITY RATE
- Developed countries have adequate health facilities where health
care is provided by trained doctors and nurses.
- Low infant mortality rate in developed countries is caused by
immunisation programmes that help to eradicate child killer
diseases, for example, cholera, malaria and polio.
- Developed countries have low infant mortality rate because of
adequate and balanced nutrition.
- Low infant mortality rate in developed countries is caused by good
sanitation and hygiene.
- Infant mortality rate is low in developing countries because of high
living standard.
THE REASONS WHY WORLD LIFE EXPECTANCY IS RISING
- The life expectancy is rising in the world because cleaner water
supplies to prevent waterborne diseases such as cholera.
- The governments of the world provide better sanitation to their
citizens to improve hygiene.
- The world life expectancy is rising due to provision better health
care whereby there is enough trained medical personnel such as
doctors and nurses.
MODULE 1-8
- Countries provide primary health care to citizens which focuses on THE REASONS FOR HIGH CALORIE INTAKE IN DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES
the prevention of diseases and giving assistance to the sick, for
example, provision of clean water, health education and
- Developed countries have high calorie intake because of high
immunisation programmes
income because most of the people are employed.
- In the world some of the countries provide citizens with better
- High calorie intake in developed countries is caused by surplus
nutrition for example, in Botswana children are given
food production.
supplementary feeding such as Tsabana.
- Developed countries have high calorie intake due to high levels of
2. CALORIE INTAKE education.

- Calorie intake is high in developed countries because of the use of

What is calorie intake?
advanced technology to produce food.
- Calorie intake is the energy value of the food eaten in a country.

THE REASONS FOR LOW CALORIE INTAKE IN DEVELOPING

4. LITERACY RATE
COUNTRIES
Define literacy rate

- The reason for low calorie intake in developing countries is that - Literacy rate is the percentage of the population or average
there is high unemployment so less money to buy food number of people who are able to read and write in a country.

- There is lack of purchasable food in some areas What is the importance of literacy to development?
- Developing countries have quality and quantity food shortage
- The importance of literacy to development is that when people
because of drought
are able to read and write they are able to learn or acquire new
- The high illiteracy rate in developing countries lead to inability to skills easily
determine food quality
- They can better participate in decision making and national
- Developing countries have low calorie intake because of low campaigns e.g. elections, immunisation programmes
productivity in agriculture.
- They can read and understand environmental issues or
- Low calorie intake in developing countries is caused by drought conservation better
and famines.
- Reduces dependency on those who are literate and promotes
- Developing countries have low calorie intake due to wars and privacy e.g. reading own letters or mail
political instability.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Literate mothers can access information on childcare leading to
better hygiene and lower IMR
- Improved nutrition when the mother is literate
- They can easily find out and fill themselves application forms
e.g. at the post office, credit facilities forms and can even write
application letters for jobs etc.
5. ADULT LITERACY RATE
Define adult literacy rate
- Adult literacy rate is the percentage of people or number of
people 18 years and above who can read and write in a country.
Male literacy rate is higher in most countries than female literacy rate
Fig.4
THE REASONS FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE
LITERACY RATES
- The reason for the difference between male and female literacy
THE CHALLENGES FACED BY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN TRYING
rate is that girls are denied the chance to go to school and are
expected to stay home and help their mothers
- The girls drop out of school because they marry or get pregnant
which lead to the difference between male and female literacy
rate.
- Girls are neglected for cultural/traditional reasons
- It is believed a girl child has a smaller brain than their male
counterpart (and this makes them less intelligent) and so
sending them to school is a waste of time and money
THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS LOW SCHOOL ENROLMENT CAN HAVE ON A
COUNTRY’S DEVELOPMENT
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- The negative effect of low school enrolment can have on a
country’s development is low literacy rate
- The low school enrolment can have negative effect on a
country’s development because it can lead to fewer skilled
personnel
- Increase the gap between the educated rich and the uneducated
poor
- The negative effect of low school enrolment may lead to fewer
people will be involved in decision making
- Low school enrolment may lead to high birth rates because of
lack of knowledge on how to use contraceptives.
- The negative effect of low school enrolment on country’s
development leads to High Infant Mortality Rate or death rates
because of lack of knowledge on how to take care of their
babies.
TO
IMPROVE THEIR CITIZENS’ EDUCATION
- The challenge faced by developing countries in trying to
improve their citizen’s education is that they have shortage of
funds which lead to inadequate educational facilities.
- The challenges faced by developing countries in trying to
improve their citizens’ education is shortage of trained
personnel, for example, teachers.
- Developing countries inaccessible educational facilities because
of shortage of funds, for example, students have to walk long
distances to access educational facilities.
- Uncooperative, unruly & bad behaved students
MODULE 1-8
 - Corruption and bribery What is birth rate / Population growth rate?

- Developing countries have high unemployment rate which
makes parents to be unable to pay school fees.
THE CAUSES OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT RATES IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
- The cause of high school dropout rates in developing countries
due to teenage pregnancy.
- Developing countries have high school dropout rates because
domestic responsibilities e.g. looking after livestock
- Poverty causes high school dropout rates in developing
countries because of inability to pay school fees by some
parents
Birth rate is the number of babies per 1000 born in a year in a
country.
Population growth rate is the speed at which the population grows
in a year, and it is expressed in percentages in a country.
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES HAVE HIGH BIRTH AND POPULATION
GROWTH RATES BECAUSE OF:
- Large family seen as a symbol of social prestige, for example,
proves ones virility.
- Ignorance of the use of family planning and contraceptives.

- In developing countries, there is high school dropout rates - Low levels of education.
because of early marriage.
- Children are regarded as a source of social security
- Family disputes / divorce / lack of parental guidance
- Early marriages.
- High school dropout rates in developing countries is caused by
diseases, for example, HIV/AIDS, TB, etc. / accidents leading - Polygamy
to disability
- Desires for sons if girls are born first to continue family name
because girls get married and change the surname.
- Developing countries have high school dropout because of civil
wars e.g. Ethiopia/Eritrea, Sudan etc.

- High school dropout in developing countries is caused by long

distance to educational facilities or school
6. BIRTH RATE/ POPULATION GROWTH RATE

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE LOWER BIRTH AND POPULATION

GROWTH RATE BECAUSE OF:
EXPLAIN HOW SOCIAL INDICATORS ARE USED TO MEASURE

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Widespread of use of contraceptives and also family planning is DEVELOPMENT done.
- When infant mortality rate is low it means that development is - High levels of education. high and when infant mortality rate is high, it means
that
development is low.
- Social security as they have pension schemes in place.

- High standards of living that make a large family expensive to - High literacy rate means that a country is developed whereas low have. literacy
rate means that a country is less developed or developing.

Banning of child labour.

- - High Birth Rate means that a country is less developed and a low
Birth Rate means that a country is developed.

7. DOCTOR-PATIENT RATIO - When there is a high doctor-patient ratio it means that the country is less developed and a low doctor-patient ratio
means that the What is meant by doctor-patient ratio?
country is developed.
- Doctor-patient ratio is (average) number of sick people to be attended or attended by a medical practitioner in a day. - High life expectancy shows
that the country is developed and a low life expectancy shows that the country is less developed.
- Doctor-patient ratio is the (average) number of hospital attendants

to a medical practitioner in a day. - High calorie intake shows that a country is developed whereas a

low calorie intake shows that a country is less developed.

- Doctor-patient ratio is the proportion of medical practitioners to sick people in a day.

THE REASONS WHY DOCTOR-PATIENT RATIO IS WORSE

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- High population growth rate/high birth rate/high population

- Outbreak of diseases/high rate of communicable diseases
- Few health personnel/few doctors/brain drain/poor health care
- Shortage of training health facilities
- High incidents of wars/casualties
- Shortage of health facilities/clinics/hospitals/poor health care

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

- Long period of training - Lack of knowledge on health education.
ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT
Define Gross National Product
- Gross National Product is the total value of goods and services
that a country produces in one year including earnings from abroad
or outside the country.
Define GNP per capita
- GNP per capita is the proportion or share of a country’s wealth
each individual is entitled to if the country’s money is shared
equally or evenly amongst the population
- GNP per capita is the total money value of goods and services
produced within and outside the country divided by the total
population
THE ADVANTAGES OF GNP PER CAPITA
- GNP per capita is a standard measure, therefore, allows easy
comparison between countries and years.
- The data on GNP per capita is available from the World Bank.
- GNP per capita highlights international wealth differences.
- GNP per capita is better than raw GNP measurement, which ignores
the size of the population, or GDP, which does not include
investments abroad.
- GNP per capita helps to estimate productivity capacity of country’s
economy.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
THE DISADVANTAGES OF GNP PER CAPITA
The reasons why GNP per capita is not a good measure of
development
- The reason why GNP per capita is not a good measure of
development is that few people might own most of the land, farms,
shops, factories, etc. leaving the majority very poor i.e. it ignores
the difference between the rich and the poor within the country
- GNP per capita ignores the informal sector and illicit trades;
economists only count goods and services marketed openly and
recorded by government.
- Production/income statistics may be inaccurate / concealing of
actual earnings to avert tax or Business officials hiding information
- Population statistics may be inaccurate and/or outdated
- There is official biasness of statistics to score a political mileage
- GNP per capita assumes that everyone is working and benefiting
from the economy and ignores the quality of life, social and
environmental consequences of wealth/ignores happiness
REASONS WHY COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH/DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES HAVE A HIGHER GNP THAN THOSE OF THE
SOUTH/DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- The countries of the North have mass production due to use of
complex and many industries whereas countries of the South have
low production because of use of simple technology and few
industries.
MODULE 1-8
- Countries of the North export a lot of high value or expensive 2. EMPLOYMENT
goods & services while countries of the South export low value In developed countries there are a lot of employment opportunities in:
goods and services - Large industrial sector
- Large commercial service sector
- The reason why countries of the North have high GNP is because
- Quarternary sector
they price the commodities themselves while the prices of raw
In developing countries employment is very low because of
materials from the countries of the South are determined by the
- Small industrial sector
North.
- Small commercial sector
- Dependence on subsistence agriculture.
- The countries of the North have favourable terms of trade whereas 2. TRADE
countries of the South have unfavourable conditions of trade Developed countries are dependent on exporting manufactured or
because are determined by the countries of the North finished products.
Developing countries are dependent on exports of raw materials.
- Most Multi-National Companies originate from countries of the POLITICAL INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
North and operate in other countries which lead profit repatriation HUMAN RIGHTS: These are things or conditions that every person
- Countries of the North earn a lot of interest from loans to the is entitled to have and they are part of the constitution of every
developing countries. country. Respect for human rights marks a high level of development
for any country. Conditions that fulfil human rights include the
2. ENERGY USE/ ENERGY CONSUMPTION following:
- Regular free and fair elections
Define Energy use/ Energy consumption - Freedom of speech or opinion
- Right to education
Energy consumption is the average amount of kilograms of oil, gas, - Freedom of association and worship
electricity or wood that utilized by each person in a country. - Impartial/ fair justice
- Law and order
- Developed countries use large quantities of energy while - Peace and security
Developing countries use small quantities. - Equal opportunities in all spheres of life.
- Developed countries use a lot of energy because they have a lot of However if these conditions are not met, there is bound to be
industries, machines, vehicles and gadgets that use electricity and discrimination
have large urban areas.
- Developing countries use smaller quantities of energy because there THE WAYS IN WHICH POLITICAL INDICATORS CAN BE USED TO
have very few industries, vehicles and machines. Most work is done MEASURE
DEVELOPMENT
manually.
• Number of women in decision making positions – If the
percentage of females in leadership [posts] is high it mean

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 high development whereas if it is low it mean low
development
• Voter turnout/number of people who vote- If the
percentage of adults who participate in elections is high then
development is high and if it is low the development is low
• Adherence to human rights/human rights
ratings/ranking- If the respect that a country has for people’s
entitlement is high then development is high and if it is low
then development is low, for example, good governance and
transparency
• Incidents of discrimination/inequality (times when people
are treated unfairly for who they are)- If there are many
incidents of discrimination development is low and if there
are few development is high, for example, justice and fair
trial
• Incidents of conflict- If the occurrence of serious
disagreements, for example, war and social unrest is high then
development is low
• Peace –If there is calmness in the country or the absence of
wars or social unrest then development is high
• Security- If the sense of safety in a country is high, then
development is high
• Happiness-If the feeling of joy/gladness among people in a
6. Define literacy rate
7. Describe three importance of literacy to development
8. Define adult literacy rate
Male literacy rate is higher in most countries than female literacy rate
9. Suggest three reasons for the difference between male and female literacy rates
The girl child school enrolment is lower in African countries.
10. Give three reasons for the low enrolment of girls in African countries
11. Give any three negative effects low school enrolment can have on a country’s
development
12. Describe three challenges faced by developing countries in trying to improve
their citizens’ education.
13. Describe three causes of high school dropout rates in developing countries?
14. Define Gross National Product
15. Give three reasons why GNP per capita is not a good measure of development.
16. Define GNP per capita
17. Give three reasons why Countries of the North have a higher GNP than those
of the South
18. What is infant mortality rate?
19. Give three reasons why developing countries have a high infant mortality rate

country is then development is higher 20. What is meant by political development?

Check your progress 21. Why is it difficult to measure political aspects of development
Section B
Section A
1. What is life expectancy? 1. Study Fig 1, which shows population statistics for selected African
countries and answer question 1(a)
2. What is life expectancy at birth?

3. Describe any three reasons why world life expectancy is rising

4. What is calorie intake?

5. Give three reasons for low calorie intake in developing countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 (b)(i) Explain how any three political indicators can be used to measure
development.

(ii) Explain why political development is difficult to measure.

3.Fig. 3 shows a list of countries and their indicators of development. Use it to

answer question 1(a)
Fig1

(a) (i) Describe the causes of high infant mortality rate in developing countries.

(ii) Describe the ways in which the government is trying to reduce the infant
mortality rate in Botswana.

2. Study Fig. 2 which shows some indicators to measure development.

Fig.3

(a)(i) Using Fig. 3 only, describe three economic characteristics of developed

countries.

(ii) Explain why there are differences in the levels of development between
developed and developing countries.

Fig.2

(a)(i) Explain how each indicator shown in Fig.1 is used to measure development.

(ii) State the disadvantage of using GNP per capita to measure development.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
It is also referred to as the ‘Stages of Growth theory’.
A theory is a set of ideas offering explanation about something. THE STAGES OF MODERNISATION THEORY

Theories of development are ideas from such disciplines as The theory suggests that a country goes through the following stages
economics, politics and sociology that attempt to explain how the of development.
world can be developed.
Different views have been brought forward, these include: Stage 1: Traditional society stage depends on subsistence
agriculture.  Technology is still simple or rudimentary.
• Modernisation theory • People live a simple life, therefore low standard of living.
• Dependency theory • In traditional society, people practice barter trading.
• Sustainable Development theory • Traditional societies have few towns
• Environmentalism and sustainable development theory Stage 2: Pre-Conditions for take-off is when there is improvement of
• Populism transport network, for example, roads, canals and railways.
• Globalisation • Agriculture revolution, for example, changes from subsistence
• Gender and Development to commercial farming.
• In Pre-Conditions for take -off stage, there is introduction of
fertilizers, hybrids and pesticides.
• Specialisation of work begins.
• Improved technology that raises productivity.
• Urbanisation starts.
Stage 3: Take-off is when industry stimulates city
growth.  There is rapid urbanisation in take-off
stage.
• Investment in capital goods rises and quickens economic
growth.
• In take-off stage, some people become rich.
Stage 4: Drive to Maturity is when there is rapid increase in
Fig.1 manufacturing and service industries, have more exports and fewer
imports.
MODERNISATION THEORY • More people dependent on paid employment and wages
generally improve.
Modernisation theory is a set of ideas that states that for developing • Agriculture now fully mechanized with very few people
countries to advance, they should copy development pattern that was engaged in it, more people in industries.
taken by the developed countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • Demand for consumer goods increases.
Stage 5: The Age of High Consumption is when there is high
production of consumer goods.
• Large services sector that employs the majority of the people.
• High standards of living as wages are good for most people.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES
Policies that should be implemented:
• There should be investment in industry and infrastructure.
• Apply or borrow ideas from the Capitalist countries of the
North.
• There should be emphasis on the importance of education and
training.
• People should give up their traditional habits and experiment
with new ideas.
• There should be change from subsistence agriculture to
commercial agriculture.
• New production technologies should be introduced.
• There should be specialisation in production.
• Urbanisation should take place.
• There should be industrialisation.
• People should be patient enough to accept less income until the
economy of the country has grown.
THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION
THEORY
• Modernisation theory shows the importance of capital
investment as a fuel for economic development.
• Modernisation theory lays emphasis on the need for change in
the attitudes and ways of life of people.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• Modernisation theory stresses the need to work hard for little
money, for example, working for low wages so as to enjoy full
benefits later.
• Modernisation theory recognises that change can be unpleasant
and that certain groups will suffer in the process.
THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF
MODERNISATION
THEORY
• Modernisation theory neglects political and social development.
• Modernisation theory ignores the fact developing countries are
affected by circumstances beyond their control that are deterrent
to development, for example, natural disasters.
• Modernisation theory neglects the fact that some people value
their cultural practices too much to relinquish them.
• Modernisation theory also ignores the fact that developing
countries lack cheap sources of raw materials that developed
countries got from their former colonies.
• Capitalism is not the only way to achieve development, USSR
and China developed under the Socialist mode of production.
• Developing countries are unable to follow the pattern of
development because developed countries control their
economies and determine trade terms.
• Globalisation, Multi -National Companies, free trade all make it
difficult for developing countries to develop.
• There is an unfair international trading term that favours the
developed countries at the expense of the developing countries,
the trade terms are set or determined by the developed countries.
• In many countries the wealth has never trickled down.
• In some countries industrialisation is slow with the economy
trapped by dependence on producing primary products.
MODULE 1-8

Describe the stages of the modernisation theory
The traditional society is where people practise barter system and
subsistence farming. The people make simple crafts. The people also
experience low standards of living. The Preconditions for take-off
stage is where new technology arises. The people start to practise
commercial farming. The specialisation increases in this stage. In this
stage urbanisation starts to happen. The people start to use hybrid
seeds and fertilizers. The take-off stage is when there is investment
in capital goods. There is also growth of cities in the take-off stage.
Some people become rich. In take-off stage there is rapid
urbanisation. The Drive to maturity/ maturity stage is where
manufacturing dominates the economy. There are more exports than
imports in drive to maturity stage. The wages increase as most people
get employed. The demand for consumer goods increases. The age of
high consumption/ high mass consumption stage is where service
industries and consumer goods dominate the economy. The wages are
high for many people. Many people experience high living standards.
Describe the benefits to the people of a country where
modernisation has taken place.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken place
is that they will be technological development or people will start to use
modern technology. In a country were modernisation has taken place there
will be infrastructural development, for example, tarred roads, hospitals
and schools. The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation
has taken place is having human resource development/ skilled
manpower/ high literacy rate because the modernisation theory emphasis
training and education. The countries were modernisation has taken place
people will have improved standard of living. In a country were
modernisation has taken place they will be improved service delivery
through research and development. The benefit to the people of a
country where modernisation has taken place is availability of affordable
goods. They will be wealth creation in a country where modernisation has
taken place. They will be employment creation in a country where
modernisation has taken place.
DEPENDENCY THEORY
Define dependency theory
Dependency is a set of ideas that argue that the South was unable to
copy and adopt the North’s path of industrialisation because the North
exploited
the South’s resources to enhance their economy and kept the South poor
- Dependency theory is a set of ideas that states that in order to
advance, developing countries should rely less on developed
ones.
- Dependency theory argues that less developed countries
became economically reliant on the North and thus the North
became industrialised at the expense of the South who remained
underdeveloped
MODULE 1-8
Dependency was developed in the 1960’s to try and explain why
developing countries were failing to develop.
Europe and North America became rich and developed through
exploiting the poor countries during colonialism.
They exploited resources of developing countries and neglected their
economies by not developing any industries or infrastructure.
Exploitation is still continuing today in the form of Neo-Colonialism,
that
is the control of the economies of developing countries through;
• Trans National Corporations or Multi- National Companies
• International loans (the debt trap)
• Foreign Aid Control
• International trade
Dependency theorists argue that developing countries would be better
off if they break off economic relations with the developed countries and
develop on their own.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES
 The Countries of the South/ developing countries should cut
economic links with Countries of the North/ developed
countries.
 Developing countries should reduce spending on consumer
goods but spend more on capital goods, for example, machinery.
 Countries of the South should save and invest locally instead of
borrowing.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
 Local inventions should be encouraged, for example,
development of local technology.
 Developing countries should become self-sufficient reliant.
 Dependency theory encourages people to be patient and
sacrifice for a better future.
THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY
THEORY
• It focuses on all aspects of development which are social,
political, economic and environmental development.
• Dependency theory acknowledges the inter-linkage of countries
globally.
• Dependency theory explains the crippling effect of colonialism.
• Dependency theory emphasis the need for self- reliance in
capital and technology.
THE WEAKNESSES /DISADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY
THEORY
• It ignores the fact that the South lacks investment capital that
would make cutting links difficult.
• Dependency theory also ignores the fact that the developing
countries would lose the benefits of international trade if it cuts
links with the Countries of the North.
• Producing for the local market may result in the inefficient use
of resources.
• It neglects the fact that most people in the South aspire to the
lifestyle of the people of the Countries of the North, and may
likely object when asked to stop importing products from
Countries of the North.
• Most developing countries lack the capacity to develop the
industrial technology own their own.
• Governments will face a lot of opposition if they stop
importing western goods, for example, television and cars.
MODULE 1-8
 • Some countries which have links with the Countries of the Define Sustainable Development:
North developed successfully without cutting links with the
Countries of the North, for example, Cuba and Tanzania. Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present
generation to meet its needs without jeopardizing the ability of future
THE WAYS IN WHICH DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CAN generations to meet their needs
USE THE DEPENDENCY THEORY TO DEVELOP.
Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present
The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to generation to meet its needs so that future generations could also meet
develop is by breaking off all links with the West and become self their needs.
reliant. Developed countries can use dependency theory to develop by
Sustainable Development was developed in the 1970’s as a response
avoid borrowing from outside but save and invest within the
to the damage to the environment by the developed countries, for
country. The way in which developing countries can use dependency
example, pollution, depletion of species and resources, soil erosion,
theory to develop is by spending less on consumer goods. Developed
desertification and rapidly rising global population. There was also
countries can use dependency theory to develop by using appropriate
concern with the unequal sharing of the world’s resources, for
technology and make its own industries or encourage local
example, 80% are consumed by the developed countries and 20% by
inventions. The way in which developing countries can use dependency
developing countries. It calls for both equitable sharing and the caring
theory to develop by encouraging its people to exercise patience,
for the environment.
work hard and shun modern lifestyles.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

- There should be conservation of the environment.

- Population growth should be stabilized, for example,

contraceptive use and family planning.

- World agreements on environmental issues should be set up.

- There should be equitable distribution of resources of the world.

- Use of appropriate technology to conserve resources and limit

pollution.

- Recycling and reuse to prevent depletion.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THESTRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE THEWAYS OF ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN
DEVELOPMENT THEORY A COUNTRY

• Sustainable Development encourages one to think about - Stock piling of minerals / preservation until prices in the world conservation, which is a
good thing. market has improved.

• It highlights the dangers facing the globe, such as pollution. - Introduction of Legislation / seasonal hunting / quotas / hunting licenses /
National Parks & Game Reserves / Anti-poaching laws
• Sustainable Development makes people aware that they have the to prevent extinction of natural resources.
common problems.
-
Stabilising population growth e.g. planning for small families,
• Makes the world realize the need for cooperation in solving
environmental problem. birth control, practicing population control, giving incentives to
• It alerts the world to the unfair distribution of the global resources. small families or penalize for large families

THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE - Conservation measures; tree planting, recycling, re-use, reduce,
DEVELOPMENT THEORY refuse, clean-up, limited use of resources, good farming methods,
Wildlife Management Areas
• Sustainable development ignores the possibility of the discovery of
new sources of resources. - Education on resource use
• It dispels the possibility of a development of new technologies which will help increase food supply, reduce pollution, and - Use of synthetic
products substitutes for minerals that pollute the environment, for example,
solar energy for wood and coal. - Finding alternative energy sources, for example, the use of solar
• Sustainable development neglects a possibility of people and energy instead of coal which causes air pollution. government joining hands to find
ways of equitable distribution of resources.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT POLICIES THAT WILL ALLOW WOMEN TO PARTICIPATE IN
DEVELOPMENT
GENDER DEVELOPMENT
-
Giving women full access to credit capital.
There has been a realisation that women, despite being the majority population, have been excluded from most areas
such as: - Giving women property rights.

Political rights, there are few women in leadership positions. - Giving women access to education, for example, universal Legal rights, no laws
protecting women against oppression or education (compulsory and free). abuse.
Access to education and training, most girls are uneducated - Affirmative action for women that is programmes that deliberately because they
are regarded as being less important. accelerates the promotion of women over men in education, Accesses to property, most societies prohibit
women from politics, business and the workplace.

owning property, for example, land and livestock. - Promoting women’s organisations that fight for their rights, for The unequal treatment at
the work place, women are given low example, Emang Basadi and Metlhaetsile. paying jobs even if they have the same qualifications as men,
for
example, managerial positions are held by men mostly. - Including gender studies in the school curriculum to remove prejudice among the
young population.
GENDER EQUALITY IN DEVELOPMENT
- Legislation, passing a law that gives equal rights to both men and
The move to include women in development started in the 1970’s and women.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

1980’s as a result of the pressure from human and women’s rights groups.

There was a realisation that sidelining women and serious implications.

THE PROBLEMS OF SIDELINING WOMEN

- More than half of the human resources are underutilized.

- Large population families because women are ignorant of birth

contro
l because of being illiterate.

- Poor health for families and consequently an unhealthy nation.

- Less skilled manpower.

- Fewer enterprises since women have less access to credit.

GLOBALISATION - Organisations for economic cooperation for both developed and

developing nations must implement -mutually agreeable and
Globalisation is a set of ideas that emphasis that all people of the world sustainable policies to reinforce macro-economic structures.
should become once nation in order to bring democracy as a way of
maintaining peace and stability. - Infrastructure should be improved in developing countries.

Globalisation is the integration of the world’s economic, social and

political systems into one entity. It involves interaction and
- There should be fostering of good governance and participatory
interdependence of all the countries in the world- The Global village.
democracy.
Globalisation came about after the collapse of the Communist bloc in the
1980’s. Capitalism became the dominant political and economic system.
- Policy makers in developing countries should facilitate the
POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES
dissemination and application of technological knowledge.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION
There will be emergence of more democratic system in the world. More
economic opportunities will be developed, especially for developing
countries.
THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF
GLOBALISATION
Globalisation may perpetuate domination of the world trade by the
developed nations.
The regional blocks that already exist run against the concept of free
trade.
THE DEVELOPMENT THAT SHOW THE GROWTH OF A
GLOBAL VILLAGE
- The emergence of satellite and high-tech global information
systems, for example, DSTV and internet.
- Globalised patterns of consumerism, for example, consumer
rights movements.
- Growing appeal for a universalized wealthy ‘cosmopolitan life
style’.
- Nation’s participation in world sport such as Miss World and
FIFA World Cup.
- Relative decline of the Soviet Block, and other blocks.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- The growth of regional and international agencies and
organisations.
- Emergence of Human Rights Protection Organisations, for
example, Ditshwanelo.
THE ELEMENTS/ CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLOBALISATION
- Globalisation improves technology and production, for example,
use of automated machines, information technology and
technology transfers to the developing countries.
- Globalisation integrated global communication network, for
example, satellite, radio, television and radio networks, the
internet and global media publication such as newspapers and
magazines.
- Globalisations lead to trade liberation which is the removal of
trade barriers to facilitate the free movement of goods and
services across international boarders.
- Globalisation leads to the rise of Trans-National Corporations,
Global business empires with subsidiaries all over. They are far
much more powerful economically than national governments.
MODULE 1-8
 - Globalisation caused decline of sovereign state, independent
nation states will cease to exist and to be replaced by regional
and international economic groupings, for example, European
Union.
THE PROBLEM CREATED BY GLOBALISATION
- Increase in poverty and inequalities between the developed and
developing countries.
- Globalisation leads to concentration of capital and wealth in the
developed countries.
- It lead to emergence of Trans-National Corporations that are
difficult to control and monitor.
- Globalisation caused marginalization of the developed countries
from the global village because they lack capital, technology,
skills and have weak economies that are unable to compete.
- Globalisation cause environmental degradation by Trans-
National Corporation.
THE GLOBALISATION CHALLENGES FOR AFRICA
• Education and training to produce competitive people who can
work anywhere in the world.
• Regional integration and continental Union to enable African
economies to compete on the international market.
• Controlling the repatriation of profits by Trans-National
Corporations.
• Controlling the brain drain, for example, the flight of skilled and
professional labour to the developed countries.
• Globalisation leads to shifting from primary production to
secondary production.
• Globalisation leads to controlling the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
• Globalisation builds a stable political climate in order to be able
to attract investment.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• Changing the African mindset from consumerism to saving,
investment and production.
• Respect for human rights and upholding their dignity and pride.
Describe the challenges faced by Africa/ the countries of the South
as a result of globalisation
The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that
of development of international crime syndicates or terrorism. The countries of
the South are faced with the challenge of increase of brain drain as a result of
globalisation because most of skilled people in developed countries prefer working
in developed countries. The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result
of globalisation is that of the dominance or control of the economy by the
MultiNational Companies taking profit away to their countries of origin. The
countries of the South are faced with the challenge of lack of funds to educate and
train people to compete for jobs locally or have high illiteracy rate. The
challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of
HIV and AIDS killing their skilled manpower. The countries of the South are
faced with the challenge of having weak economies which fail to compete in a
globalised world because of dependence on exporting raw materials instead of
finished goods. The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of loss of
sovereignty as a result of globalisation. The challenge faced by the countries of
the South as a result of globalisation is that of loss of culture. The challenge faced
by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of difficult to accept
change.
Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages
development of all countries.
The way through which globalisation encourages development of all
countries is by transfer of technology from developed countries to
less developed countries, for example, automated machines.
/Improvement of technology/ from simple technology to complex
technology, for example automated machines. The way by which
globalisation is used to develop the world is through introduction of
global communication networks, for example, internet and televisions.
The way through which globalisation encourages development is by
trade liberalisation or promotes foreign exchange. The way by which
globalisation is used to develop the world is through international
MODULE 1-8
policing/ Interpol/ peaceful interventions. The way through which 2. Discuss three ways of achieving sustainable development in a country.
globalisation encourages development is by increase of Trans-National 3. Define the modernisation theory
Companies. The way by which globalisation is used to develop the 4. Describe any three stages of the modernisation theory
world is through formation of regional and international groupings Pollution has proved to be a global problem and an obstacle against sustainable
such as European Union and African Union. The way by which development.
globalisation is used to develop the world is through the promotion of
5. What is pollution?
democracy. The way by which globalisation is used to develop the
6. State three sources of air pollution
world is through the free movement of labour. The way by which 7. Describe three ways by which air pollution can be prevented
globalisation is used to develop the world is through the Land pollution is also an obstacle towards sustainable development.
encouragement of investment or saving.
POPULISM 8. Define land pollution
9. Give three causes land pollution
Populism is a set of ideas that emphasizes that people should be agents 10. Describe three ways by which land pollution can be controlled
11. What is sustainable development theory?
of their own development.
12. State three policy implications of the sustainable development theory
They should deal with their problems on an individual level.They should 13. Define the modernisation theory
deal with their problems via local non-governmental and voluntary 14. Define dependency theory

MODULE 2: PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND INVESTMENT

organisations.
The theory recognizes three sets of problems as obstructing human 15. Study Fig. 1, which shows some theories of development.
development:
 Concentration of power within government bureaucracies and
large private sector firms and organisation.
 The tendency to evoke narrow economic and technical criteria
and procedures as a basis for their decisions and general
operations.
 Exclusive mechanisms working through the state and the market
marginalize the vast majority of poor people from political and
economic life.
Populism also opposes large –scale industrialisation and, instead,
supports smaller scale and community-oriented ventures in industry and
agriculture.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Fig.1 (a)(i) Describe the stages of the Modernisation theory.
1. Define Sustainable Development:

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) Describe the benefits to the people of a country where
modernisation has taken place. GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
(b)(i) Describe the factors that slow down development in the developing countries. Learners should be able Learners should be able to: to:
Explain the concept and - Explain the concept of production; the process of - Discuss
the need for production production including basic needs, needs, wants
(ii) Explain how social indicators are used to measure development. (material and non-material), choice, scarcity and
opportunity costs;
- Discuss production in hunting and gathering
16. Study Fig. 6, which shows the division of the world into societies;
countries of the North and countries of the South. - Identify and define the factors of production;
- Discuss land ownership and
problems related to utilisation and ownership;
- Explain the various forms of capital such as finance,
machinery and technology;
- Discuss ways of raising capital;
- Discuss labour and capital intensive modes of
production
- Discuss the determinant factors for appropriate
technology;
- Evaluate progress in the development of relevant
technology in Botswana including efforts by Rural
Industries Innovation Centre and Botswana
Technology Centre;
- Discuss specialisation and division of labour;
- Describe different types of labour including
specialised, skilled, semiskilled and unskilled;
- Discuss conditions which either or promote labour
efficiency;
Fig.6 - Assess how far local conditions facilitate or militate
against labour efficiency;
(a)(i) Describe the geographical locations of the countries of the South. - Explain entrepreneurship;
- Describe the role played by an entrepreneur in the
process of production;
(ii) Describe the economic characteristics of the countries of the North.
- Discuss economic production systems;
- Suggest and justify an alternative production system
(b)(i) Describe the challenges faced by the countries of the South as a result for Botswana’s economy.
of globalisation. Enterprise Demonstrate an - Explain enterprise;
understanding of the - Discuss the characteristics of sole
(ii) Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages development of role of enterprise in proprietors, private companies,
all countries. the process of parastatals, joint venture,
production. partnerships and co-operatives;
- Discuss privatisation of
parastatals, citizen empowerment,
localisation, women and

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 property ownership Goods are physical products that can be seen or touched, for example,
strategies for development;
- Evaluate the role and
bread, sugar, books and furniture.
development of the primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary Services are non-tangible activities that meet people’s needs and wants
sectors of production in (intangible or invisible). For example:
developing countries with
specific reference to Botswana. • Trading which is buying and selling of goods.
Consumption Develop an - Explain consumption; • Teaching which is imparting of knowledge to children by
and investment understanding and - Describe the relationship between teachers.
appreciate consumption and
consumption and production, supply and
• Nursing which is medical care given to ill people at hospitals
investment demand, consumption, savings by health workers.
in Botswana and investment; • Insurance is the industry that protects society and businesses
- Discuss the benefits and risks of from unforeseen risks.
investment;
- Discuss foreign reserves as a form • Transportation is the carrying of people, goods and services.
of investment;
- Evaluate the promotion of a THE NEED FOR PRODUCTION
culture of investment in
Botswana’s economy.
In order to develop we have to satisfy our basic needs and wants to start
PRODUCTION the process of economic growth.
To satisfy our needs and wants, we produce and exchange goods.
- Production is a process whereby natural resources are transformed
or changed into more useful goods/commodities to satisfy human Development emphasizes satisfaction of people’s needs and the
needs and wants. production process ensures that goods and services are made to
satisfy basic needs first and wants later.
- Production is any economic activity that satisfies human needs and
wants Development requires money for it to take place and this money is
generated by production activities such as mining, industry and
- Production is any process whereby natural resources and human agriculture.
effort are used to provide goods and services to satisfy human needs
and wants. Production creates wealth to fuel the development process.

- Production is the making of goods and provision of services in The higher the level of production the higher the level of development
order to satisfy human needs and wants.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Human societies only produce wants after meeting their basic needs.
Societies have to produce surplus for it to be able to have wants, for
example, if excess food is produced it can be exchanged for jewellery.

Examples of wants
(i) Non-material wants, entertainment, banking and
NEEDS electricity.

Needs are items that are essential for human beings to survive. (ii) Material wants, jewellery, expensive/flashy
Needs are items without which human beings will be unable to survive. clothes, mansion/big house, cars and furniture.
They can be divided into material and non-material needs.

MATERIAL NEEDS SCARCITY, CHOICE AND OPPORTUNITY COST

Material needs are tangible, for example, they can be seen or touched.
They are usually referred to as basic needs.
They are four basic or material needs:
(a) Food which is essential for providing energy.
(b) Clothes which are important for providing warmth.
(c) Shelter provides protection from harsh weather conditions, for
example, cold, sun and winds.
(d) Clean and safe water which is important for excretion of waste
from the body or prevention of diseases.
SCARCITY
In order for production to occur resources have to be used.
Resources can be in any of the following forms.
• Human resources which is knowledge, expertise and skills
provided by people.
• Economic resources which is capital in the form of machines
and finance (money).
• Natural resources which are items provided by nature that
people can utilize for their own good, for example, soil, water,
vegetation and minerals.

NON-MATERIAL NEEDS - People’s needs and wants are unlimited (infinite). Therefore if
resources were in abundance people would produce more
Non-material needs are services that we require for survival, they are goods and services to satisfy their needs and wants.
intangible and invisible. For example, love, security, education, health
care and human rights. - Resources are, however, limited (finite) and insufficient to
WANTS satisfy all people’s needs and wants.

Wants are items that make human lives easier and more comfortable. - The inadequacy of resources is what is called scarcity. This
Wants are inessential for human survival that man can do without them. means that some people in a society will be able to meet their

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 basic needs and wants and enjoy high standards of living while
others will remain poor.
- Scarcity of resources differs from society to society since this
is dependent on the level of development, for example:
(a) Simple traditional societies: People mostly concerned with
acquiring basic needs hence low levels of scarcity, for example
Basarwa become satisfied once they have killed an animal for
their food.
(b) Modern societies: they have higher level of scarcity since they
have many and diverse needs and wants which are difficult to
fully satisfy. For example, after a person meets the basic needs
there are so many luxuries that one desires which are usually
difficult to satisfy, for example, car, furniture and holiday.
CHOICE
- Given the scarcity or insufficiency of resources, people are
unable to have all things they desire. People are, therefore,
forced to choose what to spend the available resources on. For
example, people have to decide on whether to spend on needs or
wants if their income is limited.
- A country or the government also has to make similar choices
on how to best use the limited resources. For example, whether
to spend money on industrial development or social
development, for example, education and health; use land for
agriculture or wildlife conservation; education or military
expenditure.
- All these choices, made by people and government, will affect
the way in which a country uses its resources and therefore they
will determine what is produced.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
OPPORTUNITY COSTS
• Whenever resources are committed to the production of one
item, then the society must forego the outputs of other items that
could have been produced but have been forfeited or sacrificed
because of the choice made.
• This means opportunity cost is the act of choosing one item
over the other as a result of scarcity of resources. For
example:
(i) If a student chooses to use his/her own free time to study for
an examination, he/she sacrifices watching television and
other forms of entertainment. The entertainment is
sacrificed in order to study and obtain a good grade.
(ii) If a country chooses to use more money on buying weapons
then other services are neglected.
The importance of opportunity cost
 It helps people to make the right choices or decisions as it helps
them to focus on the real or true cost using resources.
 For example, production may mean loss of a clean environment
if it causes pollution like at Selibe-Phikwe. So the loss of a clean
environment is part of the cost of production that may be
ignored if the opportunity cost of production is neglected.
PRODUCTION IN HUNTING AND GATHERING
SOCIETIES
• Hunting and gathering societies are the earliest forms of human
societies.
• They depended on products of the local environment that is the
wild animals, vegetation and water.
• They hunted wild animals, collected insects and gathered wild
plants and fruits. For example, the Basarwa of the Kgalagadi
desert.
MODULE 1-8

• Hunter –gatherers are nomadic or wanderers, that is, they move
from place to place without any permanent homes.
Production Activities:
• Gathering was done mostly by women and children. Gather
water bearing plants like the tsama melon and makatane, nuts
fruits, edible roots and tubers and morama beans.
• Hunting was done mostly by men. Hunting big and small game,
for example, eland, kudu, hares, and duiker and so on. They
used simple weapons like bows and poisoned arrows, clubs.
They also used traps, for example, pit traps and snares. Mostly
hunted as individuals or in groups or communal hunting.
• Animal products: meat for food; skins for clothing; bones to
make tools, for example, knives; bladders used to make
containers.
Labour:
 Labour is provided by clan members in the group.
 Division of labour was done according to gender, for example,
men hunted while women gathered.
 The work was mostly devoted to production to basic needs. No
luxuries or surplus.
Land:
 The land is communally owned by the group.
 They had specific hunting territories.
 All resources belonged to the group.
Capital:
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• They owned little capital because they were unable to produce
surplus.
• Possessions consisted of weapons, clothes and containers.
• Shelter was temporary because of a nomadic lifestyle.
Entrepreneurship:
 They used knowledge handed down from generation to
generation, for example, hunting skills; poison from plants and
animals; animal behaviour and tracking.
 Low level of production because of simple technology and
dependence on basic need
THE CHANGES IN THE LIFESTYLE OF HUNTING AND GATHERING
SOCIETIES IN BOTSWANA –i.e The Basarwa
The Basarwa are now abandoning the nomadic and hunting and
gathering
way of life for a more settled life because of a number of factors;
• Provision of water by government, for example, boreholes.
• Encroachment of pastoral farming into wildlife areas.
• Overgrazing that has depleted edible plants.
• Construction of cordon fences that has disrupted migratory
routes of wild animals.
• Increased population that has reduced the land available for a
nomadic life.
• Government resettlement programmes like Remote Areas
Dwellers
(R.A.D)
• Increasing levels of education amongst the Basarwa.
• Anti-poaching laws that prevent Basarwa from hunting.
MODULE 1-8
 FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

There are four factors of production namely, Land, Labour, Capital and
Entrepreneurship.

Fig.1

- Each of the factors has to be present if production is to take place.

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION (DEFINED)

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Land: refers to the whole of the earth’s surface together with all
natural resources found on it
- Labour: refers to the human effort, both physical and mental, that
is directed towards the production of goods and provision of
services or work done by people to produce goods and services
- There is need for workers to provide labour in the production
process
- The labour has to be trained & motivated to be efficient /
productive
- The labour needs to be managed and/or coordinated for optimum
production

- Capital: refers to the things people use to produce goods and

provide services , for example, tools, machinery, factories and
money saved up and used to buy such things
- Enterprise: The organization or management of land, labour and
capital in the production process with the intention of making
profit.
THE WAYS BY WHICH ONE OF THE FACTORS OF PRODUCTION CAN
AFFECT THE PRODUCTION PROCESS
LAND OWNERSHIP
• Land or natural resources are owned or controlled in some
way.
• Ownership and control of land resources is paramount in
production because it determines who produces and become
wealthy.
• Land owners are usually rich while the landless are poor.

TYPES OF LAND OWNERSHIP/TENURE

Land:

- If land is unfertile crop production will be low or poor pasture for

livestock
- If there is shortage of water there will be poor harvest or poor
pasture for livestock
- There has to be land to start a production process

Capital:

- Capital / money is needed to pay workers Fig.2

- Capital is needed to buy machinery & tools (a)Public/State ownership is when the land belongs to the
- We need capital goods to start a production process government.

Labour:  Private ownership and selling or buying of land is prohibited.

 It can be leased out to individuals or companies for specific
period of time.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  In communist countries like China, the land used to be all
owned by the state, and individuals had the right to use it.
Advantages Disadvantages
- Land can be used as a security to - Only the rich can
own land.
obtain loans. - Landlessness and
poverty
- Can be sold to raise capital. among the poor.
- Land carefully looked after by the - May lead to land speculation,
owner. for example, people buying - Anybody can buy land as
long as up large tracts of land in order he or she has the money. to
sell it for a profit in future.
 In other countries, parts of the land are owned by the
government in countries like Botswana and South Africa,
for example, National Parks and Game Reserves, mining
concessions.
(b)Communal ownership is when land belongs to the whole
community, usually the tribe or ethnic group.
• Everyone in society has access to land.
• The chief has the power to share out the land to individuals. In
Botswana it is the responsibility of the Land Board.
• Grazing lands are communally used.
(c) Collective Ownership is when land is owned and worked by the
community as a unit.
 They combine their capital and labour and share the profits
equally.
 Found mostly in Socialist or Communist countries, for example,
Russia and Ujamaa villages in Tanzania in the 1970’s.
(d)Private Ownership (Freehold) is when land is owned and controlled
by individuals or companies.
 The land has title deeds or certificate of ownership.
 Land is a commodity that can be bought or sold, for example,
land has value attached to it.
 Land is productively used, for example, commercial farming,
and mining.
 Common in Capitalist economies.
(e) Leasehold land ownership is when land owners rent out their
land out to tenants for a fee.
- Tenants use the land for commercial production.
- The landowners are referred to as absentee landlords.

The Advantages of communal The Disadvantages of communal land Advantages

land
- Everyone in society has
access to land
- The land is free
- Land is allocated fairly
because no one is
allowed to grab land.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
- Land used productively because the tenant has to pay rentals.
- Land degradation may occur as no
Disadvantages
one takes responsibility for looking Rent has to be paid whether there has been production or not.
after it, for example, deforestation, The tenant is unable to use it to raise capital.
soil erosion. The tenant can misuse land.
- Having title deeds is prohibited.
- The user is unable to use it as
collateral to obtain loans.
- Women are denied ownership of land
in some traditional societies.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
The people who rent land are often poor and do not have enough cash (ii) Capital goods, for example, machinery or technology
to pay rent. So instead of paying with money they pay the landowner
with a share of their crops. We call this sharecropping.
Money Capital
THE LANDLESSNESS
 Money capital is also known as finance.
• People are said to be landless when they are unable to have
access to the land at all.  This is the money that is used to increase production, that is, it is
used in ways that will help to earn more money.
• Landless people are unable to produce or fend for themselves
leading to poverty.
 Money capital can be used in the following ways:
• Landless is caused by:

(a) Buying capital goods that will increase production hence earn
(i) People being too poor to buy their own land. more money.

(ii) Inadequate or limited land for existing population. (b) Investment: saving it in a bank so that one can earn interest.

Capital Goods
(iii) Unfair distribution of land.
Capital goods are tools, equipment or machinery that are used to make
other goods, for example, factory machines, roads, building and
(iv) Rapid population growth. vehicles.

It is also known as fixed capital because they remain unchanged during

CAPITAL production.
Capital is a man-made resource.

Capital is the money, machinery technology and buildings that is used

to produce goods.
The Ways of Raising Capital for production
Capital is in two forms
(i) Money capital Capital for investment can be raised in the following ways:

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 1. Saving is abstaining from consumption and putting the money
in the bank to earn interest. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
2. Borrowing from the banks and financial institutions.
3. International loans from other countries, the World Bank and Section A
International Monetary Fund. 1. Define production.
4. Investment is putting money into a business with the hope of 2. Describe any three factors of production
earning profit. 3. What are capital goods?
5. Shares are putting money in the business to get a certain 4. Describe three ways of raising capital.
percentage of profit made. (Buying or selling of shares) 5. Describe the importance of capital in production.
6. Selling personal assets 6. Define private land ownership.
7. Investing in insurance policies 7. Give three advantage of private land ownership
8. Loans and overdrafts Section B
9. Leasing / rentals
10. Higher purchase 1. Study Fig. 1 which shows different types of land ownership.
11. Commercial activities (formal and informal)

The importance of capital in production

- Money is used in infrastructural development

- Money buy equipment

- Money is used to buy raw materials

- Money is used to pay workers

- Money used to pay utilities such as water and electricity bills

Fig.1
- Equipment is used to transform or change raw materials into
semifinished and finished goods (a)(i) Describe each type of land ownership shown in Fig. 1.

- Buildings house the machines/products (ii)Suggest problems that people might face when they own land
communally.
- Cars are used for transportation

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(b)(i) Describe the use of any three factors of production in a hunting TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY
and gathering society.
There are three types: simple, intermediate and complex.
(ii)Suggest reasons why hunting and gathering is practised by very
few societies.
TECHNOLOGY

Technology is the combination of tools, skills and machinery a society

employs to produce goods and services.

Technology is dynamic, that is, it is always changing.For example:

 Primitive societies such as hunter-gatherers used simple tools

made from bones and wood. Production was very low. Fig.3
(a)Simple Technology is the use of hand tools to produce goods, for
 Agriculture societies used better tools made from iron, for
example, hoes for weeding and knives for cutting.
example, hoes, axes and spears.

 Modern societies use complex technology such as machines,  It demands a lot of manual labour.
computers, motor vehicles. Production is very high.  It is mostly used by traditional societies, for example, subsistence

farmers.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Advantages of Simple Disadvantages of Simple It creates employment because it is It produces lower quantities of
Technology Technology labour intensive. goods.
• Simple technology is cheap • Simple technology is very
to buy and use. slow method of
production. (c)Complex technology is the use of big and sophisticated machines for
• It uses unskilled labour. production.
• Poor quality goods are
• The tools can be made at produced.  Machines are power driven, for example, electricity and
home.
fuel.
• Simple technology leads to
• Simple technology creates low productivity.  Some machines are automatic.
a lot of employment
opportunities. • Simple technology is  For example, Automatic Teller Machines, factory
strenuous, for example,
machines, computers and telephone.
tiresome and back-
breaking work.  It requires education and training.

Advantages of intermediate Disadvantages of intermediate

(b)Intermediate Technology is the use of simple machines to produce goods
Technology Technology
and services. For example:
- It creates employment - It expensive to buy and
- Sewing machines
in factories. maintain.
- Animal drawn ploughs and carts - Complex technology - Have to import spares at great
produces high quality costs.
- Windmill water pumps goods. - Increases dependency
- It is very fast and on
- Cement blocks machines
efficient because of Developed countries.
- It can be used both at home and in industry. use of machinery. - It causes damage to the
- There is mass environment, for example,
- It can be used by both semi-skilled and unskilled labour. production of goods. pollution.
Advantages of Disadvantages of intermediate - It produces cheaper or - It can lead to unemployment
intermediate Technology affordable goods. because of the use of automatic
Technology machines
It is relatively faster means of It is strenuous to use because it APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
production than simple needs a lot of human effort.
technology.
It leads to low productivity. Appropriate technology refers to tools, skills and machines that are
It is cheaper. best suited for particular conditions in society.
Slows method of production as
It is easy to use and maintain. compared to complex technology.
It produces good quality goods.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • It depends on the level of development of the society.
• For example, a subsistence farmer will use ox-drawn ploughs,
carts and hoes because he can afford and maintain them than
complex machinery.
• In developed countries a tractor is appropriate for the farmer
because they have the capital, big farms and the skills to make
and maintain them.
THE FACTORS THAT DETERMINE APPROPRIATE
TECHNOLOGY
- Levels of development, developed societies tend to concentrate
on complex technology while developing societies concentrate
on simple and intermediate technology.
- Education and skills, complex technology needs highly
educated and skilled people to operate and maintain while
simple technology and intermediate technology need less skills
and education.
- Capital/Cost/Affordability, complex technology is expensive
to buy and maintain therefore only the rich countries can afford
it. Developing countries are poor hence can only afford to use
simple and intermediate technology.
- Employment creation, developing countries like Botswana
have high unemployment levels hence need simple and
intermediate technology that are labour intensive. Complex
technology would be inappropriate as it would lead to high rates
of unemployment.
- Environmental risks, for example, simple technology causes
less pollution while complex technology causes pollution.
THE ADVANTAGES OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
 Create employment
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
 Makes use of local resources
 Cheap to buy and maintain
 Produces relevant goods and services
 Promotes local development
DEVELOPMENT OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY IN
BOTSWANA
Botswana is one of the developing countries that recognise and
appreciate the importance of the use of appropriate technology for
development this is indicated by efforts undertaken by the Botswana
Technology Centre (BOTEC), Rural Industries Promotion
Company (RIPCO) and Rural Industries Innovation Centre (RIIC).
The primary aim of these organisations is to assist the people of
Botswana to identify appropriate technology choices for development.
They create and promote technologies that are best suited or
appropriate to conditions particularly to rural areas in Botswana.
The following are examples of the technologies invented and adapted
by BOTEC and RIIC in their effort to encourage appropriate
technologies in Botswana.
• Solar Cooker/Bakers: The solar cookers are developed by RIIC
and they operate by converting the sun’s energy into electricity.
The technology is appropriate for Botswana because Botswana
has plentiful supply of the sun and therefore the technology is
cheap, easy to use and repair. It also assist Batswana to reduce
dependence on the already disappearing firewood which leads to
deforestation and other environment impacts like soil erosion
and land degradation.
MODULE 1-8
 • Rural electrification: Photovoltaic Power Station at We should then commend the department such as RIIC and BOTEC for
Motshegaletau Power Station is another example of how the sun these good efforts because Batswana have less money and skills to use
can be used to generate electricity that is cheaper and affordable the expensive and complicated technologies.
by the rural people in Botswana. It uses solar panels to convert
sunshine into electricity.
• Solar Aid: BOTEC has converted a solar aid for the hearing THE MODES/METHODS OF PRODUCTION
impaired people. It combines solar and hearing aid technologies
to make solar rechargeable hearing aid that never needs
replacement batteries.
• Water tanks: RIIC has also designed water tanks which are
used for rain harvesting. This is an appropriate technology for
drought prone Botswana with unreliable rainfall.
• Animal Drawn Ploughs: RIIC has designed animal drawn
pumps that do not require fuel in order to run. They suitable for
rural areas with a problem of water and are cheaper and easier to
use.
• Farming implements; RIIC has developed farming implements
such as ploughs and planters that are simple, cheap and easy to
use and are thus appropriate for local subsistence farmers who
lack capital and modern skills.
Fig.4
Other examples include technologies such as the Basic windmill
developed by RIIC to pump water and generate electricity. Sorghum (a) Labour Intensive Production relies heavily on the use of simple
grinding and threshing machines and the rim oven. The rim oven is technology and manual labour.
another inventions by RIIC made from two trucks rims welded together.
It stands on three legs and has a hinged steel door. It uses firewood and What is labour intensive production?
can bake a batch of nine loaves in an hour. It is appropriate for rural
dwellers. - Labour intensive is a way/process of making goods and
providing services which relies heavily on the use of human
All the above appropriate technologies indicated to us that Botswana is manual effort.
making efforts in trying to encourage Batswana to use appropriate
technology for development.  Mainly uses unskilled labour.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Advantages of labour intensive disadvantages of labour intensive
production production
- In Labour intensive production, - Labour intensive may lead to
little capital is needed because poor quality work and
of the use of simple technology. products because of the use of
simple technology and
- It creates employment to a large unskilled labour.  For example, using a mechanical digger to dig a trench, vehicles
number of people to transport goods.
- It is the slow method of
- It is cheap to run and maintain / production it relies heavily on  It needs trained or skilled people to operate and maintain the
little human manual effort. technology.
capital required since simple Advantages of capital intensive disadvantages of capital intensive
technology used - It leads to low level of
- production because of the use production production
It provides with an opportunity to of simple technology. - Greater opportunity to use - Causes pollution to the
train on the job machinery / quick and efficient environment because of the use
- - It makes people tired because method of production of advanced technology.
It causes less pollution or the work is strenuous.
destruction of the environment - Production of quality goods - Lead to high unemployment
- -
rate because the advanced
It requires little skills to enter or - Mass production makes goods
- technology requires only few
run cheaper people to operate.
- It promotes human interaction
- Acquire skills of operating - Lead to loss of craftsmanship.
It encourages craftsmanship machines / helps with skills
development / creates a lot of - It is expensive to buy and
It uses local skills & knowledge skilled manpower maintain.
 Example, cutting grass using slashers, transporting sand with -
wheelbarrows, digging trenches with picks and shovels. Work is made lighter and more - It requires skilled manpower.
enjoyable because of the use of
machinery

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

-Information technology is a way of disseminating data using

computers
(c) capital-intensive production is a process of making goods and
providing services which relies heavily on the use of machinery and THE WAYS BY WHICH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY CAN ENHANCE
THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOTSWANA:
money/finance
- Stores a lot of data which otherwise could be lost by traditional
 Capital-intensive production is the use of advanced or complex record keeping / easier storage of complex information
machines to speed up production.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - It is easy to transfer information from one source to another - Issues of security of information may discourage some people to
acquire IT resources
- It can be used to project future development trends in Botswana
- There is a tendency for people to fear introduction of machines
- It links Botswana with other countries & therefore good for such as computers so they may prefer to use old traditional ways
of doing things / conservative / rigidity / fear of the unknown
marketing the country
- Global communications - Existing levels of production are too low to encourage use of
- Fast trade arrangements / electronic payments computers
- Lack of supportive infrastructure e.g. electricity
- Dissemination of information
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
- Increased productivity / mass production / saves time
Section A
- Improvement of technology
1. What is technology?
- Development of infrastructure to suit the technology

- Draw behaviour patterns / project future trends 2. Describe three major types of technology, giving examples to
illustrate your answers.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
3. What is appropriate technology?
- Very costly to acquire / costly to maintain
4. Describe three factors determining appropriate technology.
- Reduces craftsmanship
5. What is information technology?
- Enslaves the mind
- Requires complex skills/training/reliance on foreign expertise 6. Describe three ways by which information technology can
THE REASONS WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO INTRODUCE INFORMATION enhance development of Botswana.
TECHNOLOGY IN BOTSWANA
- Few people are computer literate 7. Suggest three disadvantages of information technology.

- Computers are too expensive for the general public to afford 8. Why it is difficult to introduce information technology in
Botswana.
- Computer specialists who can maintain the IT systems are few and
very expensive to hire so sustaining the IT system is not 9. What is labour intensive production?
guaranteed

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Section B
10. Give three advantages of labour intensive production.
1. Fig. 1 below shows two different modes of production. Use it
11. What is capita-intensive production? to answer questions (a) and (b).

12. Describe three advantages of capital-intensive production.

2. Fig. 2 shows some inputs required to make goods in a
factory. Use it to answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).

(a)(i) Identify one factor of production from Fig.2.

(ii) Name one item of capital shown in Fig.2.
(b) Give two disadvantages of capital intensive production to a developing
country.
(c) Describe three major types of technology, giving examples to illustrate

(a)(i) Which diagram, A or B, shows labour intensive production?

your answers.

(d) Suggest three ways of raise capital for production.

production?
3. Study Fig. 3 which is an extract about Rural Industries Innovation
(b) Give two characteristics of the type of production shown by diagram B.
(c) Give three advantages of a capital intensive mode of production.
(ii) Which mode of production, A or B, is suitable for large scale
Centre (RIIC)
Located in Kanye, in the Southern District of Botswana, Rural Industries
Innovation Centre (RIIC) is the national appropriate technology development and
dissemination centre in Botswana. It undertakes new and renewable energy
activities with projects in solar cooking and pumping, biogas, energy
management, and solar cold room.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE

Source: RIIC’s website http:// 1-8
www.ripco.co.bw

Fig.3
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
(a)(i) Describe factors which might make solar energy appropriate for LABOUR
Botswana.
Labour is human effort that is directed at the production of goods and
(ii)Suggest problems that the Rural Industries Centre might face in their services, for example, both physical and mental.
effort to disseminate new developments.
Man is central to production because it is he who initiates production and
is also the consumer.
(b)(i) Describe the importance of Information Technology (IT) in the
TYPES OF LABOUR
development of Botswana.
(ii)Suggest factors that might slow down the introduction of Information (a) Specialised Labour are people who are experts or highly skilled
people.
Technology (IT) in Botswana schools.
- They have high education levels.
4. Study an extract on availability of the internet in schools in - They have spent long time training.
Botswana. - They are paid high wages and salaries.
The World Economic Forum reports that on internet access in schools, Botswana - Also known as professionals, for example, engineers, doctors,
is at position number 92 out of 144 countries. Internet access is an important part teachers, nurses and lawyers.
of Information Technology (IT) and Computer Education.
(b) Skilled Labour are people who are highly trained in practical
Fig.4
work related to production, for example, artisans.
(a)(i) Describe ways in which Information Technology (IT) is introduced  They know how to design and make items.
in Botswana.  They are highly trained and paid.
 Examples, surveyors, electricians, auto mechanics, fitters and
(ii)Suggest reasons why Botswana’s position in internet access in
turners.
schools is low.  They are given technical qualifications, for example, City
Guilds and Crafts, Higher National Diplomas.

© Semi-Skilled Labour are people who are trained on-the-job for

specific tasks.
- Mostly found in industry.
- They usually have no paper qualifications but gain enough
experience to perform the job proficiently.
- For example a spanner boy who eventually become a fully-
fledged mechanic.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Advantages of Division and
specialisation of labour
• Work can be done faster and
perfectly because the worker
perform only one task.
• Little time is wasted moving
from one task to the other.
(c) Unskilled Labour are workers who have no training at all. • There is a chance of exploring
people’s potential.
• Mostly used as manual labourers, for example, farm workers, • It is cheaper and time saving to
cleaners and garden boys. train in one particular job.
• They are paid low wages that is the minimum wages. • Quality goods and services are
SPECIALISATION OF LABOUR produced because of use of
advanced technology.
• There is higher productivity
Specialisation of labour is the concentration of people on one job that
because of the use of
they are trained in, for example, teaching, engineering and nursing.
machinery.
• Increases worker’s proficiency
It can be divided into three levels, for example, individual, regional and because of constant repetition.
national specialisation. • Creates a lot of employment
opportunities, for example,
(a) Individual Specialisation is when a person concentrates in one teaching.
activity only, for example, a doctor may specialise on teeth
- Division of labour breaking down
problems (dentist) each worker takes a part.
Disadvantages of Division and
specialisation of labour
• Doing the same job repeatedly
leads to boredom.
• Workers lose the initiative to
exercise judgement and
responsibility.
• Increased risk of unemployment
because of the greater use of
machinery.
• Loss of craftsmanship because of
the increased use of machinery.
• Increased dependency easily
leads to disruption of production,
for example, if one worker is
absent.
• Concentration on one task makes
it difficult for one to acquire
other skills.
of work into small parts so that

(b) Regional Specialisation is whereby people in an area are
engaged in the production of a particular commodity or service
due to geographical conditions, specific skills, or resource
availability, for example, copper nickel in Selibe-Phikwe,
Basketry in the North West.
- Division of labour is when work is shared out in different parts
between different people
- Division of labour is the breaking down of the production process
so that it may be based on gender or age or training

(c) National Specialisation is whereby different countries

specialise in producing certain commodities which they have
comparative advantage, for example, Botswana specialises in
Beef and diamonds because of physical conditions, Lesotho
specialises in wool, Malawi-fishing, Zambia-copper. THE CONDITIONS THAT PROMOTE EFFICIENCY OF LABOUR/
LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY
DIVISION OF LABOUR Efficiency of labour is the ability of workers to be highly productive.

What is division of labour? THE FACTORS THAT PROMOTE EFFICIENCY OF LABOUR ARE:

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Education and training, the higher the level of training and
education the higher the level of productivity.
 Customs and attitudes of the people, some cultures encourage
hard work, for example, Japanese and Chinese culture.
 Technology, if workers use simple technology then productivity
will be lower. Workers who use advanced technology will be
more productive.
 Working conditions, good working conditions ensure high
productivity, for example, good ventilation, lighting, safety and
working hours.
 Worker welfare, workers must have peace of mind for them
to be productive at work. This can be done by giving workers
medical
aid, pension schemes, funeral assistance, social and
entertainment facilities and housing.
 Motivation, workers can be encouraged to work harder by
being offered incentives such as higher wages, bonuses,
participation in decision making.
HOW CONDITIONS IN BOTSWANA FACILITATE THE EFFIENCY OF
LABOUR
• Education, there is free education for all to improve knowledge.
• Training, at university and other tertiary institutions to improve
the skills.
• Labour laws that protects the workers from exploitation, for
example, minimum wage and working hours.
• Pension schemes or social security, for both government and
private sector workers.
• The acquisition of modern technology such as complex
machines, computers that help to raise productivity.
• Improvement of infrastructure, to improve the movement of
goods and provision of services.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• Better housing for workers, for example, institutional housing,
like teachers houses, Botswana Housing Corporation houses and
SHAA Programme.
• Provision of health facilities such as clinics, health post,
hospitals and so on for a healthy and productive population.
• Access to resources such as energy sources.
THE CONDITIONS THAT MILITATE AGAINST THE EFFICIENCY OF
LABOUR IN BOTSWANA
 Lacks of skills, most of the people are unskilled without formal
training.
 Poor health mainly because of HIV/AIDS that makes workers
weak and unproductive.
 Poor infrastructure, for example, narrow roads that make
traffic move slowly; single rail, poor telephone coverage.
 Poor education system produces people that are unprepared to
join the job market
 Poor work ethics such as late coming, lack of discipline,
absenteeism and misuse of telephones.
 Poor or low level of technology, most of the work in Botswana
is done manually and slowly, for example, agriculture and
construction.
 Poor working conditions such as low wages, long working
hours, poor safety, and unavailability of pension schemes for
some private sector employees.
 Culture works against the efficiency of labour in the following
ways; the extended family that places a huge burden on the
worker making them less focused at work. Lack of
assertiveness, for example, going the extra mile.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Section A
1. Define labour
MODULE 1-8
 2. Describe any three forms of specialization of labour.
8. Define labour efficiency
3. What is division of labour?
9. Give three reasons for high labour efficiency in developed
4. Explain any three types of labour countries.

5. What is specialisation of labour
6. Give three advantages of specialisation of labour
7. Describe three disadvantages of division of labour.
10. Describe three factors that promote labour efficiency in
Botswana.
11. Give three conditions that hinder labour efficiency in Botswana.

Section B ENTREPRENEURSHIP

1.Study Fig. 1, which shows an assembly line in a car factory, and use it to Entrepreneurship refers to the art or skill of coordinating, managing, answer
questions (a)(i) and (ii). organising and running a business.

What is an entrepreneur?

An entrepreneur is a person who takes the risk of putting down money to start a business with the main aim of making a profit.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Role played by an entrepreneur

• Organisation: of land, labour and capital to produce goods and services.

• Decision-making: on what to produce, how to produce and where to produce.

• Management/leadership: the day to day running of business or enterprise.

• Risk bearer: the ability to take risks and steer the business to be a success.

Enterprise is the process of bringing together the factors of production to

(a)(i) Describe the factors that increase the efficient of labour. come up with goods and services.

(ii) Describe the advantages of specialisation of labour. THE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS FOR ORGANISING
PRODUCTION IN SOCIETIES
(b) (i) Describe any three forms of specialisation in production
There are basically three economic systems, namely:

 Capitalism/Market economy

 Socialism /Planned economy/ Communism

 Mixed economy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CAPITALIST/MARKET ECONOMY

Market economy is an economic system whereby the means of

production are owned and controlled by individuals or the private sector.

The main emphasis is on private ownership of capital or property.

Examples:
• Africa: Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Malawi etc

• Others: USA, Japan, Germany etc.

THE MAIN FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF MARKET

ECONOMY
Fig.6
 Private property is when individuals have the right to own and
An economic system determines the following in a society: control the means of production, for example, labour, land and
capital.
 Who owns the means of production, for example, land, labour
and capital?  Freedom of choice is when people are free to choose what to
produce, how to produce and where to produce.
 Who controls production, for example, what and how much to
produce?  Freedom of enterprise is when people are free to start
businesses of their choice.
 Who benefits from production?
 Self- interest is when people are motivated by the need to make
profits for themselves.

 Competition is when businesses compete against each other.

 Price mechanism is when the laws of supply and demand

determine the prices for goods and services.

 Government role isminimal which means there is little

government interference with the running of the economy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Advantages of market
economy
• The economy responds
quickly to the people’s
needs and wants.
• Entrepreneurs always try to
use the resources as
efficiently as possible in
order to get the most profit
out of them.
• High quality goods and
services because of fierce
competition.
• Entrepreneurs are always
motivated to make a success
of their businesses because
they want to make profit.
• Highly productive because
of the use of mass
production methods.
• Capitalist countries have
achieved the highest levels
of development in the
world, for example, japan
and U.S.A.
• Anyone has the chance to
become rich provided he or
she has the business skills.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
Disadvantages of market economy SOCIALIST/PLANNED ECONOMY
• It is unable to meet the basic needs Planned economy is an economic system whereby the means of production
of the people since the emphasis is are owned and controlled by the state for the benefit of the whole society.
only on profit.
• Businesses overcharge since there is
little government control.
• Damage to the environment goes
unchecked in the pursuit of profit,
for example, deforestation and
pollution.
• Inequalities in society widen with
the rich becoming very rich and poor
very poor.
• Workers are exploited by the
employers, for example, long
working hours, violation of labour
rights.
• Uncontrolled competition may lead
to overproduction and lowering of
prices thus leading to collapse
economies, for example, the
economic depression of 1929 in
America that even affected Europe
and the rest of the world.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 Private ownership of property is prohibited.

The government controls all production, distribution and consumption. Examples of planned economy:

 Africa: Mozambique, Angola, Ethopia and Tanzania.

 Others: China, Cuba, North Korea and Vietnam.

THE MAIN FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANNED

ECONOMY

• State ownership is when all means of production belong to the state.

• State entrepreneurship is that the government is the only entrepreneurship that is allowed to operate.

• Collective interest is when all people are expected to work for the good of the society.

• No competition: there is any competition since all businesses belong to the state.

• Price control: All prices are set and controlled by the state.

• Central planning: Decisions on what and how to produce are made by the central government

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Advantages of planned Disadvantages of planned economy
economy MIXED ECONOMY
 It satisfies all the  It is difficult to plan for the whole country
people’s basic needs, for and these results in a lot of mistakes. Mixed economy is an economic system whereby there is both private and
example, food, shelter state ownership of means of production.
and clothes.  It suppresses individual freedom to think
and act. It is a mixture of both capitalism and socialism.
 The benefits of There is a state planning, control and businesses operating alongside a
production are  State appointed managers are inefficient private sector.
distributed equally because they are appointees rather than
Most of the countries of the world are now mixed economies, for example,
among the whole entrepreneurs.
Botswana, Zimbabwe and Zambia.
population.
 There is technological inefficient because
managers are prohibited coming up with THE MAIN FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXED
 Everyone has the right to ECONOMY
work or employment. new ideas or make changes.
 There is both private and state/public ownership of resources.
 The goods and services  Very luxury goods are produced hence the
 There is freedom of enterprise.
are made available at people’s lives are uncomfortable.
low prices.  The government also operates enterprises, for example. State
 A very limited choice for consumers since corporations/ parastatals.
all goods and services are produced by the
state.  The government plans for the economy, for example, National
Development Plans.
 There is a low productivity level because
of over-employment, inefficient  The government interfers in the running of the economy through the
management and low morale of the following ways:
workers.
• Taxation of businesses.
 NB: However most of the socialist are • Legislation, for example, company
moving towards the Capitalist mode of laws and labour laws.
production.
• Quality control, for example, through
the Botswana Bureau of Standards.

• Price monitoring

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • Provision of basic infrastructure, for example, roads, power, railways and water.

 Government provides social services for the people such as education, health, sanitation and social welfare.
Advantages of mixed economy Disadvantages of mixed economy THE FEATURES THAT SHOW THAT BOTSWANA FOLLOWS A MIXED
o It redistributes the benefits o The government may discourage ECONOMIC PRODUCTION SYSTEM
of production through the investment through laws and heavy
taxing of businesses. taxation. 1. The feature that show that Botswana follows a mixed economic
production system is that parastatals operating side by side with the
o Helps the poor through the o Government always ends up in debt private businesses. For example, Botswana Power Corporation and
welfare system. because of public expenditure. Choppies.
o The government provides o The welfare system encourages
the basic needs of the people to be lazy and irresponsible.
people.
o State enterprises are inefficient and a
o The government protects the drain to the economy.
workers from exploitation.

o Consumers obtain quality

goods and services.

o The environment is
protected from unnecessary
damage by laws.

o People are free to establish

enterprise of their choice.
2. The prices determined by market forces while the government controls prices for some goods and services, for example, petrol and maize meal.

3. The government schools and universities such as University of Botswana and Botswana International University Of Research Science and
Technology operating alongside private schools and universities such as Botho College and Baisago University College.

4. The government hospitals and clinics operating alongside private hospitals and clinics. For example, Nyangagwe Hospital in
Francistown and Riverside Hospital in Francistown. The

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 government prepares National Development Plans while individuals implement them.

5. The government set regulations for business operations such as quality control, price monitoring while individuals are free to make
other decisions.

6. The government gives free food or basic needs to destitute while other people must buy for themselves. The government exempts
the poor from paying school fees whilst other people pay.

THE BENEFITS OF CHOOSING A MIXED ECONOMIC 5. The government price control ensures that basic needs are sold
PRODUCTION SYSTEM at affordable prices, for example, water, electricity, mealie meal
and petrol.
1. The government social welfare programme ensures that The government laws and regulations prevent immorality, for
everybody has access to basic needs. example, banning of pornographic materials. The element of
2. The government labour laws protects workers from exploitation freedom of enterprise allows high achievers to excel.
through coming up with labour laws.
3. The benefit of choosing a mixed economic production system is
having environmental laws that prevent damage to the
environment.
4. The presence of government businesses or parastatals ensures
availability of essential goods and services, for example, water
and electricity.

ENTERPRISE

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Enterprise is an act of organizing factors of production in order to make business become as efficient as possible. The individual owner
profit. is in full charge and can devote as much of his time and energy
TYPES OF ENTERPRISE to the business as he or she wishes.

• Sole proprietor/ sole trader  The owner has no need to consult or involve anyone when
making a new policy for the business. This allows the owner to
• Limited companies put decisions into effect without having to convince others.

• Partnership  Sole trader or sole proprietors are usually small and this allows
the owner to have more closer and personal contact with both
• Parastatal
the employees and customers.
• Multi -National Companies
 In most cases, it requires small amount of capital to start.
• Joint Venture
 Sole trader pays tax for development of the country.
• Cooperatives.
 Sole trader creates jobs.
SOLE PROPERIETOR/SOLE TRADER
Disadvantages of sole proprietor
Sole proprietor is an enterprise owned and run by an individual.
 Individuals usually have small amounts of capital and this might
hinder the expansion of the enterprise.
The person may be helped by a few people especially some family
members.
 The success of the business depends on the owner’s abilities,
Sole proprietor is also known as a sole trader.
and on his or her death or retirement, the business might be
affected by the person who inherits it. If the inheritor is not a
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLE PROPERIETOR
good business person, the company will obviously collapse.
• It is owned and run by one person who provides all capital  Since the individual owner bears all the risks, he or she is liable
needed to set it up and run it. for all the debts and losses of the firm.

 Liability is limited; this means the owners assets are at risk.

• The profit is enjoyed and the loss felt by the owner.
 Sole trader is at times has difficulties to get money or loan to
finance the business since banks need security.
Advantages of sole proprietor
 There are no economies of scale. This means the sole trader
 This type of ownership is advantageous because the owner is
cannot buy in bulk to experience discounts.
usually self- motivated and has every reason to make the

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

The division of labour may be difficult to organise because of the small
size of the business, resulting in little sharing of the workload, hence the
owner is overworked. This may affect productivity and labour
efficiency.
PRIVATE COMPANIES
Private company refers to a type of enterprise owned by shareholders
and run by a board of directors and a manager.
Shareholders earn some of the profit but if the company goes bankrupt,
they only lose the amount they have invested.
Advantages of private companies
• They have a lot of potential in increasing public awareness of an
issue.
• The private sector is profit and efficiency driven, and as such
tends to have a highly productive staff.
• The private sector is demand and client driven and therefore
very responsive to the people’s needs.
• The sector is very flexible compared to others in that it has to
amend its service to fit the public whenever a need arises.
Disadvantages of private companies
• The private sector tends to invest mostly where returns or profit
is assured.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• They tend to be owned mostly by expatriates and this
contributes heavily to the country’s capital flight. This is a
situation in which a lot of money generated in the country is
sent out to other countries and this contributes very little to the
development of the country.
PARASTATALS
Parastatals are state corporations owned by the government of the
country in which they operate.
They are funded by the government and the profits they make are taken
by the state to be used for developmental purposes.
In Botswana we have parastatals such as Botswana Railways, Botswana
Telecommunications, Air Botswana and many others.
The government usually advertises for and appoints a board to run the
parastatals.
Advantages of parastatals
 They employ many people and thus create employment in
countries with a few private companies such as Botswana.
 Parastatals have an advantage of expansion because they are
funded by the government.
 The state has a chance to control the provision of essential
services and goods. For example, water and electricity.
 Parastatals enjoys economies of scale hence offer cheaper price.
 Parastatals are mostly not profit oriented.
 Parastatals provide secure employment to a large number of
local people.
MODULE 1-8
  It reduces duplication of equipment and unnecessary wastage of
resources.

 Parastatal helps to implement government policies.

 It is a source of income of the government.

 The effort is made to train and employ local workers of all

levels of production.
Disadvantages of parastatals

 They tend to waste state funds if they are not run properly,
which is a great cost to taxpayers.

 They often lead to monopolies whereby the government owns

most of the profitable enterprises and competes with small
companies and this might lead to the collapse of the small
companies.

 Parastatal mostly tends to provide goods and services of poor

quality due to monopolies.

 Most are too expensive to run and over stretch the taxpayer’s
money.

 Lack of initiative amongst workers leads to inefficiency in

production.

 Uniform products may not satisfy everyone’s taste

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

MULTI-NATIONAL COMPANIES/ CORPORATIONS Advantages of multi- national
companies
Multi-National Companies are enterprises that have subsidiaries or branches  They pay tax to
in more than one country. the host
government.
Multi-National Companies are also known as Trans National Companies.
 They increase
employment
opportunities.
 They bring new technology to
the host countries.
 They bring in foreign currency
when they export from the host
country.
Fig.7  They enjoy greater economies of
scale.
1. Technical knowhow- provides training to the locals and bring new
 They give support, mostly
technology
financial to the local social clubs
2. Money – export goods to other countries which helps in earning
and associations.
foreign currency
3. Benefits to the people- creation of employment
4. Benefits to the government- pay tax which is used to develop the  They offer goods and services of
country better quality and variety to
5. International trade- helps the country to have variety of goods customers.
which are not produced locally
 They widen the country’s
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTI NATIONAL COMPANIES income base increasing Gross
National Products.
 MNCs is usually a public limited company.
 The decision making is controlled from the head office.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
Disadvantages of multi- national
companies
 At times they dominate
economies by monopolistic
practices.
 Sometimes they bring in their
own expert instead of training
locals for managerial positions
within the host country.
 Attracts experts’ locals to work
for them at the expense of local
industries.
 They encourage dependency
and neo-colonialism through
dependence on foreign
technology.
 They may take all the profits
back to the country of their
origin.
 Sometimes they interfere with
the policies of the host country.
 Some are too powerful for the
host country to control.
MODULE 1-8
  They employ many people in different parts of the world.

JOINT VENTURES  They reduce unnecessary  They usually lead to the

competition between collapse of small
Joint Venture is a form of partnership whereby two or more individuals companies selling the businesses because they
or companies agree to do business for a specific time under clear same products which are big and monopolise
contract conditions. allow them to share the the market.
profits and losses.
We have a number of joint ventures in Botswana between retail outlets.
For example, we have a joint venture between Metro supermarket and  Joint ventures can expand  If the company collapses
Sefalana supermarkets which is called Metsef Hyper-market. easily and make more many people might lose
profits because they have their jobs because joint
Profits under joint ventures are shared out according to the written a lot of capital. ventures usually employ
contract. many people.
 Joint ventures can save
money by buying
Advantages of joint ventures Disadvantages of joint
products at low prices
ventures
because they buy in bulk.

 They create a lot of

employment by hiring
many people because they
have capital

PARTNERSHIP

Partnership is a relationship that exists between two or more

people who have come together to do a common business with
the view to make profit.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Business Partnership is a relationship that exist between two or more Co-operatives are enterprises formed by people with a common goal
people or 20 people who have come together with the view of making who bring together some of their resources such as money, tools, labour
money. and equipment in order to reduce production costs.

Business Partnership is a relationship between two or more people or Co-operative members can either share the profit amongst the members
members who have put their resources together to make money. or they can reinvest it into other businesses.

THE CHARACTERISTICS The co-operatives can sometimes use their profit for the development of
their community or they can divert it to charitable events with the
• Partnership is owned by many people between 2 and 20 people. agreement of all the members.

• Partnership is controlled by partners. Examples of co-operatives in Botswana come in the form of co-
operative supermarkets that are spread throughout the country.
• Partnership has unlimited liabilities.

Advantages of partnership Disadvantages of partnership A bigger co-operative can be found in Mogobane village which runs a
• Partnership allows for  The decision may be division of poultry, diary and vegetable farm.
labour delayed by consultation.
The Advantages of co-operatives
• In partnership create  The withdrawal of one or continuity is
assured. some partners may cause  It has more buying power than individuals because it is a large
the partnership to organisation.
dissolve.  It is easy to set up.  A co-operative can give its members access to cheaper raw
• Lack of capital may limit  There is shared decision materials because it buy in large quantities.
expansion. making.  Members sell their products through the co-operatives, thus
• Unlimited liability. saving on the costs of marketing.
• Secrecy in business is maintained.  It may be difficult to find  Because larger amounts are sold, the co-operative can often
a negotiate and get better prices for its members.
suitable partner.  Members can bring in expert advice to help them.
• There is a greater chance of security for loans.

CO-OPERATIVES

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 STAGESS/SECTORS OF PRODUCTION
There are basically three stages of production:
Fig.8
(a)Primary Production is the extraction or removal of natural
resources directly from the earth’s surface without changing
their form. Examples:
• Mining which is the extraction of minerals from the ground or
earth.
• Fishing which is catching fish in water.
• Forestry is the growing and cutting down of trees for timber.
• Agriculture is the production of crops and livestock.
The products of primary production are:
- They are raw, that is, they are in their natural state.
- Generally unusable directly by the people since they need
some processing.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
(b)Secondary Production involves the changing or transformation of
raw materials into semi-finished and finished products.
They are three types of secondary production:
(i) Processing is the transformation of raw materials into useable
more goods. For example, cattle into beef, hides into leather,
maize into mealie meal and copper ore into copper metal.
(ii) Manufacturing involves the transformation of raw materials
into more specific and usable goods. These goods can be used
directly by consumers or public. For example, leather into
shoes, belts, jackets and hats, steel into door frames and tools,
chocolates from milk, cocoa and sugar.
(iii) Construction is the building of houses, dams, roads and
bridges. Construction uses both the products of primary and
manufacturing industries.
For example, to come up with complete building the following items
are used:
• Quarry stones, river sand, pit sand and cement from mining.
• Timber for roofing from forestry.
• Nails, window and door frames, plumbing materials, plate glass,
electrical components from manufacturing industries.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
  Insurance services
(c)Tertiary Production involves the provision of services that help in
the transfer of finished products from the factory to the consumer.  Banking and finance

(ii) Direct services: Mainly aims at serving the people

It is now the major employer in most of the modern economies.
They are two types of services directly. For example: o Health services o
involved: (i) Education and training
Commercial services:
o Entertainment, for example, music, sports
 Warehousing for storing of goods in bulk in large buildings.
and cinema o Lawyers or legal
 Wholesaling is the selling of goods in bulk to the shops and
supermarkets. services o Architects or Architecture o
 Retailing is the selling of goods directly to the public through Security, for example, police, security
shops and supermarkets.
firms.
 Transportation is carrying of goods and people using vehicle,
for example, cars, trains etc. (d)Quaternary are the activities concerned with research,
compilation, processing and dissemination of the research
 Advertising
information to improve human resource and production.
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT Localisation is when the government replaces foreign workers with

nationals/citizens/locals.
The following are strategies for development: women and property ownership, privatisation of parastatals, citizen empowerment
localisation.
and Localisation is when the government reserves some businesses for locals.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Privatisation of parastatals is when the government transfers
ownership of its businesses to individuals/companies usually through
selling.

Women and property ownership is when the government allows women to own big possessions, for example houses and forms.

Women and property ownership is when the government recognises the rights of women to own big possessions such as businesses and houses.

WOMEN AND PROPERTY OWNERSHIP

• More women owned businesses will increase production in the

economy
Fig.9
• Increased production in women inclined industries, for example,
Citizen empowerment is when the government equips nationals with skills Fashion and Design, Interior design, Beauty Parlours, Knitting and pottery
and other means so that they can participate in the economy of the

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

country/development of their country.
Citizen empowerment is creating social, political and economic
opportunities so that nationals take part in the development/economy.
PRIVATISATION OF PARASTATALS
Privatisation is the transfer of public/state assets into the ownership of
individuals and companies usually through selling.
Privatisation refers to the process of transferring the ownership of
public enterprises to private buyers.
That is, the corporations owned by the state are turned to private
companies and given to individuals to own.This is a very complex
process involving the selling of shares to individuals and groups as well
as ensuring that some of the services provided by the government are
stopped to allow private companies to start businesses providing those
services.
PRIVATISATION CAN BE DONE FOR MANY REASONS WHICH INCLUDE
THE FOLLOWING:
• Privatisation can promote competition which may lead to
improving efficiency and increasing productivity of enterprises.
• It can increase direct citizen participation in the ownership of
national assets.
• It can stimulate entrepreneurship and investment in order to
accelerate economic growth.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
 Inherited funds can be used as capital for investment
 Government allows females or women to own big or large
possessions or assets/material/goods
AIMS OF PRIVATISATION
 To reduce fiscal burden by state enterprise.
 To accelerate the national development process.
 To reduce the role of the state in the economy in order to allow
the government to concentrate on the essential tasks of
governing.  To release limited state resources for financing of
other demands.
 To promote economic efficiency in fastening well -functioning
markets and competitions.
 To generate new investment.
THE FORMS OF PRIVATIZATION
 Contracting out work to private sector firms.
 Disposing of public sector shareholding in companies.
 De-nationalizing major public sector concerns by transferring
the ownership of assets from state to the private sector.
THE ADVANTAGES OF PRIVATISATION /BENEFITS OF
MODULE 1-8
 PRIVATISATION - It is a transfer of monopoly from public to private hands/may lead
to emergence of private monopolies
- Privatisation improves efficiency because of competition and profit
- Will lead to hyper-inflation to meet initial costs
- Privatisation increases participation in ownership of national
assets / citizen empowerment THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN PRIVATISATION

- Privatisation reduces public bureaucracy - Government sets up regulatory price mechanism

- Privatisation accelerates economic growth by stimulating - The government makes laws that govern privatisation process
entrepreneurship
- Government sets up prices of assets to be privatised
- Privatisation reduces prices and public sector budget deficit
through enhancing the quality of goods and services - The government empower citizens

- Empowers citizens where such sales are restricted to them - The government provide loans or grants

- Revenue/government gets tax from companies/revenue from sale of

shares

- Removes burden from govt.

- Increases foreign direct investment

- Private companies take social responsibilities

THE DISADVANTAGES OF PRIVATISATION

CITIZEN EMPOWERMENT AS STRATEGY FOR
DEVELOPMENT
- There is massive job losses due to redundancy

- Open to abuse by corrupt political bureaucrats

- Widens the gap between the rich and the poo

- Expensive due to adverts and publicity

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Citizen empowerment is the process of helping citizens to become
selfreliant through the provision of help by the government or Non-
Governmental Organisations.
Citizen empowerment is the creation of opportunities and conducive
environment for nationals to participate fully in the socio-political and
economic development of the country.
It involves a process of ensuring that there is an increased participation
of citizen owned companies in the economy.
STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT OF BOTSWANA TO
PROMOTE CITIZEN EMPOWERMENT
The government has over the years empowered Batswana through a
number of financial schemes such as the:
(a) Financial Assistance Policy (FAP)
(b) Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) for
Batswana to get loans and entrepreneurial training.
(c) Introduction of remote area dwellers program.
(d) Reservation and price control for citizen owned contractors.
(e) Universal free education.
(f) Citizen Mortgage Assistance Equity Fund (CMAEF) to allow
citizens to buy shares in citizen owned property companies in
order to prevent property falling into hands of non-citizens.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
THE FACTORS HINDERING CITIZEN EMPOWERMENT
• Fronting which means the foreigners use the locals to set up
businesses reserved for citizens by funding them and become
silent partners or controls them.
• Lack of markets/Insufficient market for goods produced locally
• Poor business skills
• Lack of commitment from the bureaucrats, especially in
dissemination of information
The ways by which the government of Botswana empowers citizens.
- Training/educating citizens
- Provision of financial assistance to locals
- Providing opportunity for locals to vote in elections
- Provision of information through radio, television, newspapers on
various issues
- Provision of health services to fight/ cure/control/treat diseases
- Teaching locals their rights
- Government providing a market to citizens or tenders
- Marketing of local goods and services to outside markets
- localisation
LOCALISATION
Localisation of labour is the process of replacing expatriate public
servants with citizen public servants
What is localization policy?
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
Localisation policy is the process of promoting citizen labour and - It is part of restoring national pride and asserting a country’s
enterprise independence
Localisation policy is the process of giving jobs or businesses to
- It helps in making Batswana believe in themselves and not always
citizens
show too much respect for foreigners
THE IMPORTANCE OF LOCALIZATION
- Citizens would occupy politically sensitive positions
 It is part of restoring national pride and asserting a country’s
- Creates employment for citizens
independence.
- Development is in accordance to culture
 It promotes the socio-economic development of locals.
- There is possibility of making long term decisions as there is no
 It helps in making the citizens believe in themselves and not
fear of end of contract
always show much respect for foreigners.
- Locals acquire necessary skills
 Some key posts which are quite politically sensitive need to be
localised. - Workers are patriotic and have their national interest at heart
THE ADVANTAGES / BENEFITS OF LOCALISATION OF LABOUR IN
- Saves money wasted on foreigners
BOTSWANA
- It promotes the socio-economic development of locals
The challenges that the government may face when trying to follow the - Increased production as citizens are trained or become
localisation policy skilled
• Localisation
- shortage of skilled locals
- Locals are likely to work harder for their country or
- Poor work ethics among citizens national pride
- Shortage of funds to implement the policy
- Local businesses are given financial assistance
- Lengthy training programmes that may delay the process, for example,
- Locals are trained or given courses medical doctors
 Privatisation of parastatals
- Brain drain where trained locals prefer to work in developed countries
rather than at home
- Efficient use of resources will result in high production

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

- Lack of experience among locals slows down production, for example, - Possibility of increased foreign direct investment (FDI) to when a

fresh local graduate replaces an experienced expatriate fuel production through more capital or technology

graduate transfer

- The policy creates conflict between home government and other - Improved quality of goods and services governments/ it strains foreign relations/
promotes xenophobia.

• Women and property ownership

WOMEN AND PROPERTY OWNERSHIP
Women and property ownership is when the government allows women - More women owned businesses will increase production to own big
possessions, for example houses and forms in the economy

Women and property ownership is when the government recognises the - Increased production in women inclined industries, for rights of women to
own big possessions such as businesses and houses. example, Fashion and Design, Interior design, Beauty

Parlours, Knitting and pottery

The ways by which each government policy/strategy may improve - Inherited funds can be used as capital for investment

production
- Government allows females or women to own big or large  Citizen Empowerment possessions or
assets/material/goods

- Increase businesses as locals are given financial

assistanc
e
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Section A 5. Define enterprise.
6. Give three advantages of partnership in business.
1. Define planned economic system/ socialism
7. What is a sole proprietor?
2. Describe three characteristics of planned economic system.
8. State three characteristics of a sole proprietor.
3. Give three disadvantages of socialism.
9. Define joint venture.
4. Give three advantages of socialism.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

10. Give three advantages of a joint venture.

11. Define entrepreneurship.

12. Describe any three roles of an entrepreneur.

13. Define Business Partnership.

24. Describe the advantages of specialisation of labour.

25. Describe the disadvantages of specialisation of labour.

26. Describe characteristics of a private limited company

25. Describe the advantages of a private limited company.

26. Describe the characteristics of parastatals.

27. Describe the advantages of parastatals.

28. Explain reasons for owning parastatals by a government.

29. Explain the negative impacts of localisation in Botswana.

30. How does the government of Botswana promote a culture of investment?

31. Describe the benefit of Multi-National Companies to the host countries. /

Describe the advantages of multi-national companies for developing countries.

32. Describe the advantages of developing the secondary sector in Botswana.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

14. Describe three benefits of working in a business partnership developing country?

15. Define privatisation. 34. Describe problems faced by foreign investors in Botswana.

development of local entrepreneurship.

17. Describe the disadvantages of privatisation. 36. Describe the advantages of capitalism/ market economy.

18. Describe the role of the government in privatisation. 37. Describe the advantages of capitalism/market economy.

19. Define localisation of labour. 38. Describe the advantages of socialism/ planned economy.

20. What is localisation policy? 39. Describe the disadvantages of socialism/ planned economy.
21. Describe the benefits or advantages of localisation of labour in Botswana.
40. How does the government control the economy in mixed economic system?
22. What is citizen empowerment?
23. Explain ways through which your government empower citizens/ how does
41. Describe the advantages of mixed economy.
16. Describe advantages/ benefits of privatisation. 35. Describe ways in which the government of Botswana can encourage the
your government empower citizens.

33. How does the employment structure of a developing country differ from that of
a
Section B

1. Study Fig. 1, which shows economic production systems.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Fig.1 Fig. 3
(a)(i) Describe the characteristics of a planned economic production system.
(ii) Explain the disadvantages of a market economic production system. (a)(i) Explain how Multi-National Corporations benefit host countries.

(b)(i)Describe the features that show that Botswana follows a mixed economic production (ii) Describe the problems that Multi-National Corporations cause to developing
system. countries.
(b) Localisation is the act of replacing foreign workers with nationals.
(ii) Explain the benefits of choosing a mixed economic production system.
2. Study the extract below and use it to answer question 2(a).
(i) Explain why localisation is necessary in Botswana.
Most of the large commercial farmers in Namibia belong to a co-operative such as Agra.
(ii) Suggest possible problems that the localisation process may cause in
Co-operatives can also be of great benefit to subsistence farmers and they have been set
Botswana.
up in a number of African countries.
Adapted from: Development Studies 1 by Mweti and Van Wyk
Fig.2
(a)(i) Describe the advantages of being a member of farming co-operative.
(ii) Describe ways in which the government helps local entrepreneurs.

4. Study Fig.4, which shows some of the government policies in

3. Study Fig. 3, which the relationship between Multi-National Corporations (MNCs)
Botswana.
and developing countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Fig.5
(a)(i)With the aid of Fig. 5, describe characteristics of parastatals

(ii)Suggest benefits of operating parastatals to a developing country.

Fig.4 (a)(i)
Describe each policy shown in Fig.4. (b)(i) Explain why some parastatals have been privatised.

(ii)For three of the policies shown in Fig. 2, suggest two ways by which each policy may (ii)Suggest problems that may be caused by privatisation.
improve production.

(b)(i) Describe ways by which the government of Botswana empowers citizens.

(ii)Suggest challenges that the government may face when trying to follow the localisation
policy.

5. Study Fig. 5 which is an extract on parastatals.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CONSUMPTION AND INVESTMENT (b)Demand refers to the quantity required at a particular price, for it is
impossible to conceive of demand not related to price.
THE EXPLANATION OF CONSUMPTION AND INVESTMENT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSUMPTION, SAVINGS
AND
(a) Consumption refers to buying goods or things which do not last for a INVESTMENT
long period of time. For example, when people are paid their monthly
salaries, they buy groceries. However, these groceries do not last for Consumption is when we buy things which do not last such as food,
two months which means that they have to buy groceries every month- drinks, clothes and crockery.
end when they are paid. Savings on the other hand is all the money that you have saved
especially in the bank, and investment is when individuals or
companies save money and invest it in ways that will bring a return
(b) Investment refer to the use of purchasing power in the form of money
in future.
saved from previous income to purchase assets of the sort, that can
with reasonable assurance be expected to yield over the future a total
THE FACTORS INFLUENCING SAVINGS
amount of purchasing power greater than that represented by their
cost. Investment is when individuals or companies save money and
There are a number of factors that can directly influence savings. These
invest it in many ways that will bring a return in the future.
include:

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION (a)Income: The most obvious requirement is the ability to save
and this depends on the level of income. No one can save until the
Production means any activity which serves to satisfy human needs and level of income is sufficient to cover what are considered to be
wants. the necessities of life as income which is devoted to consumption
spending tends to fall.
Consumption is the purchase and use of these goods and services made
through production. (b)Social attitude: The prevailing social attitude towards thrift,
which is old-fashioned, wise and careful use of money, has
In a community, all people are consumers and most are producers since they significant influence on the level of saving.
contribute their labour to production through employment.
(c)The financial framework: In the developed countries, all
kinds of institutions for the safe deposit of savings are available.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUPPLY AND DEMAND In less developed countries, there are few such institutions and
they are neither widely known nor easily accessible.
(a)Supply can be seen as the amount of commodity that is available to be used.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE BENEFITS AND RISKS OF INVESTMENT THE FOREIGN RESERVES AS A FORM OF INVESTMENT

By investment we mean engaging in an activity that will bring in more Foreign reserves refer to the saving of money in other countries.
money or make profit. For example, as sole proprietor or trader
operating a company can get a lot of returns from the business. This involves saving money for future use in foreign countries. For
instance, Botswana Government has foreign reserves in the World Bank.
Taking risks in production is the function of the entrepreneur, and the reward This money is saved for future investment and because it is a bank, it is
for risks is profit. accumulating interest or profit.

THE ADVANTAGES OF FOREIGN RESERVES

(a) Money accumulates interest.

RISKS AND UNCERTAINTY (b) The money is kept for future use in cash the country’s economy
drops.
Risks involve situations or events which may or may not occur but whose
probability of occurrence can be calculated statistically and the frequency of (c) The money can be used to develop the country if need arises.
their occurrence predicted. It then follows that risks are insurable. Risks THE DISADVANTAGES OF FOREIGN RESERVE
include natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, fire and Foreign reserves also have their setbacks or disadvantages. For instance
others. currency fluctuations.
Botswana’s foreign reserves are saved in US dollars, and because
Uncertain events are those which property cannot be insured against. Their of a political situation such as the Iraq war, the dollar has been
outcome cannot be predicated with sufficient statistical confidence. Sources of fluctuating and as a result, Botswana’s savings are affected.
uncertainty may include: Currently, Botswana has lost US$ 1 billion of its foreign reserves.

(i)External sources: where the decision maker will only be able to have EVALUATION OF A CULTURE OF INVESTMENT IN
limited view of how political and economic factors will affect the situation BOTSWANA’S ECONOMY
under review. External sources of uncertainty include the state of national Traditionally, a culture of investment existed amongst Batswana.
economies and world trade, potential legislation and political change. However, this culture existed at a very minimal level.

(ii)Internal sources: The organisation may not be able to react to challenges or For example, most of Batswana relied, as they still do, much on
crisis because it does not have the resources or the experience to do so. subsistence farming or producing at a very small scale. This small
scale method of farming does not reflect a good culture of
(iii)Finance: If the company is partly debt-financed, there is the problem of investment and has caused most Batswana to rely on the
ensuring that debt interest can be paid out of profits before interest and tax. government instead of being self-reliant.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

This dependence on the government has made leaders to embark on
various programmes aimed at encouraging Batswana to invest and In 1990s again, the Botswana government introduced another
become selfreliant. grant known as the Financial Assistance Policy to encourage
Batswana to start small scale and large scale businesses for
For example, during the 1980s, the government introduced programme investment purposes.
such as Accelerated Rainfall Programme (ARAP) and Arable Land
Development Programme (ALDEP) in order to encourage a culture of Apart from the above investment systems, the three successive Head of
investment amongst Batswana State travelled abroad to try to attract more foreign investors to come
. to invest in Botswana. However, we have comparatively few large
These two grants were meant to assist Batswana to start subsistence companies operating in Botswana. We have a few multi-national
farming in order to raise money and more food for Batswana. companies such as Coca Cola, BP, Shell and others that pay taxes to
the government for operating in Botswana.
- Investment is using money to make/generate more MODULE 3:
RURAL DEVELOPMENT income/revenue TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
- Investment is saving to make money/income/profit in the future
Learners should be Learners should be able to:
able to:
The ways of promoting investment by citizens - Explain rural development;
Rural Develop an - Describe typesof traditional
- Credit schemes/ facilities/ loans/grants/financial assistance, for Development understanding and rural societies under the
example, Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) appreciation of the following headings: land use
nature of rural and ownership, division of
- Training in business skills, for example, Local Enterprise Authority
development. labour, cultural activities,
(LEA)
technology and dependence on
- Providing infrastructure/serviced plots, for example, plots with tarred the environment;
roads, water, telecommunication networks and electricity - Explain the concept of
- Protectionism/protection of infant industries/localisation/citizen colonialism;
empowerment - Discuss the impact of
- Marketing of local products, for example, Botswana Export colonialism on rural
Development Investment Agency (BEDIA)/buy local products development with specific
reference to Botswana;
campaign
- Discuss changes in rural areas
- Reserving some businesses for locals/citizens only, for example, in Botswana since
transportation industry such as taxies and buses and saloons independence;
- Tax holidays/rebates/tax lowering ( Tax holiday is when newly - Discuss positive and negative
established businesses are exempted from paying tax for a certain aspects of rural development;
period of time) - Discuss strategies to solve
problems of rural development;
- Assess different rural schemes,
programmes and projects:
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes - Investigate the changing family
MODULE 1-8
roles in rural areas.
 - Government subsidy
- Encouraging import substitution industrialisation [ISI](it is prohibiting/not allowing people to buy goods from other countries that are produced
local/ available locally) and export oriented industrialisation [EOI] (it is setting up of industries in a country that produces goods for the outside
market)

- Lowering inflation [reducing prices of goods and services]

- Affordable utilities, for example, water and electricity

- Political stability

- Privatization [which is the transfer of public assets to individuals and Huntergatherers Nomadic Agriculturalists
companies usually through selling] pastoralists
Land tenureTYPES
Communal: Communal:
OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETIESCommunal :Traditional
Everyone had a Members of the tribal rights to land
What is meant by rural development? - Rural development is
right to use the tribe had
the improvement in the living standards of people living in the countryside or environment traditional rights
village. but none to use the
owned it.
- Rural development is improving the standard of living or quality of environment.
life or status of people in villages or remote areas or the country side. Division The small family Family .Men Family. Men looked after
of
group. Men looked after livestock, smelted iron
In the context of Botswana, rural areas are settlements where 75% of the
labour hunted wild animals while and women weaved. Men
population is employed in agricultural sector, for example, farming.
animals while women gathered cleared the land and
women gathered plants, made cultivated, built huts for
TRADITIONAL RURAL SOCIETIES wild fruits, nuts, clothes and shelter, collected water
roots and other shelter. Women and food from the bush or
Traditional rural societies were mainly shaped by the natural environment and foodstuff from made clothing veld.
changing seasons. They made a living using the natural resources which the natural and shelter from
vegetation. animal skins.
Technology Very simple, Simple Iron tools were used and
made from fire used to clear the
stones, bones fields.
and wood.
Cultural Collective Initiation Storytelling, ancestors
Activities decision making, ceremonies held, and idols worshipped,
natural objects natural objects initiation ceremonies
and and ancestors held.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
ancestors MODULE 1-8
worshipped,
worshipped
marriage
storytelling.
festivities held.
surrounded them and they used their simple skills to survive and earn a living. Farming was influenced by the natural environment and the level of
production was small. As time went on, some communities learnt how to make iron, and the tools that they made out of iron enabled them to work the
land more effectively.
Fig.1

What is meant by agricultural communities?

Agricultural communities are societies that depend on cultivating crops CHARACTERISTICS
and rearing livestock.
- It is practised on small scale.
Agricultural communities are groups of people or societies that depend - Labour is provided by the family members.
on arable and pastoral farming. - Simple technology is used.
- There is production of low yields.
State any three ways in which agricultural communities differ from
- Sometimes it uses primitive methods for production.
hunter-gatherer societies.

- The way in which agricultural communities differ from

huntergatherer societies is that agricultural communities get food
from domestic animals and plants while hunter-gatherers get food
from wild animals, wild fruits and vegetables.
- Agricultural communities live in permanent settlement while
huntergatherers are nomadic or built temporary structures as
shelter.
THE ADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTANCE FARMING
- It is cheap.
- It helps poor farmers sustain themselves and their families.
- It requires semi-skill, hence can be done by almost anyone.
- There is less destruction to the environment.
DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTANCE FARMING

- Agricultural communities use sophisticated technology, for - It is easily affected by natural disasters such as drought and
example, iron tools while hunter-gatherers use simple technology. floods. - Production is seasonal, and people may starve during
the dry season - Poor quality products are produced due to the
use of poor methods.
TYPES OF FARMING
COMMERCIAL FARMING
SUBSISTANCE/ PEASANT FARMING
Commercial farming is the growing of crops and rearing of animals
Subsistence agriculture is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock
for sale.
for family consumption.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CHARACTERISTICS
- It is practised on large scale.
- Labour is provided by paid workers.
- Division of labour is practised.
- It uses capital intensive mode of production.
- Owners are companies or rich individual farmers who run the farm
for profit.
- Finance often comes from foreign companies.
THE ADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL FARMING
- It creates employment as labour is provided by paid workers.
- High quality goods are produced.
- It is a source of foreign exchange as products are usually for
export.
- Productivity tends to be high due to use of machinery and division
of labour.
- It enhances self- sufficiency in food production.
- It allows for production to take place throughout the year with the
help of better methods of farming like irrigation.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL FARMING
- There is too much damage to the environment, for example, the
use of chemicals and fertilisers may pollute the environment.
- Machinery replaces human labour leading to the increase in
unemployment.
- Keeping large numbers of livestock in one area may lead to easy
spread of parasites and diseases.
- It is expensive to run.
- Labour may receive low wages as farmers are after maximising
profit.
THE PROBLEMS FACED BY ARABLE FARMERS
- Arable farmers are faced with the problem of poor storage facilities
with most of the harvest being lost to pests.
- There is shortage of labour due to rural-urban migration.
- Pests and diseases that destroy crops.
- Drought and low and unreliable rainfall.
- Communal ownership of land hinder farmers from effecting
meaningful developments.
- Soil erosion.
- A young and more educated nation that shuns hard agricultural
work.
- Poor and infertile soils.
THE PROBLEMS FACED BY PASTORAL FARMERS
- Poor management strategies.
- Overstocking and overgrazing.
- Shortage of water.
- Outbreak of parasites and diseases, for example, foot and mouth.
- Resistance to change, with some refusing to sell even during
drought.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A RURAL AREA
1. There is an excessive dependence on agriculture.
2. There is a lot of small uneconomic land and livestock holding.

3. There is low capital-labour ratio.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 4. There is high incidence of poverty, underemployment, and - Poor roads
unemployment.
- Lack of access to health facilities
5. There is large number of illiterate, semi-skilled and unskilled
workforce. - Poor services

6. There is lack of basic infrastructure. - Poor soil fertility

THE ASPECTS OF RURAL LIFE - Deforestation because people use trees for firewood

- Poverty or inability to fend for oneself

(a) THE POSITIVE ASPECTS OF RURAL LIFE
THE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
- Life is cheap as people depend on agricultural products that they
produced for themselves. - To generate adequate reliable employment.
- There is less pollution as there are few industries.
- There is still the spirit of communal co-operation in rural areas. - To eradicate poverty.

- To accelerate the growth rate of the economy with stable prices

(b) THE NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF RURAL LIFE
and services.
- The negative aspect of rural life is dependence on subsistence
- To ensure food and nutritional security for all.
farming or poor agricultural production due to overworked soils
and poor farming methods. - To provide minimum services of safe drinking water, health care
facilities, and universal education.
- Rural poverty is common
- To promote self-reliance.
- High cost of goods
- To empower women and socially disadvantaged groups.
- Fear of witchcraft/ cultural rigidity
- To increase agricultural productivity.
- Less job opportunities/ lack of alternative sources of income
- To promote the participation of the people in the development
- Lack of recreational facilities/ poor infrastructure - process.
Shortage of market
- To contain the growth rate of the population
- Lack of variety of goods to choose from
THE IMPORTANCE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
- Poor educational facilities
1. It reduces rural-urban migration.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 2. It increases agricultural production, thus helping the country to
be more self-sufficient in food.
3. It creates employment in rural areas.
4. It reduces the gap between the rich and the poor, especially in
rural areas.
5. It increases production of raw materials for industries.
Colonialism is a system which a powerful country controls a less
powerful country. A colony is a country that is governed by a more
powerful country.
A coloniser is a country that rules another country.
Define colonialism.
- Colonialism is when a country is ruled or controlled or
dominated by another or a foreign country.

6. It reduces the inequalities between the rural and urban areas. - Colonialism is a policy or system of rule or control in which a
more powerful country takes complete or full control over a less
THE OBSTACLES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT powerful one.

(a) There is shortage of land in rural areas. THE MAP SHOWING THE ‘SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA’

(b) Most of the people in rural areas are credit unworthiness.

(c) There is lack of markets in rural areas.

(d) There is shortage of labour in rural areas.

(e) Poor managerial and market skills.

(f) Natural disasters.

(g) Poverty.

COLONIALISM

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Fig.2
THE REASONS WHY EUROPEAN NATIONS COLONISED AFRICA
1. The reason European nations colonised Africa was to get
minerals and other natural resources, for example, copper, gold
and diamonds.
2. The European nations colonised Africa to exploit cheap labour.
3. The European nations colonised Africa to set up plantations for
industries in Europe.
4. The European nations colonised Africa to give land to European
settlers.
5. The European nations colonised Africa to expand their markets.
6. The European nations colonised Africa to expand political
influence
IMPACT OF COLONIALISM ON RURAL DEVELOPMENT
NEGATIVE
- Africans lost their most fertile land to Europeans.
- Taxes were introduced such as hut tax.
- Rural communities lost able bodied men (productive
population).
- Some people lost their lives.
- Culture was lost.
- The powers of the dikgosi were diminished.
- Establishment of unfair trade patterns between the rich and the
poor countries.
- African initiative or craftsmanship was lost.
- Raw materials were lost.
- There was exploitation of cheap labour.
- There was an emergence of migrant labour.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- The family structure changed. - Native reserves were created.
POSITIVE IMPACT
- New and better methods of farming were introduced.
- Money as a trading item was introduced.
- The colonisers brought infrastructural development.
- Christianity was introduced, ending cruel traditional practices
such as the killing of twins in the forests.
- The introduction of the modern health care system led to the
eradication of some killer diseases.
- New and better technology was introduced.
- Cash crop production was introduced.
- Modern education was introduced.
THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM ON WOMEN
1. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of income
generation because some women produced cash crops.
2. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of
introduction of literacy for women or modern education.
3. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of a
platform for women to prove themselves that they were able to
fend for themselves.
4. The way by which a country may benefit economically from
being colonised is that of having organized markets as capable
as men, for example, struggle for liberation.
MODULE 1-8
 5. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of modern f) The way by which a country may benefit economically
health introduced women to family planning and immunisation. from being colonised is that of having resource
development, for example, mining
6. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of job
opportunities outside home, for example, cashiers, cleaners and
nurses.

7. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of new

religion such as Christianity which removed some bad practices
relating to culture, for example, polygamy and killing of twins
in the forest.
8. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of property
ownership, for example, land
THE WAYS IN WHICH A COUNTRY MAY BENEFIT
THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM ON PEOPLE IN RURAL
ECONOMICALLY FROM BEING COLONISED
AREAS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

a) The way by which a country may benefit economically

- The negative effect of colonialism on people in rural areas in
from being colonised is that of having organized markets.
developing countries is that of introduction of hut tax resulting in
b) The way by which a country may benefit economically migration of labour.
from being colonised is that of having large scale farming
- Colonialism lead to decline in food production in rural areas in
or plantation agriculture or ranching.
developing countries due to introduction of cash crops, for
c) The way by which a country may benefit economically example, cotton.
from being colonised is that of having commerce or trade
- The negative effect of colonialism on people in rural areas in
or cash economy or use of money or cash cropping.
developing countries is that of land dispossession or Africans lost
d) The way by which a country may benefit economically their land.
from being colonised is that of having paid employment.
- The negative effect of colonialism on people in rural areas in
e) The way by which a country may benefit economically developing countries is that of family breakdown due to labour
from being colonised is that of having technological migration or migrant labour.
advancement or skills development.
- Introduction of unhealthy diets, for example, alcoholic beverages.

- Abolition of initiation schools

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Dikgosi lost their authority or their powers
- Loss of culture
- Increased workload for women due labour migration as women
were not allowed to join their husbands who worked in South
African mines
- Loss of property such as cattle.
RURAL POVERTY
Rural poverty is a situation whereby people in villages or countryside
have insufficient of their basic needs.
FORMS OF RURAL POVERTY
(a) ABSOLUTE POVERTY is when a person lacks access to
reasonably adequate amount or quantities of goods and
services to satisfy her or his material and non-material
basic needs.
- The income is so low that even a minimum standard of
nutrition, shelter and other basic needs cannot be maintained.
(b) RELATIVE POVERTY is when a person’s access to the basic
needs of life is lower as compared to some group of people.
- It shows that while some people’s basic needs are met, they may
still experience economic difficulties or disadvantages as
compared to other people.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
THE CAUSES OF RURAL POVERTY
- Population pressure leading to resource not been enough for
everyone.
- Unemployment because of few industries - Lack of skills and
technology.
- Lack of alternative sources of income to use it to invest in rural
areas or to start businesses
- Unequal access to land.
- Lack of money for investment because most of the people are
credit unworthiness
- Dependence on poor farming methods, for example, broadcasting
method instead of raw planting method.
- Conservatism because some people do not what to change how
they do things or are afraid of change.
- Weak and inappropriate representation by the authorities.
THE EFFECTS OF RURAL POVERTY
1. There are low yields as a result of poor soils due to overgrazing and
shortage of manure.
2. Erosion and flooding result from shortage of land which leads to slope
clearance.
3. Deforestation increases as trees are cut and not replaced.
4. Water resources are over-used and polluted by sewage and animals.
5. Malnutrition and other diseases become more common.
6. Labour is lost as able bodied people migrate to urban areas looking for
jobs.
MODULE 1-8
NB: These causes and effects of poverty lead to the vicious cycle of
poverty. Once people are trapped in this cycle, it is difficult to break
out as one factor leads to the other.
VICIOUS CYCLE OF POVERTY
Fig.3
INTERPRETATION OF THE VICIOUS CYCLE
Since people are poor, they have little money to invest in improving
their farming methods or buy better seeds and animals. As a result, their
land produces very little. Therefore they are short of food, and they
suffer from malnutrition and ill health and they become even poorer.
THE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF RURAL
POVERTY
1. Drilling more boreholes and construction of dams for better
supply of water.
2. Advising farmers on better methods of farming, for example,
through radio programmes in order to increase yields.
3. Providing loans (and other credit schemes) at low interest rates.
4. Practising family planning methods to reduce population
pressure.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
5. Conserving plants and animals to prevent deforestation and
extinction.
6. Encouraging private investors to invest in rural areas so as to
create employment for rural and dwellers.
THESE SOLUTIONS CAN BE IMPLEMENTED THROUGH
DIFFERENT STRATEGIES:
1. Bottom-Up Approach is a strategy in which local people
participate fully in development decision making.
ADVANTAGES:
- It leads to development that has local support.
- People come up with relevant solutions to their problems.
- It promotes democracy.
DISADVANTAGES
- It takes a long time to implement some decisions.
- A lot of money is used during consultation.
- It may be manipulated by local elites.
- A decision may be unsuccessful if disapproved by government
officials.
2. Top-Down Approach
MODULE 1-8
Top-Down Approach is a strategy in which development decisions are RURAL INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENTAILS THE
made and implemented by high ranking government officials who are FOLLOWING:
mostly based in rural areas.

ADVANTAGES - Decisions are made with the best interest

of the whole nation.

- Decision are made within a relatively short period of time

- It saves money.

- Decisions are made by experts.

DISADVATANGES - It is remote
from the local people.

- Decision may be irrelevant to local interests.

- It may be difficult to implement.

- It may be abused by politicians. Fig.4

3. Integrated Rural Development is a strategy that aims to improve all (a) LAND REFORMS is redistributing land so that everyone
aspects of the lives of people living in villages. has equal access to it.

THE AIMS OF INTERGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT - Helping the landless people.

- Improving farming - Giving women the same land rights as men.

- Providing basic social services. (b) MODERNISING FARMING is providing extension services.

- Reducing dependence on urban economies. - Introducing credit schemes.

- Raising people’s standard of living in rural areas. - Raising cash crops for the market.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


- Increasing self -sufficiency in food.
- Forming farmers’ co-operatives.
(b) WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT is providing clean
water.
- Helping the villages to construct small dams.
(b) SOCIAL SERVICES deals with building of schools and clinics
to improve the education and health of people in rural areas -
Construction of clinics.
- Construction of schools.
- Improve telecommunications. - Construction of tarred roads.
(e) STORAGE AND MARKETING SCHEMES helps with the
establishment of selling points for farm produce and buildings
for keeping farm produce,
- For example, grain silos and Botswana Agricultural Marketing
Board (BAMB).
- Providing markets.
(f) RURAL INDUSTRIES are setting up factories in the
countryside to create employment or jobs
- Setting up industries in rural areas.
- Establishing financial assistance programmes such as CEDA
RURAL DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES
There are many ways through which the governments in
developing countries try to develop rural areas. The government
of Botswana has adopted several of these:
- Loans and credit schemes
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Farmers co-operatives
- Small rural projects
1. LOAN AND CREDIT SCHEMES
The government help farmers to borrow loans from banks and other
financial institutions at very low interest rates so that they can use
the money to improve farming.
The government agencies are often set up to lend people money at very
low rates so that poor farmers can borrow.
When farmers take a loan, they usually use their land as security.
This means that if they fail to repay the loan, the bank will take the
land and sell off to recover its money.
Sometimes it is difficult for farmers to get loans from the banks
because they are small scale farmers. For example, credit schemes
such as FAP, ALDEP, ARAP, SMME, CEDA etc.
(a) ARABLE LAND DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMME(ALDEP)
ALDEP helped farmers with grants to enable them to produce more.
The grants covered the following:
- 85% of the total cost of purchasing drought animals, for
example, cattle and donkeys.
- Farm machines and implements, for example, tractors, ploughs,
planters.
- Water catchment tanks.
- Fencing materials.
- Farmer education on scientific methods of production.
- Agricultural inputs, for example, hybrid seeds, fertilizers etc.
(b) ACCELERATED RAINFED ARABLE PROGRAMME
MODULE 1-8
 (ARAP)
Farmers received grants in the form of money for the following:
- Ploughing their fields.
- Fencing their fields.
- Practising row planting.
- Weeding the fields.
EVALUATION OF ALDEP AND ARAP
FAILURES
- These failed to receive agricultural production. They have thus
been suspended. They failed because of the following reasons: -
Severe and persistent drought.
- Dependency syndrome among farmers who now expected the
government to provide them with everything.
- Most of the grants were used for non-agricultural activities.
- They mostly benefited the rich and literate farmers.
- Most farmers did not co-operate.
- Some farmers were resistant to change.
ACHIEVEMENTS
- Great awareness of modern farming methods was created
among farmers.
- Farming technology was improved.
- Some farmers ended up producing for the market. - Most
communal farmers had access to capital.
2. FARMERS CO-OPERATIVES
Farmers co-operatives is a group of farmers who join together in order
to increase production.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
They are able to gain advantages as a group that they would not be able
to make as individuals.
By buying in bulk, they are able to save on cost of transporting these
inputs.
3. SMALL RURAL PROJECTS
These try to help people in rural areas by giving them a chance to earn
money from something other than farming. For example, such projects
are, brick-making, tree-planting, weaving etc.
In Botswana, these are usually done through the Drought Relief
Programme (Namola Leuba).
THE IMPORTANCE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN BOTSWANA
- Road construction to improve transport
- Borehole drilling to supply clean water
- Connection of water pipes or construction of water treatment
plants to supply clean water
- Markets stalls to provide shelter for small scale businesses
operations
- Dam construction to supply clean water
- Bus shelter erection to protect travellers from harsh weather
conditions
- Construction of Kgotla buildings to protect people or attendants
from harsh weather
- Construction of community halls to provide venues for activities
- Construction of educational facilities to increase literacy rate and
to assist learners to qualify for upper levels of education
- Construction of health facilities to treat the ill or injured people /
to improve people’s health
- Construction of houses by Village Development Committees to
provide accommodation
- Rural electrification to provide power
THE CONDITIONS IN RURAL BOTSWANA AT INDEPENDENCE
MODULE 1-8
 - Rural areas in Botswana were adversely affected by rural poverty
characterised by:
- Lack of infrastructure.
- High levels of illiteracy.
- Low incomes.
- Simple and less productive technology.
- Low agricultural yields.
- Lack of capital for investment.
- High levels of unemployment or lack of paid employment
opportunities.
- Lack of access to safe and clean water.
- Few social services.
- Food shortages and widespread malnutrition - Poor or standard
shelter.
DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL AREAS SINCE
INDEPENDENCE
The government of Botswana has been engaged in an integrated rural
developmental program with the following objectives:
(i) To increase sustainable production from land and wildlife.
(ii) To improve marketing and credit facilities in rural areas.
(iii) To create productive employment opportunities.
(iv) To improve access to social services such as water, education
and health care.
NB: Consequently the following improvements have taken place in
the rural areas.
(a) IMPROVEMENT IN INFRASTRUCTURE
- A network of tarred and gravel roads has been constructed.
- A network of telecommunications, especially in big villages, has
been set up, coupled with a mobile telephone network.
- Powerlines that bring electricity to the countryside have been
put up (rural electrification).
- Dams and boreholes have been constructed
Describe three infrastructural changes that have taken place in many
rural areas in Botswana.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of rural electrification.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of piped water.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of tarred roads and bridges.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of telecommunications networks.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of construction of schools.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of construction of market centres such
as Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board (BAMB),
Cooperatives and cattle ranches.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of construction of dams such as
Ntimbale dam, Lotsane dam, Dikgatlong dam and drilling of
boreholes.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of recreational or entertainment
facilities, for example, stadia such as Masunga Sports Complex
and Molepolole Sports Complex.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of rural industries.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of clinics and hospitals.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that modern houses.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural
areas in Botswana is that of airports and airstrips.
(b) IMPROVEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY
- Over 90% of rural Botswana has access to clean and safe water
through the Department of Water Affairs.
- Clean water is supplied through boreholes, dams, and water
reticulation systems.
- Water borne diseases have been eradicated by means of treating
water to make it safe for human consumption.
(c) IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES
- There has been massive expansion in the education sector with
the construction of primary and secondary schools.
- Education has been made free to cater, especially, for the rural
poor.
- Hospital, clinics and health posts have been constructed.
- Health care services have been made affordable for
everyone with people paying only P5.00.
- There is supplementary feeding such as Tsabana, especially for
malnourished children at almost all clinics and health posts.
(d) IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE
- Loans are provided for farmers through National Development
Bank and CEDA.
- Farmers have been provided with grants through programmes
such as ALDEP and SLOCA- Services to Livestock Owners in
Communal Areas.
- Farmers are taught new and better farming methods through
Agricultural Extension Services.
- Marketing facilities have been improved for farmers, for
example, BMC, BAMB.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Artificial Insemination Centres have been established to
improve livestock breeds.
- Diseases and pests are controlled by the Veterinary Services
Department of Animal Health and Production, and the Crop
Protection Unit.
- Sebele Agricultural Research Station has been established to
developed new hybrid seeds and production methods.
- RIIC and BOTEC have been established to produce relevant
technology for rural areas.
- Government services have been decentralised to rural centres
and Drought Relief Programme has helped create employment
opportunities in rural areas.
- Land Boards have been established to control and regulate land
use and distribution in communal areas.
Check your progress
1. (a) What is meant by rural development?
(b)Describe three negative aspects of rural life.
2. (a)Define colonialism.
(b) Describe three ways by which a country may benefit economically
from
being colonised.
MODULE 1-8
3. (a)What is meant by agricultural communities? 8. Aims of rural development

4. (a) Define rural poverty? 9. Explain the importance of rural development

(b) Describe any three causes of rural poverty.

5. (a)What is commercial farming?

(b) State three advantages of commercial farming.

6. What are hunter-gatherer societies?

7. Describe the division of labour in the hunter-gatherer societies

10. The figure below shows some essentials for rural development 17. How can the foot & mouth (or cattle lung) disease affect the rural

Rural Industries Schools

Transport
18.Study Fig.2 and use it to answer question 18(a)(i) and (ii) below

Land Reform
Loans & Essentials for Rural
Credit Development

Agric. Extension
Resettlement Services
Appropriate
Schemes Technology

economy in Botswana?

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Choose one of the labels from the figure above and explain why it is Fig.2
essential for rural development

(a)(i) Describe the causes of rural poverty in developing countries.

11development schemes & strategies such as those in the figure above. Describe the problems involved in the implementation of rural (environment in
rural aii) Describe the major impacts of poverty on people and the natural reas.

Describe obstacles to rural development in Botswana (b)(i) Explain how women contribute to rural development in Botswana.

12. How did colonialism benefit people in rural areas?

(ii) How is the government attempting to solve the problems of rural
Positive effects of colonialism on Africa poverty in Botswana?

13. Describe the characteristics of subsistence farming

14. What are the problems faced by subsistence farmers?

15. Describe the characteristics of commercial farming

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

16.What are the problems faced by commercial farmers?
Explain how govt. schemes help solve problems faced by commercial
Botswana
19. Study Fig. 3, which shows element of integrated rural
development.
Fig.3
(a)(i) Describe each element of integrated rural development shown in
Fig.
3 Since Botswana’s independence in 1966, the major challenges facing the
(ii) Explain the problems which are caused in rural areas of Botswana as
development occurs.
(b)(i) Explain the challenges that the government of Botswana faces
when trying to provide safe water in rural areas.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
farmers in
(ii) Suggest ways by which Non-Governmental Organisations can
help people in rural areas to improve their standard of living.
- The way by which Non-Governmental Organisations can help
people in rural areas to improve their standard of living is
through fund income generating activities or provide capital for
people to start businesses.
- The Non-Governmental Organisations help people in rural areas
to improve their standard of living is by employing rural people
in projects.
- Train people in practical skills
- Buy rural products or crafts
- Provide basic needs to the needy, for example, food and shelter
- Teach people to utilize local natural resources or veld products
- Promote environmental awareness - Advocate for human
rights - Improve infrastructure, for example, roads.
20. Study Fig. 4, which is an extract on rural development.
country has been rural development, and the critical issue that needed
urgent attention has been, and still is, poverty alleviation. In an effort to
achieve rapid social and economic development, as well as promote
social justice, various policies, programmes and strategies have been
formulated to address development issues in the country.
MODULE 1-8
 Fig.4
(a)(i) Describe how rural areas in Botswana have improved since
independence.
- Wide tarred roads have been constructed
- More schools have been built
- More health services have been provided/clinics/health
centres/hospitals built
- Increased agricultural extension service
- Increased livestock and crop production/ improved agricultural
infrastructure
- Provision of agricultural marketing centres, for example
Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board, Botswana Meat
Commission
- Establishment of rural industries/shops in rural areas
- Rural electrification, improved/modern housing
- Improved telecommunications
- Provision of piped water
- Agricultural disease control
- Sewage system connection and landfills
- Establishment of service centres, for example, Omang,
Registration of birth and deaths, water utilities, power and
community hall.
(ii)Explain the importance of any three rural development projects in
Botswana.
- Road construction to improve transport
- Borehole drilling to supply clean water
- Connection of water pipes/ construction of water treatment
plants to supply clean water
- Markets stalls to provide shelter for small scale businesses
operations
- Dam construction to supply clean water
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Bus shelter erection to protect travellers from harsh weather
conditions
- Construction of Kgotla buildings to protect people/attendants
from harsh weather
- Construction of community halls to provide venues for activities
- Construction of educational facilities to increase literacy rate
and to assist learners to qualify for upper levels of education
- Construction of health facilities to treat the ill or injured people /
to improve people’s health
- Construction of houses by Village Development Committees to
provide accommodation
- Rural electrification to provide power
(b)(i) Describe challenges which result from development in rural
areas.
- Loss of culture, for example, changes in diet
- Increased population/ migration
- Overharvesting of natural resources
- Increased crime
- Commercialisation of life/ increased cost of living
- People living in heterogeneous groups instead of homogeneous
groups thereby decreasing unity/ understanding
- Deforestation due to infrastructural development/
industrialisation process
- Complexity of life as opposed to the simple traditional life
- Pollution [allow example]
- Poor sanitation/hygiene
(ii)Suggest ways by which duties of family members in rural areas
have changed as a result of the development process.
- Grandmothers/mothers/wives/daughters look after large
livestock
- Grandmothers/mothers/wives/daughters do paid work/jobs
- Husbands/sons/grandfathers/fathers babysit/look after children
MODULE 1-8
 - Grandmothers/mothers/wives make decisions
- Children attend school
- Grandfathers/fathers/husbands grow food crops
- Husbands do household chores
- Mothers/grandmothers head families/ female headed households
- Child headed families

[RULE: Award even when men/women terms are used]

MODULE 4: INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION INDUSTRIALISATION

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 TOPIC GENERAL OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to: Learners should be able to:
Industrialisation Describe the process
of industrialisation
and its impact on
development.
Urbanisation Explain the dynamics of
urbanisation and its impact
on development in
Botswana and the SADC
region.
INDUSTRIALISATION is the process of setting up organisations for the making of goods and provision of services, especially in the introduction
of manufacturing industry.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES AN INDUSTRY is the production of everything (goods & services) other
than those produced in agriculture.
- Explain the industrialisation;
- Evaluate different strategies for
industrialisation including import - An industry is any activity which is aimed at economic gain but
substitution, export oriented particularly applied to manufacturing industry.
industries, small and large scale
enterprise, multi-national companies,
local investment and joint venture;
- Describe the characteristics of
modern industries including
mechanisation, advanced technology,
a wide range of raw materials,
synthetic products, division of
labour, automation, robotics,
feminisation of the labour force, sub-
contraction, cottage and coordination
of specialised tasks;
- Discuss the effects of
industrialisation;
- Discuss the successes and challenges
of newly industrialised countries;
- Investigate the impact of
industrialisation on their locality.
- Explain urbanisation, urban growth,
rural-urban, urban-urban migration
and primates cities;
- Discuss the effects of urbanisation;
- Suggest possible solutions to
problems of urbanisation;
- Explain the formal and informal
sectors of the economy;
- Account for the growth of the formal
and informal sectors;
- Discuss the problems of the informal
sector of the economy and suggest
possible solutions;
- Compare and contrast the process
and impact of urbanisation in
Botswana to that of other developing
countries in the SADC region.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 - Industrialisation is the process of growth of large-scale machine production and the factory system.
Industrialisation is done through manufacturing, mining, construction, assembling, energy or power and service production.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Industrialisation started in Europe in the early 18th century. The main aim was to speed up the production of clothes from cotton and wool. Later on
similar methods to those in the textile industry were employed in the production of other goods and services. By the end of 19 th century many
countries of Western Europe, North America and Japan had started to industrialise.

In Botswana, industrialisation is still at infancy or primary stage. The country only started to industrialise after attaining its independence. It is
therefore in the category of industrialising or developing countries.
Types of infrastructure
1.Transport
2.Power
3.Telecommunication
4.Buildings
5.

STRATEGIES FOR INDUSTRIALISATION

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


Fig.1
- Small scale enterprise is the industrialisation strategy
where government can organize and fund people to
produce goods at home (cottage industry) or craft
industry, for example, weaving and pottery.
- Small scale enterprise when the government fund
people to produce few goods.
- Multi-National Companies are companies that the
government can invite to establish industries that
produce goods and services in the country.
- Joint venturing is the industrialisation strategy
whereby the government works with other businesses
to produce goods and services
- Joint venturing is when the government encourages
businesses to work together to produce goods and
services.
- Export orientation is the strategy the government can
encourage investors to set up factories to produce
goods for sale outside the country.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
- Import substitution is the strategy that the government can
encourage the setting up of factories to produce goods to
replace those bought outside the country.
- State enterprises are the strategy whereby the government
can establish parastatals to produce goods and provide
services in the country.
There are two broad strategies for industrialisation which
have been used successfully by many industrialised and
Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs).
These are Import Substitution Industrialisation (ISI) and Export
Oriented Industrialisation.
These could be implemented through Multi-National Corporations,
Local companies, Small scale and large scale, and joint venture.
IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRIALISATION
Import substitution industrialisation is whereby the
country starts making goods itself instead of importing them
from elsewhere.
A deliberate effort is usually done to local industries through:
- Putting high tariffs (tax) on imported goods so that they become
expensive.
- Providing loans and grants to local business people by the
government.
- Encouraging students to specialise in science and technology, so
as to provide the much needed skills.
- Starting national research centres to encourage technical
inventions.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 - Inviting Multi-National Corporations to invest in the country
to produce for the home market.
- Controlling the workers so as to ensure stability at the work
place. - Protecting individual property rights at all times,
thus reducing fear from the private companies that their
property may be nationalised.
- Providing the necessary infrastructure such
telecommunications, water and power.
- The government investing directly in heavy industries which
are of strategic importance or which cannot attract private
investors.
Other Advantages of Import Substitution Industrialisation (ISI)
Strategy
- There is creation of employment.
- Improved infrastructure.
- A country earns foreign exchange if it produced surplus
goods which could be exported.
- Workers acquire skills and knowledge.
- Local raw materials can be used. So the goods may be cheap.
- A country saves money which could be used for other
economic activities.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF IMPORT SUBSTITUTION
INDUSTRIALISATION
- Home market is too small and expansion is limited.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
- A country still needs to import expensive machinery or technical
knowhow to produce goods.
- A country does not earn foreign exchange.
- Depletion of local raw materials.
- There could be limited variety of goods.
as
EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRIES
Export oriented industrialisation is whereby a country
develops industries directed towards exports, for example,
products in high demand in the outside world. This done for
many reasons:
- Export oriented industrialisation helps to generate the high
required foreign exchange.
- Export oriented industrialisation helps to create job
opportunities for the locals.
- Export oriented industrialisation helps to encourage
research, innovation and development skills.
- Export oriented industrialisation helps to encourage
economies of scale, for example, they can produce more for
a bigger market and be able reduce the prices while still
making profit.
- Export oriented industrialisation helps to make more profit
in using cheap local labour and export goods which may not
find market locally.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRIES
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 - The local people’s needs may not be met because a Unilever USA Computers
country is only concentrating in goods for export. Monsanto Netherlands Motor cars
- The local raw materials may get depleted. USA Soft drinks
- If products are not of good quality they may not Foodstuffs and
compete well in the world market. household
- If the countries which buy the goods find an alternative products Agri-
goods or substitute the market may decline. chemicals and
biotech. goods
NB: The two strategies can be achieved by various means,
THE ADVANTAGES OF MULTI-NATIONAL COMPANIES/CORPORATIONS
such as Multi-National Corporations, Local investments,
(MNCs)
Joint Enterprises, small scale and large scale industries.
• They bring with them capital, skills and technology.
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION/TRANS NATIONAL
CORPORATION • They reduce reliance on imported goods, for example, they can be
part of import substitution industrialisation.
There are large companies or firms usually based in the industrialised
countries, with branches in some other parts of the world. These • They pay taxes to the host countries, thus generating income.
companies are so huge that their annual turnover is bigger than GDP • They create job opportunities.
of most countries including developed countries. • They provide goods and services of better quality and variety to the
customers.
TNC COUNTRY OF PRODUCTS
ORIGIN • They export and earn foreign exchange for less developed
Roche Switzerland Pharmaceuticals countries-export oriented industrialisation.
Honda Japan Motor cars and motor
De Beers Republic of South cycles • They widen the country’s income base, increase GNP.
Sony Africa Diamonds
Electronic goods • Some local clubs, teams, individuals usually benefit from this
Kodak Japan
Photographic obligations, for example, scholarship and sponsorship.
Nestle USA
Bayer Switzerland equipment THE ADVANTAGES OF MULTI-NATIONAL COMPANIES/CORPORATIONS
Exxon (Esso) Germany Food stuffs (MNCs)
Chemicals  They often use local saving which could be used for the
Phillips USA
and benefit of the locals.
General Motors Netherlands medicines Oil
IBM USA products  They often pay locals little salaries and take most profits
Volkswagen USA Electrical goods
back home.
Coca Cola Germany Motor cars

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Less Developed Countries (LDCs) often compete for
MNCs, by providing them with incentives such as tax
holidays, grants and loans. MNC’s move their products
between countries so as to avoid responsibilities and
enjoy incentives from different countries.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF LOCAL COMPANIES
 They are profit oriented and they can exploit the locals.
 They face the problem of raising capital for technology.

 Locals usually prefer foreign goods than locally made ones.

 Some MNC’s are too powerful for local governments
to control.  If they produce in small quantities the cost of production may be
high leading to high prices.
 MNC’s sometimes take advantage of ignorance of the
locals to use methods which are not appropriate to the SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIALISATION
local environment and conditions, for example, using Small scale industrialisation refers to production done on small scale
capital intensive technology and expertise. basis and involves the production of crafts work, for example, sculpture,
curving, pottery, basketry etc.
 At times goods are produced are irrelevant to the local
community or domestic market.
THE ADVANTAGES SMALL INDUSTRIALISATION
 MNC’s encourage dependency and neo-colonialism
o They generate income as products are usually bought or
through dependence on foreign technology, foreign
markets, foreign capital, foreign expertise etc. purchased by pursuits. o Employment creation in rural areas.
 They bribe and corrupt the host government or even
o Utilisation of local resources, for example, raw materials and
interfere with in their politics.
skills.
LOCAL COMPANIES
Local individuals or group of individuals can organise themselves o Reduction of rural-urban migration as they are usually rural
and start businesses. based.

THE ADVANTAGES OF LOCAL COMPANIES

THE DISADVANTAGES OF SMALL INDUSTRIALISATION

 They are eager to make profit so they are prepared to work

 Unreliable markets or poor marketing strategies.
harder.
 Lack of managerial skills.
 They are flexible and respond well to local demands.
 Destruction of environment.
 They find out what people need and they try to meet their
demands.  Financial constraints or lack of capital.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 LARGE SCALE INDUSTRIES
Large scale industries refer to huge production of goods, it
involves machinery as well as a lot of mechanical power.
THE ADVANTAGES OF
LARGE INDUSTRIES  Encouraging
mass production.
• Create linkages, for example, growth of interconnected
industries.
• Economies of scale.
• Quality production due to competition.
• Training of labourers.
• Development of infrastructure.
DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE INDUSTRIES
@REFER TO SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
PARASTATAL
Parastatals are state owned corporations which are set if the
government fails to attract private inventions or it wants to
“decommercialise” the essentials commodities and services.
Examples in Botswana are: Botswana Telecommunications, Bank of
Botswana, Air Botswana, Water Utilities etc.
THE ADVANTAGES OF PARASTATALS
Masunga Senior Secondary School
1. Their aim is not to generate profit but to provide essential
services.
2. If there is profit it is reinvented for the benefit of the whole
country.
3. Effort is made to train and employ local workers at all levels of
production.
4. The produce is made and sold at affordable prices.
5. There is job satisfaction and security.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF PARASTATALS
i. Single or uniform products do not satisfy everyone’s taste or
wants.
ii. Goods produced are usually of poor quality.
iii. Civil servants usually lack motivation as they work for salary
rather than for prize.
JOINT ENTERPRISES
A joint venture involves two or more business organisations or
individuals who combine their resources to form a new business operation.
That is when an individual, or the government join hands with foreign
individuals, companies, or government to form or start business, for
example,
- Debswana- Debeers and Botswana government
- Bolux- Botswana and Luxembourg
- BCL-Botswana and Anglo-American
- Murray &Roberts
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 THE ADVANTAGES OF JOINT VENTURE
(a) Economies of scale Modern industrial production is complex and highly mechanised. In order
to industrialised, a country must have natural resources [land], human
(b) Encourage mass production resources [labour], financial resources and entrepreneur skills to help in
the production of goods and services. Here are some of the characteristics
(c) Quality production
of modern industries:
(d) Create job opportunities
*Raw materials: Raw materials may determine the location of an
FACTORS THAT A COUNTRY SHOULD CONSIDER IN industry, for example, industries using large quantities of bulky raw
ORDER TO SET UP
materials such as cement factory, brick work, iron making, will be
INDUSTRIES
- The factor that a country should consider in order to set up influenced by the location of the raw materials, for example, fruit and
industries is the availability of raw materials or natural vegetable canning.
resources used to produce goods.
*Advanced technology: Modern industries require complex technology.
- Availability of capital for investment/money/ start-up capital The machinery is very complicated and expensive, it requires special skills
to produce and repair it.
- Availability of labour, for example, specialised labour, skilled
labour, semi-skilled labour and unskilled labour. *Mechanisation: Modern industries require factory buildings, machinery
- Availability of a large market to sell goods and provide and various types of equipment.
services.
*Division of labour and specialisation: for the factory to be more
- Availability of power/electricity to drive machines used in the efficient and to make products within a short time it needs to divide its
production process workers into different tasks. In other words each worker has to specialise
in small part of the whole task.
- Availability of transport and telecommunication networks

- Availability of water for cooling machines, cleaning and as an *Automation and robotics: In modern industries most of the machine
ingredient processes are controlled by computers. Such industries are called High
Tech industries. In such industries goods are not handled by people at all
- A stable political environment during the whole production process. Only a few highly skilled workers
are required to ensure that the machine does its work properly.
- Availability of land
- Availability of technical knowhow/skills/machinery
*Feminisation of labour force: In industries today women are
increasingly doing the jobs hitherto regarded as men’s work, and
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN consequently their numbers are constantly increasing. This is because
INDUSTRIES increased mechanisation has done away with much heavy labour.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Women excel in work requiring precision and delicacy of touch, they - Increase of GNP/GDP/GNP per capita/ GDP per capita
tend also to tolerate long hours of machine-minding than men.
- Locals learn skills
*Synthetic products: new technology has made it - Technological advancement
possible to replace natural products with artificial ones,
for example, synthetic fibre and synthetic rubber made - National pride
from hydro carbons derived from petroleum.
- Taxation by the government
* Sub-contraction: Because of high specialisation in - Foreign exchange from exports
industries some companies find it increasingly hard to
complete some tasks alone. They hire some companies - Utilisation of local resources - Self -reliance
to do part of the job.
- Diversification of the economy
*Cottage industries: the manufacturing wholly or partly
carried out at the home of the worker. Here a big THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION
industry could supply raw materials to the cottage Industrialisation and development are closely related. Development can be
industry operator, to turn them into finished goods for a either negative or positive and so do industrialisation.
fee and then return it to the big industry for selling. This
THE ARGUMENT FOR INDUSTRIALISATION (POSITIVE EFFECTS)
is done to minimise costs.
- Through industrialisation the country can produce more goods and
services, so the GDP will increase.
*Coordination of specialised tasks: Large scale
industries are made up of large numbers of independent - More jobs can be created. There will be different jobs for the
specialists, for example, in a mining industry, there are locals.
people specialising in engineering, research, sales,
accounting, advertising, etc. - The standard of living will increase since people will have more
choices.
THE BENEFITS OF HAVING MANY INDUSTRIES IN A
DEVELOPING COUNTRY SUCH AS BOTSWANA
- The government can collect more money to spend on welfare
- The benefit of having many industries in a developing services.
country such as Botswana is job creation. - When a country has its own industries it is more independent. -
- Availability of a variety of goods and services locally/ Industry can produce surplus for further investment.
reduced imports
THE ARGUMENT AGAINST INDUSTRIALISATION (NEGATIVE
- Infrastructural development, for example, tarred roads

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 EFFECTS ON PEOPLE)
- People have to change their way of life, move into cities and
often lose touch with family and friends
- Work has to match the pace of the machine. Some jobs are
repetitive and boring.
- People may become greedy for more and more goods. Wealth
becomes more important than human relations.
- Industries tend to use up natural resources, like minerals and
fossil fuels which are non- renewable.
- They may forget the importance of agriculture and craft
production.
- Traditional culture may be lost or changed.
THE EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Large cities grow up around the industries often with
problems of poor housing, overcrowding, bad sanitation,
diseases.
Industries pollute the land, air and water.
THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIES ON THE
ENVIRONMENT.
- The negative effect of industries on the environment is that of
air pollution, land pollution, water pollution and noise
pollution.
- Deforestation or cutting down of trees/ soil erosion
- Depletion of natural resources or natural resources getting
finished
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Poor sanitation due to growth of overcrowded cities
- Acid rain
- Disturbance of the ecosystem/ loss of habitat
- Creation of heat island/ raised temperatures in towns
- Climate change
THE SUCCESSES AND CHALLENGES OF NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED
COUNTRIES
These are countries with new and fast growing industries. They
are third world countries which started industrialising after the
Second World War.
Examples of newly industrialised countries are South Korea, Brazil,
Egypt,
India, Argentina, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China etc
SUCCESSES
• There is creation of employment.
• Introduction of new technologies.
• More exports.
• More foreign exchange.
CHALLENGES
 Competition with developed countries.
 Local people do not have the buying capacities.
MODULE 1-8
  Shortage of buyers in the international market because of low  Standard of living rose.
quality and environmental pollution.
 Export market grew.
CASE STUDY-BRAZIL
 Profit used to diversify production.
Brazil is one of the examples of successful industrialised countries of
the South. She managed that through the help of her motor industry,
PROBLEMS  Gap between the haves and
through which she managed to implement import substitution and
the have nots widened.
export oriented industrialisation strategies. Brazil invited Multi-
National Corporations such as Ford, Volkswagen, and General Motors  Workers worked for a long time but paid very little.
to set up industries in its territory.
These industries were attracted through grants, loans, flexible rules  Urban poverty increased.
allowing companies to send profit home.
A 200% tariff was levied on all imported cars, making them three  Workers not allowed to strike.
times expensive in Brazil. The government gave loans to the Brazilian
 Working conditions crowded and unhealthy.
companies to set up support companies such as battery companies,
tyre companies and wire companies. The government built heavy  Damaged caused to the equatorial forests and tribal cultures.
industries such as steel mills to supply car industries with locally
made steel. The government also developed infrastructure such as  The country not able to pay its loans due to high interests and low
roads, railways, sea ports and imported oil. production.

 Corruption grew or money stolen / misused by leaders.

 Severe imported inflation, for example, due to rise in petrol prices

BENEFI
TS 
Jobs
were
create
d. Check Your Progress
 New technology was brought into the country.
1. Describe modern industries
 Research and design were created for new inventions. Characteristics of modern industries:

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

2. Describe five factors that should be considered when setting up
industries 12. Study Fig.1, which shows some of the strategies for industrialisation.

3. How does industrialisation negatively affect development?

4. Suggest possible solutions to the negative effects of

industrialisation on people

5. Why are most manufacturing industries found in the eastern part

of Botswana?

6. How can the Botswana govt. encourage industrialisation in other

parts of the country?

7. What problems are faced by developing countries in their attempt

Fig.1
to industrialise?
(a)(i) Describe the industrialisation strategies shown in Fig. 2.
8. How does a developing country benefit if it adopts the import
substitution industrialisation strategy?
(ii) Describe factors that a country should consider in order to
Discuss the advantages of import substitution industrialisation
set up industries.
9. Why did Newly Industrialised countries take a shorter period of
(b)(i) Describe the negative effects of industries on the environment.
time to industrialise?
(ii) Suggest the benefits of having many industries in a
10. Give examples of Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs):
developing country such as Botswana.
11. What challenges are Newly Industrialised countries facing in an
attempt to sustain their development levels?

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


URBANISATION
EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS:
• URBANISATION is an increase in the proportion of the
people living in towns and cities.
• URBAN GROWTH is the increase in the physical size of
urban area.
The difference between the two is that urbanisation means an increase
in the percentage of the population, whereas urban growth may not
necessarily affect the percentage of the population, even though the
physical size of the urban area increases.
• TOWN is a small urban settlement.
• CITY is a large urban settlement.
NB: The criterion for classification of a settlement into either an urban
or rural one varies from one country to the other. For example, any
settlement of 5000 or more people, with about 75% of its labour force
involved in nonagricultural employment is regarded as urban in
Botswana. In contrast the United Nations regard a settlement with 20
000 or more people as urban.
• PRIMATE CITIES-originally these were ports which were
set up by colonial governments as their administration
centres.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
Over the years, these settlements attracted a lot of people from
rural areas, and most of the economic activities in these
settlements are more industrial than agrarian.
Examples are Lagos, Accra, Freetown, Abijan, Dakar, Dar es
Salaam and Addis Ababa.
What is a primate city?
Primate city is the largest urban centre or areas whose population
is at least twice or double that of the second largest in a country.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PRIMATE CITY
- The characteristic of a primate city is that of an area where
government would normally Set up its administration, for
example, parliament
- Primate city is an area where a national university and technical
training schools are located.
- Primate city has the best infrastructure, for example,
communication networks and most of financial investment.
- Primate city is an area where many private companies
headquarters are found or is a centre of commerce
- More industries
- More population
THE CAUSES OF URBANISATION
The main ones are:
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 1. Natural Increase is when the population increase in The incidence of this can be attributed to improved health
this case is caused by birth rate being higher than facilities, diets, water and sanitation and the general standard of
death rate. living.

It is calculated by subtracting the rate of death from the rate of 2. Migration is the process of moving from one area to the
birth (BRDR=NI). other with the intention of staying at the area of
destination for a reasonable length of time.
Permanent migration is when one moves from one area to another without - Drought the intention
of moving elsewhere, or returning to their place of origin.
Temporary migration is when one moves from place to the other to stay - Witchcraft for a short
period of time.
Internal migration is when one moves within the same territory or - Traditional life country.
External migration is when one moves across borders or territorials - Rural poverty boundaries.
- Poor markets

- Expensive goods and services

THE FACTORS THAT ATTRACT PEOPLE TO URBAN

AREAS

- The factor that attracts people to urban areas is employment opportunities because there are many industries
that provide goods and services.

Fig.1 - Better health facilities, for example, clinics and hospital both
Migration may be a result of push factors (negative things that force people private and public owned.
to move) such as inadequate social amenities (education, health facilities, etc), desire to break away from traditional way of life, poverty, poor - Better
educational facilities, for example, public schools and farming methods, lack of investment opportunities, lack of employment, private schools. higher
prices of goods in rural areas, wars, drought and poor harvest.
- Chances of better relationships
Pull factors such as improved social amenities in urban areas, high
opportunities of getting a job or investing or better-paying jobs, relatively - Better transport facilities cheap prices of
goods, security, high opportunities for modernity.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Low prices of goods
THE FACTORS WHICH FORCE PEOPLE TO MOVE FROM
RURAL TO URBAN AREAS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - Better entertainment and recreational facilities

- The factor that forces people to move from rural to urban areas in - Security offered in towns developing
countries is lack of employment opportunities.
- Modern lifestyle
- Lack of entertainment
- Better housing
- Shortage of social services, for example, schools and clinics
- Less beliefs in witchcraft
2.1 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION is when people move from rural  Traditional way of life is in most cases not practised since a lot of
areas and settle in urban areas. people prefer the modern way of life. In some instances this comes
2.2 URBAN-URBAN MIGRATION is when people move from urban with the bad behaviour of urban life.

areas and settle in other urban areas. THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON URBAN AREAS (TOWNS

THE EFFECT OF MIGRATION ON RURAL AREAS AND CITIES)

(a) POSITIVE
(a) POSITIVE
 Migrants send some money or remittance home. In some cases this is the only source of income in rural areas. - Migrants provide the
much needed labour in urban centres,
especially unskilled and semi-skilled, for example, in factories,
 Migrants who work outside the country sent remittance in the form homes, etc.
of foreign currency, thus earning their country of origin foreign
money. - Migrants increase employment opportunities in urban areas when

 Migrants bring in new and advanced technology back to their they use some of their earnings for investments, for example, communities.
starting up their own businesses.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Migrants can invest their income in rural areas, for example, by - Migrants bring in some new ideas or survival skills to urban areas, building
some residential houses, shops, etc, thereby creating for example, how to survive on very little means. employment.
- Increase in population in urban areas may result in increase and
(b) NEGATIVE
improvement in the infrastructure in urban areas.

• Migration deprives rural areas the much needed labour in agriculture since most of the migrants are the
able-bodied men and - Migrants provide the markets for the goods and services in urban women in the
community. areas.

• Division of labour has changed in rural areas as a result of migration. In the past, women were only
responsible for the small livestock like goats and chickens, but with the absence of men, they now look
after cattle.

 Disruption of family life due to the ill -discipline of children especially

boys left with their mothers in rural areas.

 There is an imbalance in the sex ratio. Most of those left in rural areas are
women.

(b) NEGATIVE THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF RAPID

URBANISATION

Migration in most cases results in rapid urbanisation (tendency of having  Systematic and well planned towns and cities. more people
living in urban areas than in rural area at a rate that the national
economy cannot sustain). This brings a lot of problems:  Management of the growth and use of private vehicles in urban areas.
- Pressure on social amenities, for example, schools and hospitals/

Over load of social amenities, for example, clinics, hospitals and  Improvement of public transport. schools
• Establishment of a housing corporation that will build low cost

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Increased crime and social unrest/ Increase in crime rate houses so that everyone will have decent and affordable house to live in. - Shortage of
clean water.

- Poor sanitation services.  Abolition of squatter locations.

- Shortage of housing/ Shortage of accommodation leading to  Setting up of more industries to create more employment squatter
camps opportunities.

- Pollution, for example, land, water, air and noise  Establishment of public work schemes in rural area to provide work for rural dwellers in order
to reduce rural-urban migration.
- Increased unemployment rate/high unemployment
• Commercialisation of agriculture in rural areas.
- Traffic congestion.
• Encouraging rural-urban trade.
- Diseases are spread at very high rate.

- Increased poverty, or low standard of living

- Overcrowding due to shortage of land

- Loss of culture

THE FORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FORMAL SECTOR THE ECONOMY
The formal sector is the part of the county’s economy that is organised
by the government and large firms. - The workplace is up to date and in most cases permanent.

It consists of modern activities such industries, business and commercial

activities and government agencies.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - The private companies pay tax to the government and run
according to the state laws.
- Workers get regular wages and are protected by the country’s
laws.
- Workers have written contracts with their employees.
- Employees are free to belong to trade unions.
- The jobs often require skill and training.
- Production is usually done on a large scale basis.
- Employees receive regular wages or salaries.
- Complex technology is often used.
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the
formal sector
THE REASONS FOR LOW NUMBERS OF WOMEN IN FORMAL SECTOR
OF THE ECONOMY
THE WAYS BY WHICH FORMAL BUSINESSES CONTRIBUTE TO THE
- The reason for low numbers of women in the formal sector of
the economy is due to lack of education and training or high
illiteracy rate.
- Women are less credit worthy
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Societal expectation on women, for example, taking care of
children
- Women’s low self- esteem or fear
- Women’s high workload at home especially in agriculture
- Myths or stereotypes about low intelligence of women
- Early marriages
- Lack of capital
THE REASONS FOR GROWTH OF THE FORMAL SECTOR IN
BOTSWANA
- Presence of the multi-national companies/foreign investors
- Financial assistance
- Government take the initiative to register businesses
- In some cases registration is a requirement for operation
- Tendering process demands registration
- Business/ entrepreneurship taught in schools motivating students
to start formal businesses
- The need to export goods and services demand registration of
businesses
DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY SUCH AS BOTSWANA
- They pay tax to government
MODULE 1-8
 - They improve infrastructure by building permanent structures - The people are usually self-employed or provide service on
- They train workers small basis for others.
- They increase GNP/GDP - The wages are not guaranteed.
- They sponsor social activities, for example, sports - The jobs and workers do not belong to trade unions.
- They increases international trade helping the country to earn - They operate on small scale
foreign exchange - Work is done in temporary shelter
- Employment creation - Payment of taxes is unnecessary
- Technological advancement - Hours of work are flexible
- People use traditional skills to do the work, for example,
THE INFORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY weaving and sewing

ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of

the informal sector.

THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF THE INFORMAL

SECTOR

- The registration of some jobs.

- They encourage skill acquisition training for all economic

activities.

- They encourage the use of appropriate technology and the local

resources.

- They provide environmental education in order to reduce

pollution of the environment.

Fig.2
This sector of the economy is organised by individuals, and not the
government nor registered companies.
It consists of small, locally owned workshops and home factories, fruits,
vegetable, clothes and jewellery markets, selling of firewood etc.

CHARACTERISTICS

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - In the informal sector, there is lack of trade unions but in the
formal sector trade union exist
- Wages in the informal sector are unguaranteed or irregular but
in the formal sector wages are regular/ guaranteed.

THE PROBLEMS FACED BY THE INFORMAL SECTOR

- Lack of capital/small gain/profit

- Lack of entrepreneurship skills
- Lack of proper shelter for operation so production is disturbed
by harsh weather
- Little market/competition for the formal sector/ competition
among themselves
Fig.3
- Lack of security so cases of theft are common
- Goods of poor quality due to poor technology
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INFORMAL AND FORMAL
- Harassment by law officers
SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY
- Lack of credit worthiness
- Informal sector is unregistered whilst the formal sector is
- Lack of recognition by the government.
registered or documented, or the owners hold licence to do it.
- Informal sector is unprotected by the law whilst the formal
WOMEN CONTRIBUTION TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
sector is protected by the law.
IN THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN BOTSWANA
- Informal sector has flexible working hours whilst the formal
sector has fixed working hours.
- Dominate specific important enterprises like catering,
- Informal sector uses simple technology whilst formal sector uses
dressmaking, child care/ provide services
complex technology.
- They utilise their natural skills like cleaning, cooking, weaving/
- Informal sector is done on small scale whilst the formal sector is
traditional skills/ use less business skills
done on a large scale.
- They create jobs for other people/self -employment
- Informal sector is done in temporary shelters or in the open
- They provide a market for producers of specific materials like
whilst formal sector has permanent buildings.
cotton, wool, reeds for weaving/ increases market
- In informal sector, workers use natural talents while in the
- They can develop into cottage industry, for example, making
formal sector people are trained for the work
cakes at home for supermarkets
- In the informal sector, taxes to the government are unpaid or
- They train themselves/ others/impart knowledge and skills to
ignored but in the formal sector tax is paid.
others
- They form self- help groups

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

THE REASONS WHY MANY WOMEN ARE INVOLVED IN THE THE DISADVANTAGES OF HAVING FEW WOMEN IN DECISION
INFORMAL SECTOR MAKING POSITIONS

- Women lack education or qualification to enter the formal sector - The disadvantage of having few women in decision making
- Women lack capital to establish formal businesses/ women can positions is that women issues are ignored
afford little capital in informal activities
- Birth rate will be high - Women are burdened with household chores so they engage in informal activities right at home, for example, selling of
fruits on - Unequal participation in decision making the front of their homes
- Women can cope with flexible working hours - Poor status on human rights

- Women lack the documents required for registration of formal - Domestic violence/ conflict between men and women businesses, for example,
bank accounts and tax registration
- Most women have responsibility to take care for children as single - Lack of role models for the girl child parents so they are forced into informal
production

THE REASONS FOR THE RAPID GROWTH OF INFORMAL

SECTOR IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- The informal sector requires little capital to start

- They utilises natural skills/traditional skills/uses less business

skills
- There is less requirements for registration and licensing/ less paper
work
- There is high unemployment/ little expansion in the formal
sector/creation of employment for the unskilled
- The goods are attractive for their traditional value, for example,
arts and crafts. - Their operations can be done anywhere.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - The goods are mostly affordable.
- They Use simple and intermediate technology

Check Your Progress

1. Define urbanisation. 13. Describe problems of urbanisation on rural areas

2. What is meant by rural-urban migration? 14. What is a primate city?

3. Define urban-urban migration 15. Describe three characteristics of a primate city.

4. Describe five push factors of rural-urban migration in Botswana
5. Describe five pull factors of rural-urban migration in Botswana
6. Describe the positive effects of rural-urban migration on rural areas
7. How is the formal sector different from the informal sector?
16. Describe the factors which force people to move from rural to urban
areas in developing countries.
17. Describe the negative effects of rural-urban migration in towns and
cities in developing countries.
18. Study Fig. 1, which shows push and pull factors of rural-urban
migration and answer the question (a)

8. How does the informal sector benefit the urban dwellers?

9. Why is it easy to join the informal sector?

10. Describe the problems posed by the informal sector to the national
economy

11. Describe the problems faced by the informal sector Fig.1

12. Describe any five problems caused by rapid urbanisation on towns Describe the factors that attract people to urban areas.
& cities

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Suggest reasons for the low numbers of women in the formal sector of
the economy.

What are the disadvantages of having few women in decision making

positions?

19. Study Fig.2 which is a picture showing some activities in the

informal sector.

Fig.2

Describe the characteristics of the informal sector

(b)(i) Describe ways by which women in the informal sector contribute to
Suggest reasons why many women are involved in the informal sector. the economic development of Botswana.

Suggest reasons for the growth of the formal sector in Botswana (ii)Explain why the informal sector of the economy is growing rapidly in
developing country.
Describe ways by which formal businesses contribute to the development of a
country such as Botswana

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 20. Study Figs 1A and 1B, which show the informal and formal sectors
of the economy, and answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).

(a)(i) Using Figs 1A and 1B and your own

knowledge, state the differences between the informal and formal sectors of the
economy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 (ii)Suggest possible problems that are faced by people in the informal
sector, such as the person in Fig. 1A.
MODULE 5: WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT organisations;

TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES -examine the role of women’s

OBJECTIVES organisations in the
Learners should be able Learners should be able to: prevention of HIV/AIDS and
other communicable diseases;
to:
Women in Development Develop an understanding -discuss the role of women in
traditional societies with -select one of the women’s
and appreciation of the
reference to labour, food organisations in Botswana
role of women in and evaluate its role and
development. production, arable farming,
animal husbandry and family effectiveness;
welfare;
-explain the role of women in
-discuss the impact of the formal and informal
traditional values, customs sectors of the economy;
and practices, taboos and
myth on women’s position in -account for the disparity in
society; the wealth distribution
between women and men in
-assess the impact of Botswana;
colonialism on the position of
women in society in relation -discuss women’s problems in
to education, land entitlement, Botswana and suggest
wages, labour, migratory possible solutions.
labour and
commercial farming;

-discuss issues relating to

emerging roles of women
such as equal access to jobs,
new policies, women oriented
schemes and female headed
households;

-assess the role played by

women in the politics of
Southern Africa with specific
reference to pre-independence
and post-independence eras;

-account for the emergence

and development of the
lobbyist, educational, legal
and welfarist women’s
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT

EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS

Women-female adult person

Man –male adult person

Sex –the state of being female or male

Gender –being feminine or masculine

Gender Equality-giving females the same treatment as males in the society.

Gender Discrimination-unfair treatment of someone based on sex.

THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES

 Childbearing, this was among the main role that a woman

played.
 Family welfare, she cared for the children, the elderly and
the sick.
 Domestic work, women had to fetch water and firewood,
cook and feed the family members. They were also expected
to sweep the compound, wash clothes for every member of
the family.
 Community work, they were involved in community
projects such as ceremonies like funerals and weddings and
religious activities.
Fig.1
 Agricultural production, women were involved in weeding,
harvesting and storing crops. They also raised small livestock
like chickens. The traditional belief shown on Fig. 1 may negatively affect the
position of women in Botswana in the following way:
THE IMPACT OF TRADITIONAL BELIEFS ON WOMEN’S
POSITION IN THE SOCIETY - Eve was made out of Adam makes women inferior to men/ woman
to be follower of man

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


- Women having smaller heads-women denied a chance to go to
school/ girls in school put into easy subjects/ women trained for
low paying jobs.
- Women too busy being mothers- women denied high
positions/women outside decision making or leadership/ few
women in the formal sector/ women tied to the home/ women
dependent on men/women’s health at stake.
- Women lose energy in bearing children- women discouraged from
attaining high education/ few role models for the girl child.
Leadership, women are thought to be less intelligent than men, therefore,
leadership positions were reserved for men only.
Consequently, most laws oppressed women, for example, no women
could own property, unless through their husbands or the sons.
ASSIGNMENTS: Discuss at least three traditional practices,
values, taboos and myths that have reduced the status of
women to that of servitude in the society
- Myth is a story based on popular belief
- Myth is a tale with supernatural characters, usually of how the
world and mankind began.
The negative effects of traditional values, customs and practices,
taboos and myths on women’s position in society today
• Education, Europeans believed that women’s place was in the
- The disassociation of women from leadership resulted in women’s
predetermined destiny that they should be passive in politics and
assume lower position in the workplace
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Their subordination to men brought fear, respect and obedience
that man is indeed the breadwinner in the family
- Today there are few women involved in decision making because
they had been made to believe they have smaller brains than men
- Their full involvement in domestic work or household chores has
indirectly convinced them that they specialise in domestic work,
which is unpaid for. This has also pre-determined the type of work
women do hence their involvement in the lowly paid jobs
- Their pre-occupation with children and domestic work has also
denied women the chance to advance in public life
- Since land was the property of the husband, women have been
denied the chance to enrich themselves by using this natural
resource for commercial purposes
- Women were denied the chance to go to school as they were
thought incapable of learning (smaller brain and therefore less
intelligent than men) and this has resulted in the low literacy rate
among women today.
- Women were forbidden to pass through a herd of cattle when on
monthly period. This was a way of discouraging women from
owning any cattle and this has resulted in lower standards of living
today/poverty among women
- A woman is oppressed/looked down upon as she is believed to be a
product of man (Eve was made from Adam’s rib)
THE IMPACT OF COLONIALISM ON WOMEN
kitchen, and that they had weak brains, therefore educating
them was not a priority.
MODULE 1-8
 Consequently, they remained ignorant about family planning
and reproductive health. Girls were only given specific training
for domestic work, especially in the homes of the colonizers.
• Land Entitlement, land was a communal property in pre-
colonial societies. The introduction of the right to individual
ownership of land by the colonizers was not extended to
women. This impoverished many as they could not carry out
any activity on the land without permission from their male
counterparts.
• Migratory labour, when men went to work outside in the
mines and farms in South Africa, their wives were not allowed
to join them.
Women thus remained at home and assumed the roles
previously done by men. In most cases, decisions and thus had
to wait for their husbands. Marriages also broke up.
• Commercial farming, generally there was low agricultural
productivity since the able bodied men were absent.
However, women needed cash to purchase what they needed,
and sometimes pay for school fees. This forced some women to
sell the surplus from their fields for cash. Shortage of food
resulted in malnutrition and people were prone to diseases.
THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM ON
WOMEN IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES.
- Modern health care/family planning
- Paid employment
- Women became literate
Masunga Senior Secondary School
- Improved technology
- Commercial farming/cash crops
- Reduction of abusive traditional practices (due to Christianity) -
Property ownership, for example, land in urban areas.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY WOMEN IN POLITICS IN
SOUTHERN AFRICA
During the struggles and negotiations for independence and
liberation women participated as leaders of women’s wing of their
organisations. During the struggles and negotiations for
independence and liberation women participated as leaders of
women’s wing of their organisations.
- In Zimbabwe, women formed 25% of the cadres of the
Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA)
- Women also cooked, fed and provided medication to the male
freedom fighters. They also repair cars and ammunition.
- Women occasionally ruled as queens even though most rulers
were men, for example, Queen Mantatisi of Batlokwa
- In some countries women took part in the struggle for
independence and often fought side by side with men, for
example, Kenya, Mozambique, Angola and Namibia
- Some women leaders even fought against colonial conquest, for
example, Queen Ndzinge of Angola against Portuguese
- During wars for independence women provided
hideout/protection for guerrillas or freedom fighters/take care of
refugees
- In South Africa, women like Mrs. Winnie Mandela and Mrs.
Rose Sebukwe led other women against discriminatory
apartheid laws/ they instigated other women to stage
demonstrations/marches and in the long run formed Women’s
Movements
- They also nursed the wounded soldiers
- Provided food and water for soliders
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
After independence, women participated fully in the development of - Marital problems leading to / resulting in divorce / husband or
their new nations since they now had voting rights. father leaving family for another woman or family

Today women are decision makers in parliament, cabinet, government - Death of the husband / father / male partner
institutions and Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs). - It might be a result of incest / adultery / illegitimate children

THE EMERGING ROLES OF WOMEN - The ease with which one can have a child out of wedlock or before
marriage
Women’s status has improved. Laws have been passed to ensure
- The choice to have a child and remain single
that women are not oppressed or discriminated against.
- Economic independence by women / most of them can now work
• Female-headed households and support their children
• Equal access to jobs
• Training - Loss of interest in marriage by women
• Entrepreneur activities - Disappearance of male partners
• Agriculture
- Education / emancipation of women from sexual bondage
ASSIGNMENTS: Discuss freedoms enjoyed by today’s women
The problems faced by female-headed families
under the following: women oriented schemes, access to jobs,
new policies and female headed households.
- There is little time to spend with the children at home
- Women oriented schemes are development[strategies, measures, - Indiscipline of the children especially the boy child leading to a
initiatives]/policies that are directed especially towards female to high incidence of juvenile delinquency
give them opportunities to participate and benefit in the process
- Vulnerability to attack by criminals / abuse
- Women oriented schemes are official plans that are intended to
- Low standard of living due to lower levels of education by women.
help females participate and /or benefit from the development
This results in poverty that may lead to engaging in illegal activities
process.
by women, for example, prostitution, selling dagga
- Female-headed household is a family where the mother is taking - Women’s low self esteem
care of the family alone
- Unequal distribution of wealth/property
The causes of female-headed households
- Disrespect by society / tradition or culture militates against
emancipation / discrimination / stigma

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ROLE OF WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS
Women’s organisations are Non-governmental Organisations
(NGOs) which were established by women to help liberate them.
Fig.2
Welfarist Women’s Organisations- YWCA, BCW, WASBO,
Kagisano Women’s Shelter
Masunga Senior Secondary School
- Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) provides
day care centres to allow women to go to work or school
- Kagisano Women’s Shelter provides counselling and shelter
for abused women
- Botswana Council of Women (BCW) provides training of
women on practical skills/gives information to women/conducts
beauty contents/runs day care centres
- Women And Sport Botswana (WASBO) promotes
participation of women in sports
Lobbyist Women’s Organisation-Emang Basadi
- Emang Basadi focuses on influencing the government to
remove or change policies or laws that are oppressive to
women/
Advocates for women’s rights
Legal Women’s Organisation- Women Against Rape (WAR)
- Women Against Rape (WAR) focuses on teaching women
about the laws that protect themselves/how to defend
themselves/ensure that perpetrators/rapists are charged.
LOBBYIST ORGANISATION
EMANG BASADI
Emang Basadi is an organisation which was formed in 1986 and
has its headquarters in Gaborone. It is a lobbyist organisation
because it is advocating for the rights of women in Botswana.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
Lobbyist simply means to try to persuade the government or someone
with political power that a law or a situation should be changed or
amended.
This organisation is, therefore, persuading the government of
Botswana to change its laws or constitution to suit or favour both
sexes especially women.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EMANG BASADI
Some of the major achievements of Emang Basadi include the
following:
• Identifying women’s most urgent problems, increasing
public awareness of women’s issues and removing all
barriers that hinder the advancement of women.
That is, it identifies and removing laws that discriminate against
women.
• In 1994 Emang Basadi launched a Polite Education
Project. This was contained in the women manifesto.
Among other things the women’s manifesto aims at;
i. Increasing the number of women in parliament and local
government to 25%.
ii. Reinsuring that political party platforms include women’s
commitments, issues and concerns.
iii. Educating women on the connection between voting and
improving their living conditions.
iv. Promoting awareness of women’s political stand under
representation in politics as well as informing them on the
neglect of their needs.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EMANG BASADI
This organisation has proved its worth and effectiveness in a number of
ways, some of which are discussed below;
Masunga Senior Secondary School
• Emang Basadi has managed to hold Voter Education Seminars
to bring the issues outlined in the Manifesto to community
level.
• Before the 1994 elections, workshops were held to assist women
candidates from all political parties. Women candidates were
trained on handling campaigns especially on public speaking,
fundraising and identifying key national and local issues.
• Women’s issues have been included in the political manifesto of
Botswana’s political parties.
• Representation of women in parliament has gone up.
• We now have women cabinet ministers.
• The number of women councillors has increased.
• The number of women chiefs at House of Chiefs has increased.
• Women are increasingly assuming leadership positions in
government and private sector.
LEGAL ORGANISATION
METLHAETSILE WOMEN’S INFORMATION CENTRE
The Metlhaetsile Women’s Information Centre was founded in 1991 by
small group of Mochudi women.
THE OBJECTIVES OF METLHAETSILE WOMEN’S
INFORMATION CENTRE
 To provide women with education and training about their rights
and status under Botswana law.
 To provide legal assistance to less privileged women.
 To provide education and training to women about family
planning, HIV/AIDS prevention, sexual abuse and violence
issues.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
  To help women deal with the aftermath of rape, sexual abuse
and other forms of violence.
 To develop a constituency of women at village level who will
work with the centre to lobby for the necessary legal reforms to
improve the status of women in Botswana.
 To link up with other women’s group, both nationally and
internationally, that are committed to improving the status of
women for the purposes of sharing experiences and strategies,
and providing support and information.
 To promote a greater understanding of human rights, culture of
human rights, which features women’s rights prominently.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OR ACHIEVEMENTS OF
METLHAETSILE WOMEN’S INFORMATION CENTRE
Metlhaetsile had outstanding achievements in the past.
It made a breakthrough in issues of failed marriages that had
ultimately led to divorce as well as helping those women who were
denied custody of their children during divorce hearings as children
were traditionally seen as belonging to the man and his family.
Women who had cases and could not afford attorneys were
provided with the assistance they needed-hence justice was done as
both parties were presented whenever there was a need.
Today, Metlhaetsile is faced with a mammoth task of providing
legal representation to women who are in need of legal aid-yet
cannot afford to pay legal fees.
This can be in matters relating to divorce or child maintenance as
mentioned earlier on.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
WELFARIST ORGANISATION
BOTSWANA COUNCIL OF WOMEN (BCW)
The Botswana Council of Women is a national non-governmental
organisation that was formed in 1965.
THE OBJECTIVES OF BCW
The objectives of BCW include to:
 Provide affordable nursery school services to enable parents to
freely go to work or be self- employed.
 Provide women and youth with development skills, training for
income generating activities and self-sufficiency for the
alleviation of poverty.
 Encourage responsible citizenship, power sharing and equal
economic opportunities.
 Provide education on HIV/AIDS in order to empower women
with the ability to negotiate with their partners for safer sex.
 Encourage women to participate in self-help-projects.
 Facilitate the establishment of skills development centres in the
villages.
 Advocate and lobby for the eradication of all forms of
discrimination against women and the girl child.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OR ACHIEVEMENT OF BCW
BCW has a number of outstanding achievements, among them are the
following:
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

• The Botswana Council of Women has established over 33
nursery schools all over Botswana. These schools provide
Day Care and food for children while their mothers are at
work.
• It successfully established a Goat Rearing Project in
Ditlharapeng. This generates some income for women
especially those in rural areas.
• They offer six months courses on Dressmaking and fashion
design. At least 20 people trained every year in their
headquarters in Gaborone.
• At least 20 people are trained on linen making (curtains,
comforters, and cushion making) in one-month courses.
• BCW has trained people on hair dressing, for example, the
correct use of chemicals, plaiting and styling over the years.
• They have been the organisers of Miss Botswana contests
over the years.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS IN THE PREVENTION OF
HIV/AIDS AND OTHER COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Botswana is being crippled by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. If the war
against HIV/AIDS is to be won, women should be involved all the way.
Gone are the days when women were viewed as just ‘transmitters’ of the
HIV/AIDS message.
The entire nation must come together to fight against HIV/AIDS.
Women, through a number of organisations, try to teach people about
this scourge. They also support those infected, stigmatised and abused.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
1. The Botswana Council of Women trains women trainers
through workshops to become peer educators on HIV/AIDS
awareness and prevention.
2. The Young Vulnerable Women seeks to mitigate the spread of
HIV/AIDS and prevent teenage pregnancies.
It engages in basic training on skill development and on the
publication of Youth Magazines that contains information on
HIV/AIDS.
3. The Kagisano Society Women’s Shelter Project is voluntary
non-profit making organisation that believes in the equality of
mankind. It strives for a violent free society.
It aims to assist women and children who are survivors of
domestic violence by providing temporary accommodation. It
pioneers community responses to gender crisis, sexual violence
and HIV/AIDS.
4. The Botshabelo Rehabilitation Centre embarks on community
mobilization education and information on HIV/AIDS and
sexual violence.
It helps victims or survivors of sexual violence with user
friendly clinical intervention to reduce trauma.
It also empowers men to be fully involved in the fight against
HIV/AIDS.
The target groups are children, youth and women.
5. Coping Centre for People with Aids (COCEPWA) has been
founded by a Motswana woman who has been living positively
with HIV/AIDS for a number of years.
It has been established mainly to support all those infected
and affected by AIDS and to offer one another the much
needed support.
The membership is open to all, irrespective of gender.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 Members of COCEPWA hold workshops and seminars to
talk openly about living positively with HIV/AIDS, and
best to avoid the infection if not part of the statistics
already.
THE CHALLENGES THAT WOMEN’S
ORGANISATIONS FACE AS THEY WORK TO HELP
WOMEN IN BOTSWANA
- Shortage of funds
- Ignorance of women about their rights
- Shortage of skilled people/ dependence on volunteers/ lack of
volunteers, for example, bookkeepers
- Lack of support from the public
- Lack of buildings for operations
- Lack of public awareness about the NGO/confusion about their
objectives/stereotyping
- Selective locations (make them inaccessible)
- Division among leaders/members/pull her down syndrome due
political affiliation
- Lack of continuity (when the leader dies all programmes stop)
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE FORMAL AND INFORMAL
SECTORS
The formal and informal sector today forms pillars of the Botswana
economy.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
Women in Botswana have greatly contributed to the development of the
country’s economy through the formal and informal sectors.
THE FORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY
In the formal sector women work or do modern activities such as
accounting, teaching, nursing and other professions both in the private
and government departments.
Most of the women are, however, found in low paying jobs. In instances
where both the men and the women do the same job they get the same
pay.
The only problem arising in most cases is that not many women occupy
senior positions.
The formal sector is the part of the county’s economy that is organised
by the government and large firms.
It consists of modern activities such industries, business and
commercial activities and government agencies.
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the
formal sector.
THE INFORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY
The majority of women are found in the informal sector of the economy.
Here they operate tuck-shops, brew and sell beer, mend clothes, design
clothes and do other things.
The jobs the women do here do not need any complicated skills, and as
such even those with no or very little education can do them.
The problem with the informal sector is that profits may take long to be
achieved, and therefore, requires somebody who has the patience to
wait.
This sector of the economy is not organised by individuals, and not the
government nor registered companies.
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
It consists of small, locally owned workshops and home factories, fruits,
vegetable, clothes and jewellery markets, selling of firewood etc.
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of
the informal sector.
WOMEN CONTRIBUTION TO ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT IN THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN
BOTSWANA
- Dominate specific important enterprises like catering,
dressmaking, child care/ provide services
- They create jobs for other people/self-employment
- They provide a market for producers of specific materials like
cotton, wool, reeds for weaving/ increases market
- They can develop into cottage industry, for example, making
cakes at home for supermarkets
- They train themselves/ others/impart knowledge and skills to
others
- They form self -help groups

-They utilise their natural skills like cleaning, cooking, weaving/

traditional skills/ use less business skills
THE REASONS FOR ECONOMIC DISPARITY BETWEEN immovable property and even to advance their career opportunities
WOMEN AND MEN IN BOTSWANA in the commercial sector.

Men in Botswana are wealthier than their women counterparts and occupy  Women’s social status is still relatively low because there are still most
high posts. This is because of many reasons which include the some cultural and traditional values which see women only as following; child-bearers.

 Men have had technical skills for a long time. When colonialists  High teenage pregnancy causes great concern. In
most cases these introduced education, only boys were sent to school. pregnancies are unplanned and cause children
to drop out of school. Dropping out of school acts as a barrier to educational and
 With training and education, men learnt about ways of career advancement of women. accumulating money which
they later invested in other areas.

 Women’s health and survival is threatened by the spread of

 The men have always owned property, for example, land and cattle HIV/AIDS. which they have inherited.
 Female enrolment in vocational and technical institution lags far
 Many years of leadership have made men to be better decision- behind that of men. makers and has helped them use
their money wisely.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 •
There are still gender gaps in employment opportunities that still
THE PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN IN BOTSWANA contribute to the disparity in income between men and women.

Although there are efforts to economically empower women and to remove  There is unequal access by gender to production resources. Access all forms
of discrimination against them and the girl-child, women and the to land may not be easy for some women even today. girl-child still face multiple
problems. These include the following:

•
Violence against Women: Some men beat their partners as they  Female-headed families are on the increase. Women are sole wish. Sometimes
women are prevented from phoning or visiting breadwinners, so they have to engage in income generating relatives and friends by their partners.

activities for child survival and development. As a result there is little time to spend with children at home. Where women did not  Rape is
on the increase. Studies by Women Against Rape (WAR) receive enough education and training their chances for show that at least five females
are forced into sexual intercourse employment are limited and may suffer from poverty.
every day.
 The number of women in the upper echelons of power is very limited.
• or husbands deny
In rural areas, where the level of women literacy rate is low, men  Women’s involvement in business is limited to small scale
their women or wives rights to acquire land,
activities in the informal sector mainly due to financial constraints.

Describe problems that women in modern Botswana face.

THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN
- Rape /sexual harassment
- Domestic violence, for example, emotional abuse and financial  There should be workshops to educate people on the importance
abuse of a life free gender violence. Those who sexually abuse women
- Lowly paid jobs should spend their lives in prisons.
- Lack of capital for investment
- HIV and AIDS infection  They should be Standing Sub-Committees that review laws and
- Low level of education/illiteracy assess their gender implications. Laws that discriminate against
- Cultural stereotypes women should be done away with.
- Single parenting/female headed households
- Pull her down syndrome
- Teenage pregnancy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  The Private Sector, Government and Parastatal organisations
should all make deliberate efforts to appoint women to decision
making positions.
 Policies that support women’s participation in domestic and
external trade should be developed and enforced.
 Women’s reproductive health and rights should be promoted.
Pregnant women should be taken care of. Government should
collaborate with NGOs to promote safe delivery by setting up
good ante and post-natal care services free of charge.
 Education and skills development should be intensified. The
education system should be designed to create gender awareness
from primary level.
 Research activities that will sensitise women on women on
issues that affect their status in society must be promoted.
 Formulate policies that protect women workers employed in
rural and urban informal sectors. Then there should be
monitoring procedures to ensure that such policies are followed
Suggest solutions to each problem that women in modern
Botswana face.
- Rape /sexual harassment
• Law against victimising or blaming raped or sexually
harassed women/make laws that protect women
• Harsh sentences for rapists/sexual offenders
• Educate women to avoid situations where they can be
raped/sexually harassed
• Educate women or girls to report incidents
• Educating men
• Counselling rape victims
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Domestic violence, for example, emotional abuse and
financial abuse
• Adjust Botswana laws to punish men who beat women
• Educating men
• Counselling rape victims and perpetrators
• Provide safe houses/shelters for physically abused
women
• Empower or train women to fight back, for example,
teach women defensive strategies
- Lowly paid jobs
• Train/educate women (so that they get qualifications
for better jobs)
• Affirmative actions
• Provide role models (of women in high posts) for girls)
- HIV and AIDS infection
• Teach women to insist on the use of condoms during
sexual encounters
• Educate/encourage women to use female condoms
• Educate women to insist on HIV and AIDS testing
before sexual encounters/marriages
- Low level of education/illiteracy
• Adult literacy programmes/distance education
- Cultural stereotypes
• Gender awareness workshops/ infusion of gender
education in the curriculum
- Single parenting/female headed households
• Women oriented schemes [allow examples]
- Pull her down syndrome
• Encourage change of mindset
MODULE 1-8

- Teenage pregnancy
• Avail contraceptives
[Rule: Allow two examples of education]
[Solution should be linked to the problem] Check Your
Progress
1. What is a female-headed household?
2. Describe three causes of female-headed households
3. Describe three problems faced by female-headed families
4. What is the meaning of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome?
5. Describe three negative effects of HIV/AIDS on Botswana’s
economic development
6. Describe three positive effects of HIV/AIDS on Botswana’s
economic development
7. What is a Women’s Organization?
8. Describe three problems / challenges that women’s organizations
face in
Botswana
9. State three roles played by women’s organizations in the fight
against
HIV/AIDS in Botswana
10. Name one women’s organization in Botswana 11. Describe
three activities that it performs to empower women
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
12. What is a myth?
13. Discuss three negative effects of traditional values, customs and
practices, taboos and myths on women’s position in society today
14. What is gender equality?
What is meant by equal rights for women?
15. Suggest three ways by which gender equality can be achieved
Suggest three ways by which equal rights for women can be
achieved
16. What is development for women?
17. Why are some development programmes directed especially
towards women?
18. Define colonialism.
19. Describe three positive effects of colonialism on women.
20. Define gender equality.
21. Describe three roles played by women in the pre-independence
politics of Southern Africa.
Explain the importance of any three activities that women carried out to
fight for independence in Southern Africa (BGCSE paper 2-2019) 22.
State three reasons why educating women in important for the
economic development of the country.
23. Suggest three ways by which governments of African countries
can increase school enrolment in girls.
24. Study Fig.1, which shows selected types of women’s
NonGovernmental Organisations in Botswana.
MODULE 1-8
 Fig.1
(a)(i) State one example of each type of women’s Non-Governmental
organisations shown in Fig.1 and describe its activities.

(ii) Suggest challenges that women’s organisations such as the ones

shown in Fig.1 face as they work to help women in Botswana. (a)(i) How many female ministers and assistant ministers were there in
Botswana in the period 2009-2014?
(b)(i) Describe problems that women in modern Botswana face.
(ii) Calculate the percentage of male ministers and assistant ministers in
(ii) Suggest solutions to each problem that women in modern Botswana
Botswana in the same period.
face
(b) Give two reasons why there are few
25. Fig.2 shows some ministries in the cabinet of Botswana and the women in politics in Botswana.
genders of ministers and assistant ministers, between 2009 and 2014.
(c) Give three examples of traditional practices which disadvantaged women in the past.
(d) Suggest three problems faced by women in the formal sector in
Botswana.

26. Study Fig.3, which shows some traditional beliefs about women.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Fig.3

(a)(i) Describe the roles of women in a traditional society.

(ii) Suggest the positive effects of colonialism on women in developing

countries.

(b)(i) Suggest how each traditional belief shown on Fig.3 may negatively affect the
position of women in Botswana.

(ii) Describe other problems faced by women in modern Botswana.

MODULE 6: POPULATION, HEALTH AND EDUCATION development.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
Learners should Learners should be able to:
be able to:
Population Develop an -explain the concept of population;
understanding Education Appreciate the -discuss alternative approaches to the
and appreciation -explain the stages of the Demographic
role of education provision of education in Botswana
of the effects of Transition Model;
-account for the different population in development in including vocational education and
population on
structures presented by different Botswana job shadowing;
development.
population pyramids; such as the provision of clean
water, sanitation, nutrition, -discuss the impact of information
-describe and interpret population entertainment, education, technology education on the development
pyramids for developing and developed availability of personnel, stress of
countries; Botswana;
and poverty;
-discuss the main factors which influence -discuss preventative and
population distribution and population curative primary and secondary -discuss the role of environmental
density in the world; health care, traditional and education on development of Botswana; -
modern health systems; -discuss explain the role of education in addressing
-discuss prospects and challenges the impact of the health on the problems of HIV/AIDS.
presented by rapid population growth in Botswana’s development;
Botswana and suggest possible solutions; -discuss the impact of
HIV/AIDS on Botswana’s
-explain the impact of the population POPULATION
economic development; -
growth on Botswana’s development;
discuss how the health system is
addressing the HIV/AIDS • Population refers to a group of
-demonstrate the ability to collect, analyse
scourge in Botswana; people in an area at a given time.
and present population statistics;
-demonstrate the ability to
-discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on the analyse and interpret health • Population Growth Rate is the
population structure of Botswana; statistics. -explain the concept percentage increase in the number
of education; of people in a country.
-explain the effects of overpopulation on
the environment. -discuss modern and traditional • Population explosion is the rapid
formal, increase in the number of people.
non-formal and informal
Health Explain the role -explain the concept of health; • Depopulation is the decrease in
education;
of health in -discuss factors that influence good health the number of people.
-describe the structure of the formal and
non-formal education in Botswana; • Demography is the study of
population.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • Optimum Population is when
• Dependency Ratio is the proportion of the unproductive aged people (0-14 and 65+) to people of available resources give rise to
economically active ages (15- maximum output per head.
64)
THE SOURCES OF
• Old/Ageing population is a group of people with relatively high proportion of aged people. This POPULATION DATA
kind of a population has low growth potential.
CENSUS is an enumeration of people. It
• Young population is a group of people with relatively high proportion of children, adolescents and usually details such characteristics as age,
young adults. This kind of a population has high growth potential. occupation, sex etc.

• Sex Ratio is the number of males per 100 females in a population. TYPES OF CENSUS

• Population Policy is the explicit or implicit measure institute by a government to influence the  De-factor Census, which is the
size, growth, distribution and composition of a group of people. actual enumeration of people in a
given territory on the census day.
• Population Density is the number of people per unit of land.
 De-jure Census, which is the
• Population distribution is how people are spread or settled over an area. enumeration of people who belong
to a given area, whether or not
• Doubling Time is the number of years required for a population of an area to increase two folds its they are present during the census
present size, given the current rate of population growth. day.
THE
• Overpopulation is the state of available resources being inadequate to support the number with a FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS
reasonable standard of living. OF A CENSUS

• Demographic Transition Model is a diagram which shows how population changes over time. • Each individual is enumerated
separately, and the characteristics
• Population Pyramid is the structure which shows the age-sex composition of a group of people. of each person separately
recorded.
• Rapid Population Growth is the fast increase of the size of a group of people. • The census covers a clearly
defined area, and every person
• Under Population is when people are too few in an area, or when the available resources exceed within the area.
the demand of a group of people.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • The population is enumerated with respect to a well-defined point of time.
• Census is carried out at regular intervals. The patterns of distribution and density are
influenced by:

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CENSUS ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

 It helps in development planning, for fair distribution of resources. • Physical or Relief

• Climate
 It enables government to prioritise, for example, if a large portion of the population is below • Vegetation
15years of age, government’s priority might be to build schools. • Soil Fertility
• Disease and Pests
SAMPLE SURVEY is a method of data collection through using selected groups of the population. The • Availability or lack of natural
information will then be used to inter-trend for larger segment or the entire population. resources such as water, minerals,
sources of energy, etc.
THE REGISTRATION OF VITAL EVENTS
SOCIO-POLITICAL FACTORS
Vital events such as births, marriages, divorce and deaths are usually registered at the Ministry of Labour
and Home Affairs, as they occur.  Slave Trade
 Colonialism
Poor quality data, which is available mostly in developing countries, may be due to non-reporting, lack of  Wars and conflicts
trained staff, lack of money to carry out the exercise, incomplete coverage, cultural and linguistic barriers,  Political instability
among other factors.  Cultural or linguistic segregation
 Racial Discrimination
 Peace and stability, etc

ECONOMIC FACTORS

• Good infrastructure
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY • Job opportunities

Population Density is the number of people per unit of land.

Population distribution is how people are spread or settled over an area.

THE PROSPECTS OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF RAPID
POPULATION GROWTH

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

These are the benefits of rapid population growth:
 Increased market base.  Improving agricultural production.

 Increased provision of labour.  Creating new settlements, for example, towns, villages, cities.

 Advanced technology.  Establishing agencies and schemes to help decrease the cost of building houses, for example, BHC and SHHA.
 Increased military or security superiority

• Providing serviced land, for example, in urban areas through such

 Increased understanding of man’s behaviour and a positive programs as Accelerated Land Servicing Program. development of humanism as
human ideology.

• Establishing rainwater and runoff harvesting measures such as

THE CHALLENGES OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH building more dams.

These are the problems associated with rapid population growth:

• Improving schemes aimed at reducing poverty, especially in rural
 Depletion of natural resources. areas, such as the Drought Relief Programme.
 Food shortage and malnutrition or starvation.
 Shortage of houses and high rentals, high prices for land and  Train more doctors and nurses who might improve medical building
materials. technology.
 Shortage of water.
 Increased in illiteracy rate due to shortage of schools and lowered  Train more teachers and lecturers to improve local educational
educational standards. technology.

 Shortage of medical facilities.

 Pollution, for example, due to dysfunctional sewage systems.  Establishing more industries to create more job opportunities.

 Rapid spread of communicable diseases.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Increased unemployment rate or poverty or underemployment.  Implementing population policies to control population growth.

 Shrinking energy reserves.  Increased crime rate.

 Scarcity-induced inflation.

POPULATION POLICY  Increased orphan-hood.

 High dependency ratio.
The Advantages include:  Increased death rates.
 Reduced population growth rate or population decrease.
 Reduction in poverty since it allows development to keep pace
with population growth.

 It can lessen inflation.

The Disadvantages include:

 It restricts people’s freedom of choice [in regards to the family THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL [DTM]
size]
Demographic Transition Model is a diagram which shows how
 Women may be forced to have abortion, which might endanger population
their health. changes over time

 Strict policies can result in an unbalanced population in terms of

the sex composition.

THE IMPACT OF HIV AND AIDS ON THE POPULATION

STRUCTURE OF BOTSWANA

 Fewer children or reduced birth rates or narrow base.

 Reduced working-age group.
 Reduced life expectancy.
 High infant mortality rate.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 STAGE 2: Early expanding -Birth rate remains high while death rate
rapidly declines, leading rapid population growth.

STAGE 3: Late expanding -Birth rate rapidly decline, but is still higher
than death rate, which continues to decrease, further accelerating
population growth.

STAGE 4: Low fluctuating- Both birth and death rates are low and
fluctuating, resulting in a steady population growth [the population
increases at a comparatively slow pace]

Fig.1 STAGE 5-Birth rate remains low, while death rate steadily increases,
INTERPRETATION leading to a decline in population growth.

STAGE 1: High fluctuating-Birth rate and death rate high and

fluctuating, resulting in a low population growth.
THE REASONS FOR HIGH BIRTH RATE MAY INCLUDE: THE REASONS FOR DECLINING DEATH RATE MAY INCLUDE:

• Lack of knowledge and improper use of contraceptives and poor  The provision of clean water to reduce water borne diseases such family
planning methods. as cholera.
• A lot of children were needed for old age security, to provide labour, as a sign of prestige, to replace those who are dying, to  The provision of
good nutrition, for example, supplementary continue the family name, for religious purpose, etc. feeding for babies in clinics such as Tsabana,
cooking oil and
• Early marriages also led to high birth rates. beans.
• Low levels of literacy also led to high birth rates.
• The provision of improved hygiene and sanitation prevent the
THE REASONS FOR HIGH DEATH RATE MAY INCLUDE: spread of diseases.

 Lack of clean water or flood.  The provision of better health care, for example, training of more
 Poor nutrition doctors and nurses.
 Poor hygiene and sanitation
 Poverty  The improved literacy levels, for example, building of more

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Wars schools and training of teachers.
 Overcrowding

THE REASONS FOR DECLINING BIRTH RATE MAY INCLUDE:

 The couples preferring smaller families

 Improved knowledge and proper use of contraceptives and family
planning methods.
 Low infant mortality rate –no need to replace the dying children.

 Introduction of government schemes such as old-age pension fund,

secures old-age life, hence needless to have a lot of children as old-
age security.

POPULATION PYRAMIDS - Botswana pyramid has a triangular shape

- Botswana pyramid has concave sides
Population Pyramid is the structure which shows the age-sex composition - High dependency ratio of a group of
people.

Ways by which rapid population growth may promote development

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Increased demand or market for goods and services
- Attraction of investors (Foreign Direct Investment)
- Enjoyment of the benefits of economies of scale or promotion of
large scale production which is more efficient
- Full utilisation of transport or communication networks
- Power, water and other services can be operated at a low cost so the
government will establish them
- Availability of cheap labour

Strategies which governments may use to reduce population growth.

- Law restricting number of children per couple
- Offer of incentives for families with few children
- Family planning programme or contraceptives
(a)(i) Description of population structure shown by the pyramid. - Promotion of general education
- Public education on population issues or sex education
- Many youth or high number of young people - Provision of old age pension
- Increasing marriageable age
- Few members of the work force or few economically active people - Women empowerment

- Fewer women than men among the workforce

- Few old people

- More old women than men

Why Botswana could be viewed as a developing country.

- Botswana pyramid has a wider base or high birth rate

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Botswana pyramid has a reducing middle section - Botswana pyramid has very narrow top or apex or low life
Assignment 1: Draw a population pyramid for Peru.
Fig.2
This is a population pyramid for a typical developing country. It can
also be called an Early Expanding Population Pyramid.
INTERPRETATION: It has a broad base, steep or contracting column
or middle, and a thin or narrow apex or top.
ANALYSIS: The population has a high birth rate, shown by a large
number of children; the death rate is also high, indicated by smaller
number of those in the middle and old ages.
Life expectancy is also low, shown by an even smaller number of the
elderly.
This kind of a population is a dependent one, for example, the
dependency ratio is high
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
expectancy
Assignments 2: Draw a population Pyramid for
the UK
Fig.3
This is a population pyramid for typical developed country. It
can also be referred to as a mature population.
INTERPRETATION-It has a narrow base, expanding
column or middle, a thick or broad apex or top.
ANALYSIS-Low birth rate is indicated by a smaller
number of children, the middle aged group has a large
number of people, indicating low death rate.
MODULE 1-8
 INTERPRETATION- It has a narrow base, expanding column, and a
The elderly are also many, indicating high life expectancy. thin or narrow apex or top.

The dependency ratio is low, hence the population is referred to as ANALYSIS- Low birth rate is shown by a small number of children, a
a productive one. large number of people in the middle ages indicate low death rate, and a
smaller number of the elderly shows low life expectancy.

The pyramid is that of a productive population since the dependency

ratio is low.

Assignment 3-Draw a population pyramid for Singapore

Check Your Progress

1 (a).Define population density.

(b) State three problems for the natural environment that may result
from
overpopulation.

2(a) What is meant by ‘population distribution’?

(b) Describe three factors which influence population distribution.

3. Study Fig. 2 which shows a population pyramid for a

Fig.4
country and use it to answer Question 3(a) below.
This is a population pyramid for a typical New Industrialised Country.
It can also be referred to as Late Expanding.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Fig.1
Fig.2
(a)(i) Describe the shape of the pyramid.
(a)What is a demographic transition model?
(ii) Suggest reasons for the shape of the pyramid you have described
above. (b)Which stage has the lowest birth rate?
(c) Suggest reasons for the falling death rate at stage 2.

(d) Describe three benefits for a country of having a large population.

(e) Suggest three ways by which governments can achieve low

4. Study Fig. 2 which shows a demographic transition model and use it population growth rates.
to answer the questions that follow.

5. Study Fig.3, and use it to answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Ideas such as:
• Unemployment/underemployment/poverty
• Pressure on social services such as school , water and
hospitals/clinics
• Depletion of resources
• Overcrowding/shortage of land
• Crime increases
• Spread of diseases/ high morbidity
• Starvation/hunger

(b)(i) How have HIV and AIDS affected the population of

Botswana?

Ideas such as:

Fig.3
• Fewer children/narrow base(0-5 years)/fewer children
born/reduced birth rate
(a)(i) Give reasons for high birth rates in stage 1.
• Fewer 15-49 age bracket because they are the most
Ideas such as: affected/reduced working age group/ loss of breadwinners
• Lack of contraceptives • Reduction in life expectancy
• IMR is high so there is need to have more babies • Fewer women in the population composition especially in the
• Provision of labour/children used as source of labour in middle because they are the most affected
agriculture • High infant mortality rate
• Religious beliefs, for example, Children are a gift from God • Increased orphanhood
• Low levels of literacy • High dependency ratio
• Traditional beliefs and customs/ children as a form of prestige • Reduction in population/increased death rate
• Old age security
• Early marriages
• Chasing for a boy/girl
• Poverty so children expected to work for their families/parents
expecting bride price

(ii) Describe the problems faced by a country in stage 2.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) Describe attempts made by the government of Botswana to • Free distribution of condoms
reduce • Routine testing for HIV
the effects of HIV and AIDS in society.
6.Study Fig.4 which shows the Demographic Transition Model.
Ideas such as:

• Education programmes, for example, Talk back

• Commemoration of World AIDS Day/ Month of youth against
Aids
• Free Antiretroviral drugs
• Food rations given
• Prevention of Mother to child transmission (PMTCT)
programme/ Provision of free milk for babies
• BOTUSA(Botswana United States of America)
• Research towards National Aids Co-ordination Agency
(NACA)
• Infusion of HIV and AIDS in the curriculum Fig.4
• Guidance and counselling in schools/ hospitals

(a)(i) Describe the relationship between the death rate and the birth (ii) Explain the negative effects of HIV and AIDS on economic rate from
Stage 1 to Stage 4. development in Botswana.
- In stage 1 they are both high.
- In stage 2 the death rate drops while the birth rate remains high. -- In Death of skilled manpower.
stage 3 the birth rate begins to drop while the death rate is low. - - In stage 4 Loss of production time as people spend time in funerals and
they are both low. caring for the sick.
- High government expenditure on health which means that
(ii) Suggest reasons for the high death rate in Stage 1 of the funds are diverted from development projects to support
Demographic Transition Model. health care Less tourists visit the country for fear of HIV and
- AIDS.
- Low productivity at work because people are sick or stressed
- Outbreak of killer diseases such as polio. by
- Poor diets/famine/low calorie intake - HIV and AIDS
- Poor medical technology/ lack of health facilities/ poor health/ lack of High expenditure by families on funerals
immunisation programme. - Lack of safe water supplies -
6.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Low levels of formal education.  (a) (i)Describe the factors which contribute to rapid
- Wars population growth.
- Poor sanitation/ hygiene 
(Allocation of marks: 5/5 6/4 4/6) Lack of birth control/family planning method/lack of

contraceptives
 Need for children as labour in agriculture
(b)(i) Describe actions that hospitals and clinics take to fight HIV and
AIDS.  Religious beliefs
- Health talks on HIV and AIDS at hospitals and clinics/ public education  Balancing boys and girls/ desire for either boys or girls
- Display of HIV and AIDS posters in hospitals and clinics/ surrounding  Polygamy
areas.
 Early marriages/teenage pregnancy
- Counselling of HIV and AIDS victims and the affected family members.
 Children viewed as security for the aged/ bride price
- Testing people for HIV and AIDS
 High infant mortality rate/ parents replacing dead children
- Proper disposal of used hospital equipment e.g. needles
Immigration
- Provision of Anti Retro Viral Drugs (ARVs) to HIV and AIDS patients 
Lack of education/illiteracy
- Running the Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission
Traditional beliefs/prestige

(PMTCT) programme to protect unborn children

- Distribution of free condoms

- Encourage/ conduct male circumcision

(ii) Explain the measures which can be adopted by a country to • Health education
slow down population growth. • Empowering women
• One child per couple policy (b)(i) What are the problems faced by countries in controlling high
• Legalizing abortion population growth?
• Offering contraceptives freely/ family planning/ birth control/
sterilization • Low education levels in rural areas
• Formal education/ Educating the society • Unavailability of contraceptives in some areas
• Giving incentives to smaller families/ fining larger families • Apathy/negative attitude towards family planning
• Maternity leave policy which discourages having many programmes
children • Conservative culture/religions which encourage large
• Making children items expensive families/ cultural rigidity
• Laws against chid labour • Abuse of drugs/ alcohol
• Encourage adoption • Child labour

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • Lack of funds to implement family planning programmes

(ii) Discuss the impacts of HIV and AIDS on the population of

Botswana.

Negative effects:

• Reduced life expectancy

• High infant mortality rate
• Loss of skilled manpower/ breadwinners/working class
• High death rate
• Reduced population
• More women die than men
• Low birth rates
• Increase in orphans/ high dependency ratio
Fig.5
Positive effects:
• Population growth rate is controlled
(a)(i) Describe the population characteristics shown by the
• Fewer people for the resources available/ fewer mouths to
pyramid.
feed
- High birth rate
7.Study Fig. 5, which shows a population pyramid for Botswana in
- Birth rate is beginning to reduce
2001.
- High death rate
- Low life expectancy/ few old people
- Life expectancy for females is higher than that of males/ more old (ii) Suggest actions that the government of Botswana could take to solve
females than males problems resulting from its population structure.

- High dependency ratio.

- More females than males - Introduce family planning/ birth control/ contraceptives/ few children/ one child policy.

(ii) The 0-4 age group is similar than the 5-9 and 10-14 age groups. - Law restricting number of children.
Suggest reasons for this reduction. - Promote formal education to change the traditional mind set
on large family.
Ideas such as: - Improve health service to reduce death rate or increase life expectancy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 contraceptives.
- Increased use of contraceptives/family planning/provision of free - Improve agricultural methods to ensure high yields from small
fields/ agricultural extension service.
- More women are educated so they are empowered/ are aware of - Encourage reforestation/ afforestation their reproductive health. - Introduce
environmental laws
- More career women so they lack time to care for babies. - Train people for self-employment/employment creation/financial - People
are afraid of pregnancy because of HIV and AIDS assistance

- High infant mortality rate due to HIV and AIDS/ Other diseases - Recognition of the informal sector by the government.
- High cost of living discouraging birth rate/Highly ambitious people - Provide more social services to reduce overload(on social services) control
birth rate to maintain high living standards. - Land redistribution/resettlement programmes.
- Laws against child labour/ improved technology - Welfare programmes/food baskets for the destitute/ government - Change of traditional
mindsets on the size of the family. help the poor with basic needs.
- Reduced infant mortality rate/ improved health facilities - Women empowerment/ skilled manpower - Government pension reduces the need for a
large family
(b)(i) Describe the problems that Botswana is experiencing as a
result of its population structure.
- High taxation of workforce to cater for many youth/ too many
dependants/ government burdened on welfare programmes. -
Overload of social services e.g. schools and hospitals. -
Unemployment due to expanding population. - Deforestation
due to high demand for trees (from expanded
population)/ depletion of natural resources.

- Poor sanitation/ littering/pollution.

- Starvation/ hunger/ poverty
- Shortage of farm land /grazing land/ land

9.Study Fig. 6, which shows population characteristics in Botswana in Population Census 1981 Census Census 2001
1981, 1991 and 2001. Characteristcs 1991

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Dependency Ratio (per 110 93 71.5 10. Fig. 7 Shows the Demographic Transition Model.
1000)
Crude Birth Rate (per 47.7 39.3 28.9
1000)
Crude Death Rate (per 13.9 11.5 12.4
1000)
Infant Mortality Rate 71 48 56
(per 1000)
Life expectancy (in 56.5 65.3 55.6
years)
General Fertility Rate 6.5 4.2 3.27
(per woman Aged 15-
49)
Urban % 9 45.7 54.2

Source: National Development Plan 9

Fig.6

(a)(i) Describe the changes in population characteristics between 1991 and Fig.7
2001.
(a)(i) Name Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model.
(ii) Suggest reasons for the increase in life expectancy from 1981 to 1991.
(ii) At what stage does the total population start to rise?
(b)(i) Describe the factors that could have caused the high general fertility
rate in 1981. (b) Give two reasons for the high death rate in Stage 1.

(ii) Suggest actions that the government of Botswana can take to reduce (c) Give three reasons for the high birth rates in developing countries.
the dependency ratio.
(d) Suggest three measures that developing countries can use to
reduce their birth rates.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - High incidents of alcohol consumption/smoking/drug
abuse/life threatening habits
- Poor nutrition/people eating unbalanced
diets/underfeeding/starvation
11. Study Fig. 1, which is an extract on population characteristics of - People drinking contaminated water
Botswana in 2012. - People living passive lives/lack of exercise
- People stressed by challenges of life
The World Economic Forum (2012) reports that in 2012, Botswana’s life
- Shortage of health facilities/medication
expectancy was 53.1 years and that the country was at position number
132 out of 144 countries. Infant mortality rate was 36.1 per 1000 live - Ignorance or lack of cooperation resulting in missing medical
births, putting Botswana at position number 104 out of 144 countries. check ups
- Poor sanitation/hygiene - Back-breaking jobs - High rate
Fig.8 road accidents.
(a)(i) Describe the actions that the government of Botswana is taking to
address the problem of high infant (b)(i) Describe how HIV and AIDS might affect the population
Mortality rate. structure of Botswana.

- Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT)
programme to stop or curb mother to child HIV infection/
provision of milk formula/ART/HAART
- Monitoring of under 5 years growth, for example, provision of
supplementary feeding such as Tsabana, vaccination of babies
against killer diseases such as polio and measles, weighing
- Medical care for pregnant mothers/ antenatal care
- Education of mothers/parents/guardians on baby care
- Public education, for example clean environment, delivering at
health facilities, boiling water before giving to child
- Training/employing specialists/health personnel such as nurses
and doctors
- Provision of health facilities
(ii) Apart from HIV and AIDS, suggest other reasons why Botswana had a
low life expectancy in 2012.
- Reduced Birth Rate as people fear unprotected sex/ fewer
babies/reduced youth
- Increased Death Rate/reduced population
- Few old people/ low life expectancy
- Reduced workforce/bread winners/death of active members
as they are at the highest risk
- Few women in the workforce group
- More orphans
(ii) Suggest challenges faced by hospital and clinics in the
fight against HIV and AIDS.
- Lack of funds/high expenses of purchasing Anti -Retroviral
(ARVs)
- Stigmatisation of HIV/AIDS
- Traditional practices that promotes HIV and AIDS such as a
brother inheriting a dead brother’s wife regardless of HIV
status and polygamy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Overcrowding in health facilities, for example, shortage of beds - Culture/Religion which counter HIV/AIDS fight, for
- Shortage of the health personnel or overworked health personnel example, which discourages open talk about sex especially
- Ignorance/illiteracy, for example, people ignore the PMTCT children - Poor disposal of clinical waste/health personnel at
programme or refuse to use condoms risk.

HEALTH
NB: Availability of these influence good health, and lack of these influence EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS poor health.

Good health is the absence of diseases, poverty, and stress.  Nutrition or diet

Poor health is the presence of diseases, poverty, and stress  Living conditions

Pandemic is a disease that spreads throughout the world. Stress
Endemic is a disease that is always present in a country.
Malnutrition is a medical condition that results from lack of the right type  Resources
of food.  Health personnel
Balanced diet is a meal containing all the nutrients needed by the body in  Entertainment

the right amount.  Education

Transfusion is when a patient is short of blood receives blood from another
person.  Poverty
Transplant is replacing a sick part of the body, for example, heart and  Sanitation
kidney.  Clean and safe water

THE FACTORS INFLUENCING HEALTH THE WAYS IN WHICHGOOD HEALTH PROMOTES THE
DEVELOPMENT OF BOTSWANA.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Healthy/fit workers are more productive

- Healthy students do well at school

- A healthy nation cuts expenditure on health services(so more money for development projects)

- Good health attracts tourists who bring foreign exchange

Fig.1
• Clean water prevents waterborne diseases such as cholera - Healthy people are happy people so they cooperate with the
• Sanitation controls breeding of germs in the environment government ( they spend less time complaining/relate well with
Prevents diseases others)
• Entertainment lowers stress/ lowers blood pressure as people are
happy - Healthy environment attracts investors

• Balanced diet protects the body from diseases/Provide energy

• Fitness programmes improves the immune system Increase

• Hospitals and clinics helps to control spread of infections, for
THE WAYS BY WHICH PEOPLE IN BOTSWANA COULD
BE
ENCOURAGED TO EAT BALANCED DIETS
- Supplementary feeding is provided in schools and clinics
- Posters to teach people the importance of eating balanced diet
- Media nutrition programmes, for example, television, radio
and print media
- Agriculture extension workers help people to grow various
types of food
example, distribution of condoms to reduce HIV infections
- Community Based Organisations could teach or encourage
people to grow vegetables or raise chickens
- Destitute/orphans given food baskets
DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS ARE USED TO MEASURE
HEALTH
- Morbidity – The higher the morbidity the lower the health

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Doctor-patient ration- The higher the ratio the lower the
health
- Population per hospital bed- The higher the population per
hospital the lower the health
- Infant Mortality Rate- The higher the IMR the lower the
health
- Calorie intake- The higher the calorie intake the higher the
health
- Life expectancy-The higher the life expectancy the higher the
health
- Maternal death- The higher the maternal death the lower the
health
TRADITIONAL HEALTH/MEDICINE
It is also referred to as traditional medicine.
Traditional medicine is a cultural approach to prevention, diagnosis
and treatment of diseases.
The bones of dead animals are mostly used during diagnosis, and
plants, roots and leaves are usually used in their raw form to treat
ailments.
To prevent diseases and even accidents, traditional medicine
relies on taboos and prohibitions, for example, ‘Fa o tsamaya ka
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
sa morago, mmago o tla wela mo nkgwaneng’ this is meant to
discourage children from engaging in dangerous activities like
walking backwards, since accidents can easily happen.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL HEALTH
 Traditional health mostly operates at the healer’s home.
 In traditional health treatment is based on belief, hence
unscientific, and conservative.
 Simple technology is used.
 The healing materials is acquired from the environment, and
mostly used in their raw form.
 It is usually hereditary, and within family or relatives, hence it is
surrounded by mystery.
 The information is memorised.
MODERN MEDICINE/HEALTH
Modern medicine is a scientific approach to prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of diseases.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN MEDICINE
 The diagnosis has set procedures.
MODULE 1-8
  The drugs are used to kill germs to treat diseases.
The programmes or elements of primary health care include:
 It usually operates in hospitals and clinics.
 The modern health personnel receive extensive training.
 The data is documented.
 The treatment is based on experiments and trials.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A TRADITIONAL AND A
MODERN HEALTH SYSTEM
- In traditional medicine, healing/diagnosis is based on the
beliefs of the patient/people whilst in modern medicine it is
based on scientific causes of the diseases.
- In traditional medicine, healers are people who have acquired
skills handed down by their forefathers whilst in modern
medicine healers are nurses and doctors trained in colleges
and universities.
- In traditional medicine, herbs/roots/ other natural products are
used for treatment whilst in modern medicine drugs/ other
medicines are used.
- Traditional medicine is conducted in the homes/forestry/ any
suitable place whilst modern medicine is conducted in clinics
and hospitals.
- Traditional medicine healing/consultation is oral whilst in
modern medicine there is documentation/ records kept.
- Traditional medicine uses simple skills/ technology to heal
whilst modern uses advanced skill/technology to heal.
PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
Primary health care is the measure that helps to prevent diseases,
and provide basic assistance to the sick.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
Fig.2
- Water and sanitation deals with the provision of safe water
eliminates or reduces waterborne diseases whilst hygiene
removes breeding places for pests.
- Health education deals with informing people about diseases
and their prevention maintains good health.
- Nutrition promotion encourages people to eat balanced diets
improves their health.
- Basic education deals with the provision of literacy- literate
people learns simple ways of avoiding diseases.
- Food security is ensuring that people have enough food to eat
helps them to be healthy.
- Immunisation is the provision of vaccines prevents diseases
such as polio.
THE ELEMENTS/CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
(a) HEALTH EDUCATION which involves the dissemination or
passing of information concerning sanitary measures needed for
the preservation of good health. People are taught about:
MODULE 1-8

• Family planning and contraceptives
• Food and nutrition
• Child care and development
• Hygiene and environmental sanitation.
(b) SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING- The following groups are
provided with supplementary foods to improve their diet, in a
bid to eliminate malnutrition and help strengthens immune
systems:
 Primary school children
 Drought stricken people
 Malnutrition and underweight children
 Medically vulnerable people like the HIV/AIDS patients.
 Orphaned and needy children.
(c) PROVISION OF CLEAN AND SAFE WATER is provided to
eradicate and prevent waterborne diseases.
This is done through:
• Sinking of boreholes deemed unsafe
• Construction of protected wells and springs
• Construction of dams
• Purifying water and providing piped water.
(d) ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
Masunga Senior Secondary School
A clean environment can be achieved through:
 Construction of public toilets
 Enforcing health bye laws.
 Standardised housing.
 Digging rubbish pits to bury degradable waste.
(e) IMMUNISATION is when babies and children of up to five or six
years of age are vaccinated against preventable diseases.
 Universal child immunisation programme are designed to
eradicate all the child killer diseases and reduce infant mortality
rates.
The challenges that developing countries might meet as they work to
provide primary health care
- Shortage of volunteers to work on primary health care
programmes/health personnel
- Lack of funds to run primary health care programmes/people lack
of funds to support primary health care programmes
- Illiteracy/ignorance of the people causing lack of support for
primary care programmes, for example, some parents refusing to
take children for vaccinations/ people refusing to use condoms
- Strong beliefs in secondary health care/hospitals/injections and
pills
- Traditional medicine sometime works against primary health
care, for example, traditional doctors may advise people to stop
bathing as a procedure
- Large population making programmes difficult to manage
- Political instability
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

SECONDARY HEALTH CARE
Secondary health care is a more specialised approach to treatment of
diseases. Modern medical equipment and medicine are used to bring
patients back to good health.
Health personnel are specialised.
THE EFFECTS OF POOR HEALTH
• It produces a state of insecurity and hopelessness among
people.
• It lowers productivity.
• It burdens the national budget.
• It leads to loss of skilled manpower.
• It may lead to loss of employment.
THE EFFECT OF HIV/AIDS
(a) NEGATIVE
 It reduces productivity.
 It leads to loss of skilled manpower.
 It increases expenditure on health.
 It burdens welfare departments.
 It increases death rates.
 It reduces the market base.
 It reduces foreign investment.
(b) POSITIVE
 It encourages the development of research.
 It may lead to infrastructure development such as clinics and
hospitals.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
 It leads to creation of employment, for example, lay counsellors.
 It reduces the mouths to feed in the family.
 It leads to change of perceptions.
 It encourages foreign aid.
 It enhances training of personnel such as nurses and doctors.
THE WAYS OF ADDRESSING THE HIV/AIDS SCOURGE IN BOTSWANA
• Providing students with information on HIV/AIDS issues.
• The establishment of agencies aimed at addressing the scourge,
for example , National AIDS Coordinating Agency (NACA)
• The establishment of Tebelopele Voluntary Counselling and
Testing Centres.
• The introduction of Home Based Care Programme.
• The provision of free condoms.
• The provision of free food rations to the HIV/AIDS patients.
• The Provision of free food ration to the orphans.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY EDUCATION IN ADDRESSING HIV/AIDS
 HIV/AIDS is included in the school curriculum.
 Essay competition with HIV/AIDS themes.
 Students from clubs dealing with HIV/AIDS issues.
 Guidance and Counselling department in schools educate students
on HIV/AIDS.
 Establishment of HIV/AIDS Television or computer programmes,
for example, Talk Back.
 Media is also used to provide information on issues of HIV/AIDS
THE WAYS IN WHICH HIV AND AIDS NEGATIVELY AFFECT
DEVELOPMENT IN BOTSWANA
- Loss of foreign direct investment (FDI)
- Reduce productivity
- Over expenditure on health, for example, money used on for Anti
Retro Viral drugs (ARVs)/ orphanage/ food baskets/ research
- Reduced workforce
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 - Diversion of development funds into the health sector stall - Workshops on changing male perceptions/ attitudes towards
other vital developments women.
- Traumatised society due to AIDS deaths affecting money
aspects of development - Women empowerment on resisting decisions imposed on them.
- Reduced domestic market due to loss of active people with
purchasing power - Lobbying for harsh punishment on rapists.
- Underutilisation of resources/ facilities due to decrease in
population size. - Commemoration of World Aids Day
- High dependency ratio/increased poverty rate due to loss of - Safe male circumcision
breadwinners. THE CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN SETTING UP AND RUNNING
- Reduced earnings from tourism. HOSPITALS AND CLINICS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- Shortage of trained personnel, for example, doctors and nurses
THE WAYS IN WHICH HEALTH CARE SERVICES AND WOMEN’S
ORGANISATIONS ARE HELPING IN THE PREVENTION OF HIV AND - Very high population so facilities are overloaded
AIDS IN
BOTSWANA
- Health personnel are overworked
- Dissemination or passing of information/teaching people
about HIV and AIDS. - Dealing with high number of incurable diseases
- Preventing transmission from mother to child/ provision of
milk formula. - Very expensive to build hospitals and clinics
- Home based care activities promoting safe handling of
patients. - The training of personnel is lengthy and expensive
- Counselling for prevention
- Care for orphans to free them from abuse and infection. - Communicable diseases, for example, TB/put health personnel/
other patient at risk
- Researches, for example, TDF 2 programme, Botswana and
Harvard collaboration. - Traditions/some religions stop people from receiving medical
treatment
- Provide routine testing
- Very expensive to run
- Distribution of free condoms

- Promotion of female condoms

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 (b) Describe any three features of Botswana’s primary health care system.

3(a) Define modern health care.

Check Your Progress
(b) State three reasons why investing in modern health care is difficult for
1.Study Fig. 1 which shows factors that influence good health. Botswana.

4.(a) Fig. 2 shows the Primary Health Care Umbrella. Use it to answer
question 3 (a)

Fig1

(a)(i) Explain how each factor in Fig. 1 helps people to have good
health.
Fig.2
(ii) Suggest ways by which people in Botswana could be encouraged Using your own words, describe three different elements of a primary
to eat balanced diets. health care system

(b)(i) Describe how any three development indicators are used to Describe the differences between a traditional and a modern health
measure health. system.

(ii) Explain challenges encountered in setting up and running Explain how HIV and AIDS negatively affect development in Botswana.
hospitals and
clinics in developing countries. Describe ways in which health care services and women’s organisations
2.(a) Define the term primary health care system. are helping in the prevention of HIV and AIDS in Botswana.

5. Study Fig.3, which is an extract from Botswana’s 2015 budget speech.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 (ii) Suggest ways by which provision of water promotes development.
The budget is intended to address key priority areas of
human capital, the fight against HIV and AIDS including Ideas such as:
elimination of mother to child transmission, poverty
eradication, provision of water and power supply, - Water use for irrigation in agriculture
employment creation as well as maintenance of existing
infrastructure. - Control waterborne diseases, for example, diarrhoea and cholera
- Water used as raw material in industries/cleaning (for beverages)
- Water used for cooling purposes in thermal power production/ air
Fig.3 conditioning
- Water used for steaming the thermal power production
- Water used for domestic purposes/promotes good health
(a)(i) Describe each key area mentioned in Fig.3 - Water used for swimming pools/ in tourists
industry/hotels/holiday resorts/water sports
Ideas such as:

- Human capital is when the government will train workers or (b)(i) Describe how good health promotes the development of Botswana.
people to work in various production activities
- Fight against HIV and AIDS – the government will control (ii) Suggest challenges that developing countries might meet as they
or prevent the spread of the HIV and AIDS diseases, for work to provide primary health care.
example, by providing free condoms and PMTCT
- Poverty eradication is when the government improve
people’s standards of living or provision of people’s basic
needs.
- Provision of water and power supplies which the
government carry out through connection of water pipes and
electric lines/ drilling boreholes
- Employment creation which will be done by the
government through the establishment of activities that will
provide jobs for people
- Maintenance of existing infrastructure in which the
government will repair roads and bridges that are already
there or existing
infrastructure

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 EDUCATION CAN BE MEASURED BY:

 Levels of literacy which shows the percentage of the population

that can read and write.

 School enrolment which shows the number of learners attending

school compared to those who could be in school. The number
attending tertiary indicates the amount of tertiary education
provided in the country

TYPES OF EDUCATION

TRADITIONAL EDUCATION is teaching and learning that is done

mainly through speech and demonstrating.

The society’s belief and customs are handed down from one generation to
another.
EDUCATION
i. Formal traditional education is the organised instruction which
takes place through initiation schooling for boys and girls.
Education means imparting and acquiring knowledge.
Teenagers spend time away from their homes learning life skills. They are
THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION thereafter treated as adults.
• It keeps people informed.
ii. Informal traditional education is generally family, and
• It enhances political association.
genderbased.
• It encourages technical advancement.
• It provides economic training.  It transmits culture.
Teaching is through storytelling, poetry, singing, dancing, ceremonies and
• It improves people’s self- esteem. rituals.
• It helps people to be more adaptable to change.
• It improve literacy rate. THE ADVANTAGES OF TRADITIONAL EDUCATION
• It produces productive workers.
• It helps in the comprehension of the importance of conserving • Traditional education helps preserve cultural heritage of the
nature. society.
• It increases people’s awareness of health issues. • It is cheap to run.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • Traditional education helps the learner to have a sense of
belonging in the community.
• It helps the learners to associate with the local environment,
and hence conserve it.
• Traditional education enables learners to acquire survival
skills since it is more practical.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF TRADITIONAL EDUCATION
 Traditional education is conservative, it fails to accommodate
innovative ideas.
 Instruction in initiation schools sometimes involves harsh
treatment which leads to injury or even death.
 Knowledge can be distorted or even lost since it is imparted
orally.
MODERN EDUCATION
Modern education is the contemporary learning and teaching which
heavily relies on written word.
1. Formal education system takes place in an institution of
learning, for example, a school and college.
It has a set structure with specific curriculum and a syllabus, and
clearly defined period of learning.
It involves qualified teachers and certification.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
2. Academic Education prepares learners mostly for clerical or
white collar jobs.
It is divided into three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary.
3. Vocational Education and Job Shadowing (apprenticeship)
equips learners with skills that will help them perform specialised
tasks.
Job shadowing is a work based learning where learners visit the
workplace to observe and copy workers as they perform their tasks
THE IMPORTANCE OF JOB SHADOWING
 It prepares learners for employment
 It provides a link between school learning and the world of work.
 It stimulates career selection process.
 It generates skilled workforce.
In Botswana, secondary school students have an opportunity to learn
practical and business subjects such as commerce, accounts, art, home
management, design and technology.
Vocational training is also available after completion of secondary
schooling (either at junior or senior level) at brigades and technical
colleges.
Graduates automatically get employed or assisted to start their own
companies.
4. Informal Education is gained through life experience. Learning
takes place within the surrounding.
For example, one can get information from public sources such as the
media and by imitation.
MODULE 1-8
 5. Non-formal Education takes place outside the school set up.
It is less structured than the formal one.
It takes place at any convenient place such as the workplace or
someone’s home through correspondence and with the help of literacy
assistants.
For example, include literacy classes, agricultural education, health
education and learning circles.
 It equips learners with skills to use computers.
 It enhances fast dissemination of data.
 It accords the country an opportunity to compete on global
technological innovations.
 It produces technically skilled graduates to boost economic
growth.
 It enhances the country’s competitive participation in
international trade.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
THE ADVANTAGES OF MODERN EDUCATION
Environmental education helps in raising awareness on issues related to
• It is innovative. the natural surroundings.
• It widens the scope of thinking of an individual.
• It enhances productivity at work. THE WAYS OF PROVIDING ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
• It equips learners with skills for their careers. IN
BOTSWANA
THE DISADVANTAGES OF MODERN EDUCATION
• Through kgotla meetings.
 It leads to inequalities since it creates a lot of competition. • Through litter picking campaigns.
 Most of its curricula are Eurocentric, hence upholds that • Through drama performance.
culture at the expense of others. • In pamphlets.
 It is expensive to run.
 It emphasizes acquisition of certificates at the expense of Assignment: Evaluate educational systems of two countries in SADC
acquisition of practical skills. region.
 Lack of basic resources may lower educational achievements
in the country.

THE IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

IN
BOTSWANA

Information technology is the computerized production, storage and

dissemination of data.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check Your Progress
1.Study Fig. 1, which is about traditional education in South Africa,
and answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).[2008]
Fig.1
(a)(i) Describe the main features of traditional education.
Ideas such as:
- The main feature of traditional education is that it takes place
in initiation schools, for example, bogwera and bojale.
- The main feature of traditional education is that it is oral, for
example it uses stories, dance and songs.
- In traditional education teachers are all elderly people who are
experienced.
- The main feature of traditional education is that it prepares
boys and girls for adulthood.
- The traditional education is based on culture.
- The main feature of traditional society is that learning is by
hands on or practical.
- The main feature of traditional society is that learning is
continuous.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
(ii) What are the disadvantages of traditional education?
Ideas such as:
- The disadvantage of traditional education is that it focus on the
past or lacks dynamism or promote rigidity.
- The traditional education is restrictive due to its being gender
based or discriminating.
- The disadvantage of traditional education is that information gets
distorted due to its being oral or lack of record keeping.
- The traditional education discourages industrial initiative or
creativity and innovation.
- The disadvantages of traditional education are that emphasises on
skills out of touch with the modern world or low literacy rate.
- The traditional educational uses unethical teaching methods.
Allocation of marks: 6/4, 5/5
(b)(i) What challenges do governments of developing countries face in
their efforts to provide formal education?
Ideas such as:
- The challenge government of developing countries face in their
efforts to provide formal education is that of lack of funds/ it is
expensive.
- The governments of developing countries face the problem of
increased numbers of enrolment in their efforts to provide formal
education.
- In developing countries the governments are faced with the
challenge of resistance from some religious and tribal groups in
their efforts to provide formal education.
- The challenge government of developing countries face in their
efforts to provide formal education is that of high drop-out rate,
for example, teenage pregnancy.
MODULE 1-8
 - The governments of developing countries are faced with the
challenge of lack of qualified teachers in their efforts to
provide formal education.
- The challenge faced by developing countries in their effort to
provide formal education is that of lack of educational
resources, for example, teaching equipment.
- Developing countries governments face the challenge of lack
of infrastructure such as buildings in their effort to provide
formal education.
(ii) Explain how schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS.
Ideas such as:
- The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through
infusion in the syllabus.
2. Study Fig.4, which is an extract on education and answer question 1 (a).
[2010]
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that learner’s progress at their own pace.
- In school HIV/AIDS awareness can be raised by clubs such as
PACT.
- The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through
provision of counselling.
- In schools HIV/AIDS awareness can be raised by having essay
competition on HIV/AIDS themes.-Schools can raise HIV/AIDS
awareness by encouraging voluntary testing.
- The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through posters,
billboards and pamphlet development.
- The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through drama,
songs, dance and beauty contests.
- In schools HIV/AIDS awareness can be raised by
commemorating World Aids Day, Month of Youth Against
AIDS, and prayers for HIV and AIDS.
(ii) What are the characteristics of non-formal education?

- In non-formal education there is self-learning.

- The characteristic of non-formal education is that learners of all ages are accepted.
Fig.2
- The non-formal education takes place at any convenient place or (a)(i) Describe any three kinds of
formal education provided in the anywhere.
Botswana system of education.
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that certification is
Ideas such as:
optional or examinations are optional.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - The kind of formal education provided in the Botswana system of
- The non-formal education can take place through distance learning education is that of education with
production where learners or there is distance learning in non-formal education. carry out productive work as part of their lessons.
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that sometimes there

tical skills for improving people’s

is emphasis on teaching prac
- The formal education provided in the Botswana system of standard of living. education is that of vocational training where learners are taught
practica
l skills so they can get jobs, for example, plumbing and
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that learners are brick laying. taught or tutored by experienced workers with some educational
- The technical training is where learners are given technical training. knowledge to work as technicians, for example, in agriculture,
Marks allocation: 6/4, 4/6, 5/5
industry and telecommunications.

- The kind of formal education provided by Botswana education system is that of job shadowing or apprenticeship where learners
works with experienced workers in order to learn from them hands
on.

(b)(i) Describe the importance of environmental education to the - The importance of environmental education in Botswana will
development of Botswana. promote awareness of global environmental agreements.
- The environmental education in Botswana will empower locals
Ideas such as: or leadership.
- The importance of environmental education to the development
- The importance of environmental education to the development
of Botswana is that it enables community based organisations
of Botswana is that it encourages use of appropriate technology.
(CBO’s) to generate income for locals.
- In Botswana environmental education improves health through
prevention of diseases or primary health care.
- The importance of environmental education to the development
of Botswana is that it will promote the conservation of natural
resources.
- The environmental education in Botswana will encourage
tourism which generates income for the government.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


(ii) Suggest ways in which environmental education can be promoted
in Botswana.
- The way in which environmental education can be promoted in
Botswana is by including it in school curriculum.
- In Botswana environmental education can be promoted through
billboards and posters.
- The way in which environmental education can be promoted in
Botswana is by publishing books on environment.
- In Botswana environmental education can be promoted through
television and radio programmes, newspapers and magazines.
- The way in which environmental education can be promoted in
Botswana is through clean up campaigns.
- In Botswana environmental education can be promoted through
workshops, for example, kgotla meetings.
- The way in which environmental education can be promoted is
by having school environmental clubs and through community
based organisations (CBO’s).
- In Botswana environmental education can be promoted by
celebration of environmental days, for example, tree planting
day. Marks allocation: 6/4, 4/6, 5/5
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
3(a) What is meant by vocational education?
(b) Describe three ways by which a country can benefit from vocational
education.
Define information technology
- Information technology is a computerised or storage or
dissemination of data.
- Information technology is a way of disseminating data using
electronic gadgets, for example, computers.
- Information technology is accessing or sharing or distributing
knowledge or skills using computers.
Describe three benefits of information technology in development of
Botswana.
- Stores/preserves/saves data
- Retrieves information across different disciplines
- Easy analysis of complex information or makes teaching and
learning easier
- Development of infrastructure
- Global communication becomes easy
- Creation of IT job opportunities
- Promotes international trade/economic linkage/electronic
payments made possible
MODULE 1-8
 - Improvement of technology, for example, teaching using a (b)(i) Describe other ways by which people can get education without
projector going to school.
- Convenience of usage
(ii) Explain the importance of some school activities in fighting against
- Skills development
- Quality products are produced HIV and AIDS

Study an extract on availability of the internet in schools in

Botswana.
The World Economic Forum reports that on internet access in schools,
Botswana is at position number 92 out of 144 countries. Internet
access is an important part of Information Technology (IT) and
Computer Education.
Fig.5
(a)(i) Describe ways in which Information Technology (IT) is introduced
in Botswana.
(ii)Suggest reasons why Botswana’s position in internet access in
schools is low.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 7: POLITICS AND DEVELOPMENT Non- Understand the dynamics -explain Non-Governmental
TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES Governmental of Non-Governmental Organisations;
OBJECTIVES Organisations in Organisations and their -account for the existence of
Learners should be able Learners should be able to: Development impact on development NonGovernmental Organisations in
to: in Botswana and in Botswana;
Government Explain different forms of -explain the concept of politics, state Southern Africa. -discuss the work of lobbyist,
and governments and their and government; welfarists, conservationists and
Development influence on developmental Non-Governmental
development. -discuss and evaluate types of Organisations;
governments; -examine and evaluate government
and Non-Governmental
-discuss ways in which social, Organisation strategies
economic and political aspects for development in
interact to change society; Botswana.
Community Understand the nature of -identify and describe types of
-identify and explain decision Based Community Based Community Based Organisations;
making processes with specific Organisations Organisations and their
reference to Botswana; impact on development -account for the existence of
in Botswana and in Community Based Organisations;
-discuss the role of government in Southern Africa. -select and describe the work of one
the economy with specific reference Community Based Organisation;
to Botswana’s role in the provision -discuss the impact of Community
of social services and the Based Organisations in the
mobilisation of resources; development of Botswana.
The Private Understand the nature -identify types of private sector;
-discuss the social structures such as Sector and impact of the private
class, ethnicity, status, and sector on development in -account for the existence of the
profession/trade; Botswana and the private sector in Botswana;
Southern African -discuss and assess the role and
-discuss challenges of nation Development impact of the private sector on the
building on the basis of tension, Community (SADC) development of Botswana and other
conflict resolution and consensus; countries in the SADC region;
-compare government and private
-evaluate any one of the following sector strategies for development in
Acts: Chieftainship Act, Citizenship Botswana.
Act, Marriage and Property Act and
Tribal Land Act.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 GOVERNMENT AND DEVELOPMENT THE ADVANTAGES OF A MONARCHY

EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS i. It maintains tradition-that is, in a monarchy culture is

• Politics: It involves decision making and distributing resources,
it is about dealing with conflict and disagreements.
• State: An organised political community controlled by one
government.
It is an entity whereby an individual is intended to realise the
highest good through good governance.
• Government: A system of controlling a country.
TYPES OR SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT
MONARCH(Y)
Monarch is a system in which the country is ruled by a King, Queen or
Emperor.
The example of monarchies is Swaziland, Britain, Lesotho, Morocco,
Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A MONARCHY
The following are some of the prominent or common features of a
constitutional monarchy;
i. The monarch is a ceremonial figure.
ii. The positions of monarch are hereditary as it passes from King
to the eldest son or eldest daughter.
iii. In a constitutional monarchy, there is a Prime Minister who is
the head of the government. iv. The leader is a king or queen.
v. The King or Queen makes laws
vi. Leadership is hereditary or leaders inherit the position from
their parents
vii. The new leader takes over upon the death of the King or Queen
viii. The ruler has absolute power.
maintained, kept and followed.
ii. It creates an unchanging and stabilising influence.
iii. It is not as easily corrupted as political Heads of States.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF A MONARCHY
i. The people are not consulted on the choice of the monarch,
therefore, the system is said to be undemocratic. ii. Monarchies are
hereditary, so there is no guarantee that the successor to the throne
will be competent to rule.
iii. The monarch may become corrupt and accumulate great wealth at
the expense of the people.
THE REPUBICAN/MULTI
PARTY/REPRESENTATIVE/PARLIAMENTARY
DEMOCRACY
The term democracy is derived from the Greek word “demos”, which
means the people and “kratos” which means authority or rule.
Democracy, therefore, means “rule by the people”.
Parliamentary democracy is a system of government in which political
authority lies with people.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PARLIAMENTARY
DEMOCRACY
i. People are free to form different political parties and identify
candidates of their choice for office.
ii. There is freedom of speech and freedom to discuss political
choices.
iii. There is freedom of the press. iv. There is freedom to
campaign for different political parties.
 v. All citizens who are 18 years or older have a right to vote. This
is called universal adult suffrage.
vi. There is a system of one person one vote. This means that
everyone has a right to vote once during the election time.
vii. Elections are held at regular intervals. For instance in Botswana
elections are held every 5 years.
viii. There is a secret ballot voting system so that no one is afraid
that other people will find out who they voted for. ix. There are
independent bodies set up to oversee the smooth running of
elections, for instance, to avoid rigging of elections or
intimidation during election time.
x. There is free, fair and controlled election.
THE ADVANTAGES OF A PARLIAMENTARY
DEMOCRACY
i. There is joint decision making as everyone has a say in making
decisions.
ii. People elect representatives to represent them in parliament.
iii. There is transparency regarding decision making because
everyone is involved or consulted. iv. Generally there is
peace and stability which can lead to economic prosperity.
v. People can elect a different government into power if they are
not satisfied with the current one.
vi. People are free to form different political parties.
vii. There is usually social justice and equity as everyone is treated
equally.
THE DISADVATAGES OF PARLIAMENTARY
DEMOCRACY
i. There might be a problem of bureaucracy. ii. It is very expensive to
implement, that is, they are time consuming and financially waste. iii.
There can be tribal or religious conflicts as political parties may be
formed along tribal or religious lines.
iv. Some government officials are corrupt, they accept bribes to
make decisions that favours certain people.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
v. Sometimes government officials run unfair elections, and
pretend they have won many votes when they actually lost the
elections and this may lead to political turmoil or crisis.
vi. Some people may abuse freedom of speech into character
assassination and mud slugging.
vii. Consultation of people at grassroots level is a delay and a
financial waste. viii. Development projects become election
baits than genuine people wants.
ONE-PARTY STATE
In some countries there is only one political party. This is usually the
ruling party.
Other parties are not allowed to stand for elections.
These countries are called one party states as they have only one
political party to run the affairs of the state.
A number of African countries become one party state soon after gaining
their independence.
It was argued that if there were a large number of parties the country
would split into different conflicting groups.
Such countries are Zambia, Uganda and Malawi.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A ONE-PARTY STATE
• There is only one political party.
• Elections are held at regular intervals and people vote for
representatives from the ruling party.
• The leaders of one party state normally turn out to be dictators
such as Malawi’s Kamuzu Banda and Uganda’s Idi Amin.
THE ADVANTAGES OF ONE-PARTY STATE
• There is less argument in the country.
• There is usually a resemblance of unity in the country
• There is prevention of social class formation because parties are
believed to divide people into social classes.
• This prevents tribal conflict because in countries where there
are many different tribes parties are formed along tribal lines.
MODULE 1-8
 • It is cheap as costly elections are avoided.
• There is continuity as the ruling party can plan for longer period
for it is guaranteed a continuous reign or rule.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF ONE-PARTY STATE
• The ruling party may begin to abuse its power and rejects
criticism, thus turning into dictatorship.
• People may be denied their rights to basic freedom.
• There is little transparency and accountability.
• There is less participation in decision making because all
decision comes from above.
DICTATORSHIPS
One other form of government which is even less democratic is
dictatorship.
A dictatorship comes about when one person or small group of people
control the government.
Leaders that follow this political ideology have absolute power and
authority.
Such leaders include Hastings Kamuzu Banda of Malawi who dictated
even what clothes people should wear.
Others include Sani Abacha of Nigeria, Idi Amin of Uganda and others.
Dictatorships are often set up by military leaders who seize control of
the government by force or through what is called coup d’etats, which
means to overthrow or take over power by force and rule by an “iron
fist”.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A DICTATORSHIP
 Dictatorships are normally set up by military leaders through a
coup d’états
 Power is in the hands of a few individuals.
 Political parties are not allowed.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
 Dictators make their own laws called decrees and have them
carried out as they wish.
 Dictators control courts of laws.
 Murders, asylums, exiles and mysterious disappearances are
common in such countries especially to people who pose as
threats or who are seen as an ‘enemies of the state’.
 Opposition is ruthlessly or brutally suppressed or forbidden.
 Elections are never held.
 Leaders can be imprisoned without trial.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF A DICTATORSHIP
 People have no power over the government.
 The government simply dictates to people, telling them what to
do and when to do it.
 There is no freedom of neither speech nor press.
The ways of changing a dictatorship into democracy
- Increase political parties or offer money for new political parties
to be formed or promote formation of political parties.
- Consult people or get people’s opinions before decisions are
made.
- Hold regular free and fair elections
MODULE 1-8
 - Persuade people or negotiate with people to comply on issues - Promote social justice/ reduces inequalities between people -
rather than apply force. Provide social welfare services - Develop the infrastructure.

- Respect the rule of law Provincial/Regional government

- Uphold human rights or give people their freedoms, for
example, freedom of speech
DECISION MAKING OR PLANNING PROCESSES
- Implement government policies
- Carry out tasks allocated to them by the national government,
for example, run schools and hospitals - Makes regional
development plans
- Pass suggestions from local government to national government
- Develop and maintain infrastructure in the region/ public works

Local government

- Implement government policies

- Planning of local services
- Provision of local/social services
- Collect local taxes/rates
- Carry out tasks allocated to them by the national/regional
government
- Support community-based organisations/projects
Fig.1 - Consult the people/Needs assessment
- Pass suggestions of the community to
The functions of each of the three levels of government shown in Fig. regional/national government
1. - Develop and maintain infrastructure

National government In a political system, whether it is democracy or dictatorship, the way

that decisions are made is very important.
- Plan/ implement development of the country/budgeting for the
country
1. CENTRALISED/ TOP DOWN DECISION MAKING is
- Formulate government policies
whereby the national government or central government makes
- Make decisions in the national interest/make priorities to benefit
all the decisions, here decisions are made at the top and passed
the country/nation building
down to the people who are expected to carry them out.
- Makes laws

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ADAVANTAGES OF TOP-DOWN DECISION-MAKING
PROCESS
1) Decisions can be made in the best interest of the whole country.
2) Governments have access to large sums of money and to
Multinational companies, hence can finance the decisions.
3) Developments are directed along the lines of the nationally
agreed policies.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF TOP-DOWN DECISION-
MAKING
PROCESS
1) The majority of citizens may not play a part.
2) It may be controlled in the interests of politicians and large
companies.
3) It may be contrary to local interests as the people in most cases
are not involved in decision making processes that directly
affect them.
2. DECENTRALISATION OR BOTTOM-UP DECISION
MAKING
PROCESS means planning which involves sharing and transfer of
decision making power from the top to the middle and lowest levels. The
middle and lowest levels refers to the local authorities and communities
respectively.
THE ADVANTAGES OF BOTTOM-UP DECISION MAKING
PROCESS
• Most people participate in the decision making process.
• It encourages self-reliance and commitment as everybody is
involved.
• The development of the country is usually supported by the
communities.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• It targets all people including the poor and disadvantaged.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF BOTTOM-UP DECISION-
MAKING
PROCESS
• The local people’s plans are not always welcomed by
government officials.
• The representation of people’s views at the parliament may be
ineffective.
• Projects may encounter shortage of money.
In Botswana people participate effectively in decision making at the
local level through the kgotla and Village Development committees.
Both men and women meet at the kgotla to draw up development plans
which are later included in the district development plans and finally in
the national development plans.
Councillors and members of parliament take such decisions up.
THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN THE ECONOMY
 Stimulate economic growth: The government can develop
infrastructure such as roads, railways and telecommunications,
to give producers access to markets and raw materials or
industries. The government can also invest directly in industry,
for example, building and running state corporations.
 Provide social welfare services: Government can give people
access to health and education, building health centres such as
hospitals, clinics, building schools, paying doctors, nurses, and
teachers and providing the necessary equipment. Some
government go to the extent of offering such services to citizens
for free.
 Keeping peace in the country: The government must avoid
the use of force, it can only be used to act against those who
MODULE 1-8
 break the law. The army must be used to defend the country or
to help in emergencies.
 Planning development: Government must try to draw up
national development plans, usually for a period of 5 years.
 Nation Building: Government must try to create a feeling of
national unity and belonging among all citizens
 Representing people abroad: The government makes
agreements with other nations on behalf of the people.
Government decide on how to relate with other countries and to
international organisations, for example, ambassadors, joining
United Nations and SADC.
 Caring for the environment through conservation.
 Social justice- magistrate courts and high court.
The role of government as seen above is to enhance social, economic
and political development.
The interaction of social, ecological and political development can either
facilitate or speed up the realisation of the above or frustrate
development thus leading to the following negative aspect of
development:
• Having ambitious projects.
• Corruption
• Excessive government spending  Expanded
government bureaucracy  Over development of state.
• Rent seeking
• Non- financial accountability and transparency
MOBILISATION OF RESOURCES
The government of Botswana raise money or generate revenue through
different ways and means.
The money is then used to provide social services and fund economic
activities, among others. The income raised is known as government
revenue.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
There are different ways that the government uses to mobilise resources
or to collect income, and these ways include the following:
(a)Taxes
There are a number of taxes that the government uses to raise the
revenue that it needs. These taxes include:
(i) Import duty- This is in the form of percentage charged on
all goods entering the country from foreign countries.
(ii) Value Added Tax (VAT) – This is a new kind of tax which
has been introduced recently in Botswana. It is collected
from consumers by all companies and individual enterprises
who make annual profit P250 000.00 and above. The tax is
the periodically reimbursed to government by those
businesses.
(iii) Income tax-Employees pay a certain percentage of their
salary to the government. The amount of money paid
depends on the salary a person earns. This, therefore, means
that people who earn higher salaries pay more than those
who earn less.
(iv) Sales tax- A certain amount of money is added to the prices
of all goods that are sold, and this is sent to the government.
(v) Vehicle tax-Vehicles owners pay a certain amount of
money to the department of transport. This is also part of
government revenue.
(b)Licensing
Another way of raising capital or income by the government is through
licensing. Different kinds of licences are paid for and after a certain
period of time. For example, business, hunting licences.
(c)Penalties
Wrong doers are often charged and their money put in the government
revenue. Offenders here include careless drivers, those who fail to pay
for licences in time and many others.
MODULE 1-8
(d)Borrowing money
The government borrows money from other countries both locally and
overseas. The international banks include the World Banks. This money
is then used as part of the government revenue.

(e)Parastatals companies/ establishments

The government also raises money through state owned companies such
as the railways, electricity and water supply networks.

(f) Partnership
The Botswana government also gets a lot of income from jointly owned
companies such as De Beers and others.

(g)Foreign reserves
The Botswana government keeps part of its money overseas as
foreign reserves which generate a lot of interest. This income is used
in times of emergencies such as famine, drought and other incidents.
Fig.2
- Ethnicity is the situation where people of the same tribe or
customs or traditions are grouped together.

THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES - Profession /Trade is the situation where people of the
qualification or training separate themselves, for example,
lawyers, teachers, accountants and engineers.

- Social status is the respect that people demand or are given

based on their possessions /wealth, for example, people are
divided into high status and low status.

- Social class is the grouping that society allocates people based

on their income or wealth.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


Fig.3
• Status is the position one holds in the society/level of respect
people within the society give to an individual
• Profession/Trade is the division or classification according to
job one is doing/ People who have been trained in the same field
or area grouped together according to their field
• Class is the division of people according to their wealth or the
amount of property one has in his or her possession
• Ethnicity is the division or classification of people according to
the tribes/ethnic group they belong to
The following aspects of a person’s life may be related to his or her
social class:
• School attended is when children of people in high class attend
expensive private schools whilst people in low class can only
afford cheap public schools.
• Residential area is when people in high class stay in high
residential areas or suburbs whereas people in low class stay in
low cost residential areas/ high density areas/ shanty towns.
• Hospital attended is when high class people go to expensive
private hospitals whilst low class people go to government or
public hospitals when ill.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• Holiday is when high class people go on expensive holidays, for
example, Sun City, Durban but low class people rarely go on
holiday because they cannot afford/ they just visit the village or
cattle post.
• Food consumption is when high class people eat more food
because they have money to buy but low class people eat less
food because they produce less/are many/they lack money to
buy food.
• Means of transport is when high class people own private cars
but low class people use public transport/ walk very long
distances
NATION BUILDING
The following are ways by which the government helps to promote
nation building in Botswana:
- The adoption of Setswana as an official or national language.
The government emphasizing the importance of Setswana
language or mother tongue
- Introduction of the topic of Nation Building in the school’s
curriculum
- The promotion of the national flag, national colours and
symbols./ Respect of national symbols
- The celebration of various cultures for understanding or cultural
festivals such as Domboshaba. The government encouragement
of celebration of indigenous activities, for example, Dikhwaere
- The National Anthem is sung at important occasions. / Singing
of national anthem
- The use of one currency.
- Celebration President’s Day
- Promotion of culture
- Involving the House of Chiefs/Ntlo ya Dikgosi in decision
making
- Affirmative action, for example, women, youth, people living
with disability and rural dwellers
MODULE 1-8
 - Reserving certain percentage of seats for women/disadvantaged
groups in parliament/ gender equality
- Government initiative to equalize tribes/respect for human rights
- Sports competition, for example, Botswana games
The problems faced by developing countries in promoting nation
building
• Lack of tolerance/many different ethnic groups or tribes
involved/multiplicity of languages/cultural diversity
• Influx of migrants from other countries
• Past conflicts between tribes
• Religious differences/internal conflicts/civil wars or strife
• Corruption/nepotism/misappropriation of funds for nation
building activities
• Unbalanced development between regions in the
country/people may be uncooperative
• Increasing number of political parties/discrimination along
party lines
• Failure to relinquish power by leaders
• Lack of funds for initiatives
• Superior against inferior ethnic groups/ colonial legacy
• Increasing population/high population involved- not easy to
manage large numbers
The steps involved in each of the following processes in nation
building:
• Conflict resolution
- There is tension between high class and low class/ the high class
promotes its interests creating unhappiness for the low class, for
example, religion and tribal
- The low class rebels against the high class through strikes/ other
social upheavals
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- A resolution takes place to bring some equality among the
people.
- The society is united
 Consensus
- Society develop a set of shared values.
- In a traditional/primitive society, the group is more important
than the individual so the common set of values is respected.
- In a complex society, division of labour promotes
interdependence.
- The society is united.
Or
- The ruling class imposes its rules on the rest of the society.
- The low class and their children accept their position and the
rules.
- The society is united.
EVALUATION OF SOME OF THE EXISTING ACTS IN
BOTSWANA
An act is seen as a legal document usually written by the government
and approved by the House of Parliament. An act is meant to give
guidance on certain subjects.
THE MARRIAGE ACT
The Marriage Act is applicable to all marriages conducted in Botswana
including those done under customary law or any religious rite. The act
gives guidance on how civil, customary and religious marriage should be
conducted in order for them to be considered legal in Botswana.
The marriage to be valid the Marriage Act emphasises that marriage
should be conducted by marriage officers who can either be
Administration or District Officers, any Minister of Religion or a person
holding responsible position in any religious denomination
MODULE 1-8
It is important to note that in Botswana people choose who to marry.
However, marriage between people who are closely related is not
allowed. For instance, marriage between parent and child, parent and
grandchild and so forth is forbidden.
As mentioned earlier on, Marriage Act also gives guidance on marriage
done according to Setswana custom or any other traditional way. After
the marriage has been conducted it should be registered within two
months with the Registrar of Marriages. It is evident, however, that
Batswana do not register their marriages. This is not safe as one spouse
can easily marry the second partner as their marriage to the other spouse
would be missing from the marriage register at the Ministry of Home
Affairs.
The Marriage Act empowers the Registrar of Marriages to reject or
accept the marriage depending on the prevailing situation. If the
marriage has been accepted, Registrar of Marriages shall issue to the
spouse a certificate of registration bearing the prescribed particulars.
There are different types of marriages that exist in Botswana and below
are some of them:
(a)Civil Marriages
One type of marriage we have in Botswana are civil marriages. These
marriages done according to common or modern law. These marriages
are usually conducted by the Administration or District Officer who
makes sure that all the necessary steps are correctly followed. One of the
first steps is to announce or publicise the marriage notice in a public
place like Church or at the District Administration Offices for three
successive weeks before the marriage day.
(b)Customary Marriages
One of the most widely practised form of marriage in Botswana is the
Customary Marriage. This form of marriage involves the giving of bride
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
price, or bogadi/lobola, usually in form of livestock given to the bride’s
family. It is important however, to note that there are some people
amongst some groups such as Bangwato who do not demand lobala
especially when the two families are from the same area.
(c)Religious Marriages
We have many different religions in the world in which different people
believe.
THE CHIEFTAINSHIP ACT
Chieftainship Act, explains what a Chief or Dikgosi are and their general
functions. The act describes a kgosi as an individual who has been
designated or appointed as one in accordance with customary law by his
Merafe assembled in the kgotla and has been recognised as a Kgosi by
the Minister of Home Affairs.
The act also explains the duties of the kgosi which include the following:
• To promote the welfare of the members of his morafe.
• To carry out any instruction given by the Minister of Home
Affairs.
• To ensure that the morafe is informed of any development
projects in the area which affect them.
• To call kgotla meetings to solicit advice on how to execute his
functions.
• The kgosi is also responsible for ensuring that his morafe is safe
and secure from any harm and danger
MODULE 1-8
 11. Give three characteristics of a democracy.

12. Describe three advantages of multi-party democracy

13. State three disadvantages of multi-party democracy

14. Describe the characteristics of multi-party democracy /

representative democracy
15. What are the disadvantages of multi-party democracy /
representative democracy?
16. What is meant by a dictatorship?

17. What is a coup d’état?

Check Your Progress
18. Give three characteristics of a dictatorship.
1. Define government 19. Describe three advantages of dictatorship

2. Give three reasons why it is important to involve all the people 20. Define top down approach decision making (Centralised)
in governing a country
21. State three advantages of top-down decision making process
3. Define the term politics
22. Give three disadvantages of a top-down decision making
4. Define state 5. What is a monarchy? process

6. Describe three characteristics of a monarchy
7. State three advantages of a monarchy
8. Describe three disadvantages of a monarchy form of
government.
23. What is meant by bottom-up (Decentralisation) decision making
process?
24. Give three advantages of bottom-up decision making process
25. State three disadvantages of bottom-up decision making process

9. What is ‘representative democracy’? 26. Study Fig. 1, which shows a kgotla meeting in Botswana,
and What are the characteristics of representative democracy?
10. Define democracy
Describe the disadvantages of representative democracy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Describe the disadvantages of a dictatorship form of government.

27. Study Fig.2, and answer the question below.

In a dictatorship, the people have no power over the government. The
government simply tells the people what to do. Hastings Banda in
Malawi was a dictator who even dictated what clothes people should
wear.

Adapted from: Development Studies 1 by Mweti and Van

Wyk

Fig. 2

Describe the characteristics of a dictatorship.

use it to answer questions that follows Describe the ways of changing a dictatorship into democracy

28. Study Fig. 3, which shows levels of government and ways of

decision-making in a democratic country.

Fig.3

Describe two functions of each of the three levels of government shown in

Fig. 3.

National government

Provincial/Regional government
Fig.1 Local government

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Why is it important to involve people in decision making? 30. Study Fig.5 which shows social divisions among people in
Describe the role of the government in the economy Botswana.

Describe the role of government in the economy

Describe ways in which the government of Botswana raise capital/

Describe the ways by which the national government of Botswana
generates revenue.

29. Study Fig. 4 which is an extra on politics.

Politics is about making decisions and distributing resources. It is also
about dealing with conflict. We usually think that politics is the concern
of only the government and the political parties. In fact, small scale
political processes happen around us all the time in families, school,
churches, clubs and associations.

Source: Development in Context Book 2

Fig.5
Fig.4
Describe resources that the government of Botswana distributes among Describe each social division shown in Fig.5.
the people in the country.
Suggest how each of the following aspects of a person’s life may be
Suggest two political activities that are done by members of the related to his or her social class.
following institutions:
• School attended
The family • Residential area
• Hospital attended
The school
• Holiday
The church • Food consumption
• Means of transport
Describe actions that the government takes to promote economic
development in Botswana. Describe the steps involved in each of the following processes in nation
building:
Suggest ways by which income generating projects can help people to
achieve social development • Conflict resolution
• Consensus
How can developing countries governments encourage self-reliance?

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Suggest ways by which the government helps to promote nation building
in Botswana.
31. Study Fig. 6 which shows social structures among people of
Botswana
Fig.6
Describe each of the social structures shown in Fig.6
Suggest ways by which the government of Botswana can promote ethnic
tolerance
State problems faced by developing countries in promoting nation
building
Suggest ways of promoting nation building in Botswana
Suggest problems that the government of Botswana might faces as it
tries to unite people in the country and build the nation.
NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS (NGOs)
Non-Governmental Organisations are independent and non-profit
making institutions that help improve the living standard of the people.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
BRIEF HISTORY
They came into being because government had failed to alleviate
poverty and the poor continue to suffer. It was believed NGOs could
compliment governments and reach rural areas where the majority of the
poor were found. It was also believed treats some development activities
were environmentally unfriendly, some NGOs came to promote
sustainable use of the environment. Natural disasters were frequent in
Third World countries and government was less prepared for them, so
NGOs came in to helping government deal with such emergencies, for
example, floods and drought.
THE REASONS WHY NGOs EXIST IN BOTSWANA
1. They deal with social problems such as drought relief and
HIV/AIDS.
2. They promote conservation of the environment, for example,
Kalahari Conservation Society and Somerelang Tikologo.
3. They promote disposal of obsolete pesticides and used oil, for
example, Somarelang Tikologo.
4. They help market local products, for example, Thusano Lefatshe
helps market Devil’s Claws granules.
5. Thye promote development by funding developmental projects
such as construction of dams, roads and stadiums.
6. They improve the status of women by:
• Alleviating poverty and economically empowering them.
• Equality in power sharing and decision making.  Protecting
women’s rights and discouraging violence against them.
(Metlhaetsile, WAR)
• Engaging in women’s education and training (BCW)
MODULE 1-8
 7. It help improve the living standards of the marginalized people,
for example, The First People of Botswana (Basarwa). THE DISADVANTAGES/WEAKNESSES OF NGOs
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NGOs
(a)Leadership problems
 Privately set-up, structured and sufficiently autonomous.  NGOs staff resent and impedes strong leadership.

 Non –profit making organisations.  Irreplaceability of charismatic guru-like leaders, which leads to
a decay and death of NGO because of no replication.
 Support development.
(b)Legitimacy: Criticism of one another rather than collaboration and
THE ROLES OF NGO’s this foster isolation.

 Providing for the unprovided or serving the poor. (c)Staff problems

 Shaping national policies.  Recruitment is one of staff who can follow orders and report to
 Advocate for just development. the leader.
 Inter staff rivalry between local and foreign staff.
 Popular participation.
 Empowerment (d)Project design

 Poverty alleviation  Projects do not benefit the poor

 Local elite domination of decision making  No
innovativeness, but extension of tried and tested services.
THE ADVANTAGES/STRENGTHS OF NGOs  Limited replicability.
 Limited technical ability from staff.
• NGOs are effective in identification of community needs.  Learning disability.
 Irregular documentation of experience and subjective if any.
• The enjoy legitimacy from the communities there are found.
 Problems of accountability
• NGOs are effective in serving the poor because of their physical
base.  No challenge on the effectiveness of the project, but
concentration on wrong aspects
• They have a popular participation.
 Inadequate planning, organisation and management.
• They are innovative.
 Inadequate staff training
• NGOs operate in small scale.
 Small scale might mean insignificance, powerlessness and
• There is commitment of staff.
disconnectedness.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


THE NGOs- GOVERNMENT RELATIONS
According to Thomas (1992), the relations come in threefold:
(a)Complimenting the state is when NGOs participate in providing
services which the state would otherwise not be able to produce.
 When NGOs requires only the freedom to get on with their
chosen tasks.
 Its actions are not hampered by those of the government.
 Their actions does not influence areas of development planning
and delivery.
 Government feels neither threatened nor challenged.
 NGOs actions are not incompatible with government.
(b)Opposing the state- The opposition can be direct or through various
pressure groups.
• NGOs theory differs with that of the government.
• Common in military dictatorship, for example, Philippines
under Marcos and Chile under Pinochet.
(c)Reforming the state-NGOs can represent interest groups and
negotiate with the government to improve policies.
TYPES OF NGOs
i. Relief and welfare agencies (RWFs) –These are
nongovernmental organisations that provide the needy with a
service or a need, for example, missionary society, the Red
Cross, and those that deal with orphans, and people with
disabilities.
ii. Technical Innovation Organisations (T.I.Os)- Those NGOs
that operate their own projects to pioneer new improved
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
approaches to solving problems and which tend to remain
specializing in their chosen field, for example, Child Line,
Women Against Rape and Ditshwanelo.
iii. Public Service Contractors (PSCs) - Northern funded
nongovernmental organisations that work closely with Southern
governments and Aid agencies such as Foundation of Education
with Production.
iv. Grassroots Development Organisation (GDOs)-Locally
based southern organisations whose members are poor and
oppressed and which attempt to develop them, for example,
Thari Ya Banana of Molepolole.
v. Popular Development Agencies (PDOs) - They concentrate
on self-help, social development, and grassroots development,
for example, YWCA.
vi. Advocacy Groups and Networks (A.G.Ns) - These NGOs
campaign for changes in laws, for example, Emang Basadi.
SOME OF THE EXAMPLES OF NGOS
• Lobbyists- Emang Basadi refer to Women in Development-
Module 5
• Welfarist-YWCA, Red Cross
• Conservationist- Somerelang Tikologo, Kalahari
Conservation Society (KCS)
• Developmentalist –Habitat for Humanity
AN EXAMPLE OF A CONSERVATIONIST NGO-
SOMARELANG TIKOLOGO
Its work:
 It encourages environmental impact assessment before a project
is started.
 It encourages wise use of energy, for example, 15 houses in
phase two have been retro fitted with energy saving bulbs. A
MODULE 1-8
 result shows that there has been tremendous reduction in
monthly electricity bills. - Awareness campaigns
 It has come up with waste Management Act that promotes
proper disposal of plastic bags by retailers and customers.
 It ensures that there is proper disposal of obsolete pesticides, - Popularise themselves
which are normally left over’s from international donations.
 It promotes proper disposal of used oil. Botswana faces a - To access foreign funding
problem of illegal dumping of oil.
 It promotes conservation by engaging in community activities - Negative attitude from the government, for example, Survival
such as tree planting, litter picking and use of environmental International
dramas.
Describe three functions of Non-Governmental Organisations
Check Your Progress
What is a Non-Governmental Organization? - Help in the management and utilisation of a country’s
resources/encourage environmental conservation
- Non-Governmental Organisation is an independent body of
people/institution helping in development without the aim of - Finance development/supplement/compliment
making profit government/private sector[ Allow specific examples such as
project development]
- Non-Governmental Organisation is an independent body of
people/ institution helping in development without the aim of
- Help shape national policies
making profit

- Non-Governmental Organisation is a non-profit making - Advocate for just development/popular participation

independent institution
- Provide for the marginalized/ serving the poor/they identify
Account for the existence of Non-Governmental Organisations themselves with the disadvantaged/local communities/poverty
(NGOs) in Botswana alleviation/ to help poor

- Complement government./private sector - For the transfer of skills/development of skills/ train

farmers/introduce/ offer extension services/technology
transfer/empowerment
- Help the poor
- Humanitarian assistance
- Target micro level/small projects

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Create employment especially for the marginalized/ Ideas such as;
disadvantaged/ empowerment
- Rigidity /conservatism – does not want to change how they do
- Target micro level/small projects things

- Awareness campaigns - Duplication of roles/repetition of some services offered by the

government

- Leaders enrich themselves/ leaders use the funds for their own
Give three benefits of NGOs to Botswana
benefit instead of helping those in need
- Create dependency syndrome/they do not teach people to be
Describe three ways by which Non-Governmental Organisations assist
independent but to depend on them
people in rural areas to solve their problems
- They create employment - Interference in internal affairs

- Help in the management and utilisation of a country’s - Lack of originality (bring ideas from outside)
resources / encourage environmental conservation
- No impact assessment done
- Finance development/supplement/complement govt. (Allow
specific examples such as projects development)
What is the importance of Non-Governmental Organisations
- They identify themselves with the disadvantaged/local (NGOs) in the development of Botswana?
communities
Ideas such as:
- Emphasise efficiency and proficiency/development of skills - Deal with social problems such as drought relief, HIV and AIDS
/poverty
- Offer training to farmers
- Promote environmental conservation, for example, Kalahari
- Introduce/offer extension services Conservation Society
- Promote proper disposal of obsolete pesticides/ used oils, for
- Buy veld products from rural people / promote example, Somarelang Tikologo
commercialisation of veld products - Help market local products, for example, Thusano Lefatsheng
market devil’s claw
- Humanitarian - Fund development projects, for example, construction of dams/
infrastructural development
- Emphasis efficiency and proficiency/ development of skills
- Promote good governance
What are the Disadvantages/weaknesses of NGOs? - Encourage the use of appropriate technology

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Improve the status of women by economically empowering
them
- Protecting women’s rights and discouraging violence against
them/ equality in power sharing and decision making, for
example, Emang Basadi
- Engaging women in education and training , for example,
Botswana Council of Women
- Help improve living standards of marginalised people, for
example, The First People of Kalahari and disabled people
- Capacity building in communities/ leadership development
- Provide employment
Describe the problems faced by NGOs in Botswana.
Ideas such as:
- Leadership problems whereby NGO staff usually resent strong
leadership
- Irreplaceability of charismatic guru-like leaders which leads to
NGO collapse/ personalized
- NGOs often criticize each other which foster isolationism/ lack
of coordination
- Sometimes there is inter staff rivalry between local and
foreigners
- Sometimes projects benefit the easiest to reach rather than the
most deserving people
- Usually the local elite dominate decision making
- Limited innovativeness/ resistant to change or new ideas
- Limited funds to cover activities
- Duplication of activities
- High staff turnover leading to poor continuity/ retaining workers
very difficult
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
COMMUNITY BASED ORGANISATIONS (CBOs)
Community Based Organisations is all grassroots based organisations
involved in development.
Community Based Organisations are rural oriented institutions that are
engaged in income generating activities, aimed at poverty alleviation and
sustainable rural livelihoods.
Community Based Organisation is a group of people that helps to
improve living standards of people in their locality.
Community Based Organisation is a local or grassroots institution that
helps people in a particular locality or area coming up with ways of
improving their lives.
They aim at bringing self- reliant development.
They are real grassroots institutions that reach the poorest of the poor,
for example, burial societies.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS/
WHY
DO THEY EXIST
The following are some of the many functions of CBOs:
• They act as a way of achieving community participation.
• They provide technical skills such as weaving, knitting,
farming and so on to members.
MODULE 1-8
 • They provide administrative skills such as proper record - Fund raising activities
keeping, conducting meetings, and time management to - Carry out minor development works in the community
members. - Conducts needs assessment
• They provide members with skills of solving conflicts and - Gives feedback to government on development matters
problems together. - Makes important announcements
• The members participate in different tasks as may be needed in - Represents people in official meetings or speak on behalf of the
the society. people
THE CHALLENGES THAT COMMUNITY BASED ORGANISATION IN - Provides employment
BOTSWANA FACE IN PROMOTING DEVELOPMENT - Trains people in various skills
- Rigidity or unwillingness to assimilate change/people’s lack of interest on Neighbourhood watch
community mobilisation
- It ends up creating dependency syndrome - Controls crime/improves security
- Lack of funds or financial assistance - Conducts needs assessment
- Community leaders enrich themselves/ - Gives feedback to government on development matters
corruption/economic crime/nepotism - Makes important announcements
- Negative attitude from the society/lack of
- Represents people in official meetings or speak on behalf of the
support from the community/government
- Lack of training in coordinating and managing organisations/illiteracy/lack
people
of skills - Provides employment
- Poor/lack of infrastructure/ lack of transport - Trains people in various skills
- Dominance by certain group who feel threatened by young and idealistic Home Based Care
minds
- Some are aligned to political parties, thereby bringing conflict/politicized - Provide medicines for the terminally ill
- Cleans up the terminally ill patients
- Counsels patients and family members
- Provides health education
- Provides food baskets for patients
- Provides protective materials to care givers, for example, gloves
Community Based Natural Resources Management
(CBNRM)

- Conservation of natural resources

- Harvesting of natural resources
- Environmental education
(a)(i) Activities of named CBOs
- Domestication of veld products
Village Development Committee (VDC)
- Setting up crafts projects

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Sourcing funds for community projects on natural resources
- Provide employment
- Provision of scholarship for people in the community
Burial Society
- Provides transportation during funerals
- Provides food during funerals
- Provides airtime during funerals
- Provides labour during funerals
- Provides equipment during funerals, for example, pots, chairs
- Provides coffins during funerals
(ii) Describe the challenges facing Community Based Organisations
(CBOs) as they work to improve people’s lives in the community
- Lack of buildings for operations
- Shortage of funds for activities
- Shortage of skills for smooth or effective running or poor
management skills
- CBOs are easily politicised
- They are domoniated by some groups, for example, old and elite
people
- Misuse of funds by leadership
- They looked down upon by people/ lack of support
- Dependence on volunteers or unreliable labour
COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS IN BOTSWANA
 Gabane Home Based Care (GHBC): The organisation was
formed to assist people infected with HIV/AIDS and other
terminally ill patients. It provides the HIV/AIDS and terminally
ill patient with home care.
Masunga Senior Secondary School
 Save Our Souls (SOS): SOS is an organisation that cares for
orphans and abandoned children by providing them with shelter,
education and other social amenities until they reach 18 years.
 Total Community Mobilisation (TCM): TCM is an
organisation that is funded by the Ministry of Health whose
members move around Botswana from village to village to raise
awareness on issues relating to the spread and prevention of
HIV/AIDS.
 Environmental Conservation Community Based
Organisation
(ECCBO): ECCBO refers to a number of organisations found in
different areas around Botswana teaching people on issues
related to conservation of environment.
THE IMPACT OF COMMUNITY BASED ORGANISATION
ON
THE DEVELOMENT OF BOTSWANA
1) It promotes bottom-up decision making. People come up with
sustainable projects.
2) Promotes wise use of natural resources.
3) It creates employment opportunities mainly for the
disadvantaged such as women and tribal people.
4) It improves country’s Gross National Products.
5) It diversifies rural economies.
6) It improves country infrastructure.
What is meant by a Community Based Organisation?
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

- Community Based Organisation is a group of people that help
to improve the living standards of people in their area.
Describe three types of community based organisations.
Ideas such as:
• Developmental community based organisations are
those that focus on improving the infrastructure of the
community/ promote the use of appropriate technology.
• Conservationist/Environmental are those that focus on
caring for the environment, for example, clean up
campaigns or protecting nature resources.
• Welfarist /charities are those that focus on improving
living conditions of people such as giving food, shelter to
the destitute/ orphans/ disaster victims
• Economic are those that focus on income generating
activities for profit making.
• Educational are those that focus on disseminating
information on various societal issues.
Describe three functions of Community Based Organisations.
Ideas such as:
- Vehicles through which community participation takes
place/promotes community involvement/participation through
cultural preservation, environmental education, waste
management
- Technical skill provision, for example, bee keeping and brick
laying
- Administrative skill dispensation, for example, keeping proper
records, conducting meetings and time management
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
- Teaching and learning to resolve conflicts and solve problems
together
- Provision of primary action in community
- Improvement of standard of living
Describe the activities carried out by Community Based
Organisations (CBOs) within the community. Ideas such as:
- Encourage local communities to come up with their needs and
wants (Bottom-up)/ identification of community needs
- Locals given chance to plan and monitor their development
projects/capacity building
- Engage in income generating activities to alleviate poverty, for
example, Growing of vegetables, keeping poultry, oil processing
to ensure food security
- Carry out activities to enhance awareness in HIV/Aids/health
issues
- Information dissemination/ announcements
- Open up market centers for local produce
- Crime prevention/ neighbourhood watch
- Infrastructure development
- Utilization of local resources
- Skills development
- Creation of employment
Describe common disadvantages/weaknesses of community based
organisations in Botswana.
• The common weakness of community based organisations in
Botswana is shortage of funds
• Lack of support from people
• Lack of skills
• Sometimes CBOs are politicised
• CBOs are usually personalised by leaders or founders
• Misuse of funds by leadership
MODULE 1-8
 • Lack of shelter for operation -
People lack of interest on community mobilization- community
to be mobilized through training, workshops and kgotla
• Labour provided by volunteers who may quit anytime
meetings
• Poor technology/lack of tool/ equipment - Lack of training- skills development should be carried out on
COBs staff by stakeholders
Suggest ways by which the challenges faced by CBOs can be
addressed. - Lack of co-ordination of CBOs- CBOs should have a mother
Ideas such as: body and work together etc
- Limited funds to cover all projects/needs/ financial support from - Dominance by the elderly should be discouraged by quota
government and other others/ private sector systems which creates room for youth
- Alignment to political parties should be discouraged by the
government or stakeholders. For example, through workshops.
THE PRIVATE SECTOR  The owner uses his or her labour, assisted perhaps by one or two workers or the
family members.
Private sector refers to businesses that are privately owned by individuals or  The business tends to be small in size although this is not always by
a group of individuals. the case.
• This type of enterprise is not confined to the retail trade. TYPES OF PRIVATE SECTOR IN BOTSWANA
The Advantages of the Sole
Proprietor

• It is easy to set up, control and manage.

• It requires a small amount of capital to set up.
• The owner makes independent and quick decisions on how the
business is to be run.
• The owner has personal contacts with his or her workers and
customers.
• This enables him or her to try and provide them with personal
Fig.2 services, which is lacking in larger shops.
• Satisfaction and interest is gained by being self-employed. The main forms of business ownership in the Private Sector are:
The Disadvantages of the Sole Proprietor
a) The Sole Proprietor
b) Partnerships  The owner’s personal assets are at risk because the business has
c) Co-operatives unlimited liability. This means that if the sole trader borrows

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 d) Multi-national Companies money from any institution, he or she must pay back the whole of it, whether the business succeeds or fails.

THE SOLE PROPRIETOR  The business cannot do without the owner, in fact it might end or stop functioning
when the owner dies.

As the name implies ownership of such a business is in the hands of just one  Shortage of capital prevents the sole trader to modernise and
person. provide services such as credit, delivery and other amenities to his Features of the Sole Proprietor or her customers.

 It is a business owned by only one person who provides all the capital
needed to set it up and run it, and takes all profit as his or her reward.
 It is the simplest and most common type of enterprise.
PARTNERSHIP  It is easy to set up or establish. It does not involve long, costly
and time consuming procedures.
A partnership is a relationship that exist between two or more people  More people are involved in the business so more capital can be
who have come together to do a common business with the view to raised than in the case of the sole trader who is alone.
making profit.  Division of labour is possible as there are many people
involved.  Expenses and management of the business are
The Features of a Partnership shared.
 Decision making is consultative. As a result the quality of
 It can be formed by between two and twenty people. decisions tends to be better than that of a sole trader.
 The capital of a Partnership is raised by the contribution of each  A partnership is not required to publish its account annually, so
partner. This contribution does not necessarily have to be equal there is privacy in the business.
for each partner.
 In a Partnership ownership and control is not separated. It is
owned and controlled by Partners themselves.
 Partnership has no separate legal entity. This means that the
liabilities of the partners, just like for the sole proprietors or
traders, are unlimited.
 Each and every partner is entitled to be involved in the running
of the business.

The Advantages of Partnership

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 The Disadvantages of Partnership
 Decisions may be delayed by disagreement among partners.
 The partners have unlimited liability and are, therefore,
personally liable for the debts of the business. This puts their
personal assets at risk.
 Lack of capital may limit expansion.
 If one partner leaves or dies a new partnership agreement is
required.
 It is usually not easy to find a suitable partner.
CO-OPERATIVES
Co-operatives came as a result of people putting their resources together
to cut the high costs of production per person. Profits from this
enterprise are either re-invested or shared out between the members of
the co-operatives.
The Advantages of co-operatives
 It has more buying power than individuals because it is a large
organisation.
 A co-operative can give its members access to cheaper raw
materials because it buy in large quantities.
 Members sell their products through the co-operatives, thus
saving on the costs of marketing.
 Because larger amounts are sold, the co-operative can often
negotiate and get better prices for its members.
 Members can bring in expert advice to help them.
TRANS-NATIONAL COMPANIES OR MULTI-NATIONAL
CORPORATIONS (TNCs/MNCs)
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
A Multi-national Company or Corporation is an enterprise that has
subsidiaries or branches in more than one country.
It is usually a public limited company. For example, Toyota, Coca Cola,
Phillips and Colgate.
The Advantages of multi-national companies
• Paying taxes which boost the host government’s income. 
Providing jobs around the world.
• Bringing business knowledge, skills and technology with them
to other countries.
• Bringing foreign exchange by selling their goods abroad
• Providing vital goods and services to private households as well
as to other countries.
• In addition they usually have world-wide contacts which the
host country can use to boost its export sales.
The Disadvantages of multi-national companies
• They tend to exploit under-developed economies through
monopolistic practices.
• They usually bring their own experts instead of training the
locals to participate in important decision making in MNCs that
operate in their own countries.
• They can prevent the transfer of technology to the host country
by ensuring that research facilities remain based in their home or
parent country.
• They are able to pay high salaries and offer better conditions. As
a result, they usually attracted most of skilled locals at the
expense of local industries.
• These companies take back with them all profits made in the
host countries. This drains away the host country’s foreign
exchange reserves.
MODULE 1-8
 THE REASONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF PRIVATE THE IMPACT OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN BOTSWANA
SECTOR IN BOTSWANA AND
Some of the reasons for the existence of the Private Sectors in Botswana OTHER SADC COUNTRIES
are as follows:
• It reduces prices and increases quality of goods and services. There are both positive and negative impacts as regards the Private
• It improves efficiency because of competition and the profit Sector.
motive. Positive impacts include the following;
• It removes political interference in business operations. i. It provides jobs, income and livelihood to many people in
• It helps empower citizens where such sales are restricted to Botswana.
citizens. ii. The tax paid by the company is a source of revenue for the
• It leads to creation of more jobs because many companies will country.
be built. iii. Export of goods made by companies earns the country foreign
• It leads to self-sufficiency. exchange.
• It leads to diversification of the economy and mass production. iv. Quality goods and services are provided to the people.
• It gives the community a chance to contribute to the v. Developments are made in rural areas and this contributes to
development of the country, thus leading to economic rural development especially by sole proprietor.
development.

Negative impacts include the following; Check Your Progress i. Poor working conditions for the people, for
example, low wages and very long working hours. What are the benefits of the private sector in Botswana?
ii. Damage to the environment, for example, air pollution, water
Ideas such as:
pollution and land pollution.
iii. Depletion of land.  Employment creation iv. Corruption, for instance in Botswana there are schemes that are meant
to assist Batswana to start their own businesses, in some  Acquisition of skills cases corruption is involved as undeserving
people may end up
using such schemes.  Technological development
v. In some cases leads to massive job losses, because of use of
automation and high technology.  Infrastructural development vi. Profits go to private individuals and not to the
whole nation. vii. It leads to rich individuals getting richer and the poor getting  Empowerment of local entrepreneur

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 poorer.
 Forex/ Foreign direct investment (FDI)

• Government revenue from taxes

• Ensuring quality production

• Sponsorship of community activities, for example, sport / social

responsibility

• Relieves government burdens of running the economy

Fast decision making



(ii) Why would the government take over some businesses?  Sole trader is owned by one person whilst a private limited company is owned
by many individuals/ shareholders Ideas such as:
• In a sole trader funding is provided by one person(owner) whilst in  For strategic reasons/ to provide essential services, for example,
a private limited company funding is provided by shareholders water and power.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • A sole trader operates on a small scale whilst a private limited
• To sustain non-profit making businesses company operates on large scale

• Provision of affordable goods and services/ price control  In a sole trader the owner manages the business whereas in a private limited
company shareholders choose a board of governors
• For political reasons, for example, improvement of distribution of to manage the business activities for balanced development
• In a sole trader, all profit belongs to the owner whereas in a private
• To generate income limited business, profit is shared by shareholders.
• To increase job security
• The sole trader has limited liability whist private limited company
has unlimited liability
• To increase employment/job creation/create employment

• To protect the environment/ depletion of resource (ii) Describe the importance of the private sector in the development of Botswana.
Study Fig. 1, which shows types of enterprises in the private sector.
Ideas such as:

• Employment creation

• Skills development

• Technological advancement

Fig.1  Infrastructural development

(a)(i) State the differences between a sole trader and a private limited  Ensuring quality production company.
• Sponsorship of community activities, for example, sports and
Ideas such as: social responsibility

• Relieves government of burdens of running the economy

• Fast decision making

• Empowerment of the local entrepreneur

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • Boosts foreign exchange/ foreign direct investment

• Pay tax/ improve government revenue

• Quick response to the demands of the market

• Availability of goods and services

• Diversification of the economy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 8: REGIONAL CO-OPERATION, INTERNATIONAL International Develop an -explain international
TRADE & FOREIG AID Trade understanding trade;
TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC and appreciation -account for international
OBJECTIVES OBJECTIVES of the dynamics trade;
Learners should be Learners should be able of international - describe global trade
able to: to: trade. patterns (a) developed
countries, (b) developing
Regional Develop an -explain regional countries and (c) between
Cooperation understanding of the cooperation/integration; developed and
nature of regional -identify and classify developing countries ;
cooperation and its regional co-operation as -discuss free trade and
impact on the political, social and protectionism.
development of economic; -discuss the challenges of
Botswana and other -discuss and assess the international trade.
Southern Africa. role played by regional Foreign Aid Understand the -explain the concept of
co-operation or concept of foreign foreign aid;
communities in the aid and its impact on -describe the types and
development of the development. forms of foreign aid; -
Southern African account for foreign aid; -
region; -evaluate the evaluate the implications
successes and of foreign aid on
challenges faced by developing countries. -
such regional discuss the roles of the
communities as specialised agencies of
Southern the
African Customs Union United Nations
(SACU), Southern
African Development
Community (SADC). -
Suggest ways of
strengthening regional
Masunga Senior Secondary School cooperation in the
Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
Southern African region.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8
 REGIONAL COOPERATION/ INTEGRATION
Regional cooperation is the coming together of countries with main aim of
addressing common needs.
Regional co-operation is when countries in the same region come together for
several reasons such as, to promote prosperity, to maximise economic growth,
to establish financial stability in the region and expand regional trade and
development.
Regional cooperation is when countries of the same area come together to
address common needs
Study Fig. 1 which is about types (forms) of regional co-operations
Customs Union (SACU) and European Union (EU)
focus on wealth creation.
- Social regional co-operation focus on promotion of
culture in the region, for example, Sothern African
Development Community
(SADC)
- Political regional co-operation focus on getting
independence for members or maintenance of peace and
security, for example, Economic Community Of West
African State (ECOWAS)
ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF
REGIONAL CO-OPERATION

(a)ECONOMIC: The general aim of regional co-operation is to

promote more trade between its members, to generate a great
amount and share of external trade and raise the standards of
living of the population of the member state.

Some of the forms of economic integration are:

1. Free trade area: No tariffs or quotas between member
states, Each member countries unilaterally impose tariffs
on non-member states.
2. Customs Union: There should be free trade between
member states, but all members must operate a common
external tariff on imports from non-member states.
Sometime money accumulated is shared among member
Fig.1 states
3. Common market: In addition to free trade in goods and
The types (forms) of regional co-operation shown in Fig. 1 and an example services, free movement of factors of production (labour
for each. and capital) between member states is allowed.
- Economic regional co-operations focus on improving
trade between members, for example, Southern African
 4. Economic union: This organisation includes all features
of a common market, and also requires members to
adopt common economic policies in such matters as
agricultural, transport and taxation.
(b)POLITICAL: Regional co-operation also serves as a mutual political forum
to articulate the voice of the regional grouping.
It has been common for regional groupings to promote such explicitly political
stance such as peace, democracy, good governance and other pertinent issues as
they arise.
(c)SOCIAL: Regional co-operation is also social in the sense that the
interaction of the people within a regional grouping takes place at social level.
It is imperative to harmonise the economic pursuits and ideals with social
ramifications within a region.
Thus the issue of cultural similarities and differences, language, and other
factors have to be taken on board and complement the economic goals.
The main motive for regional co-operation is economic, political support and
security.
Finding themselves in economic and military weak positions and also
politically insecure state, nations of the world have moved closer together by
forming collective bodies throughout the rest of the world.
Examples of such bodies or regional organisations are: 
The African Union (AU)
• Southern African Development Community (SADC)
• Southern African Customs Union (SACU)
• European Union (EU)
Regional co-operation can thus be defined as coming together or grouping of
countries in the same geographical location to work unanimously to promote
economic development, give each other political support and ensure security
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
THE ADVANTAGES OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION
1. Countries often speak with one voice in international affairs.
2. Greater efficiency is ensured in administering or planning
for larger rather than small units.
3. There is easy movement of people and goods from member
countries across borders.
4. Countries establish a common market therefore benefit from
specialisation. Each country produces according to its
comparative advantage, for example, producing what they
can do best.
5. Several small countries come together to form a common
market so as to enable large industries to operate without any
losses.
6. They are able to attract new investors such as larger multi-
national companies therefore prices could be brought down
through competition.
7. Regional co-operation enables countries to run common
services together, for example, railways, same central bank
and currency such as EURO.
8. Countries are also able to solve conflicts or wars together
and offer assistance to member states which are
impoverished by wars.
FORMS OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION
EXAMPLES OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION
1. SOUTHERN AFRICAN CUSTOMS UNION (SACU)
SACU was found in 1910. Its member countries are Botswana,
Swaziland, Lesotho and South Africa.
MODULE 1-8
It was formed to encourage free trade between member states.
Free trade means that little customs duty is charged on products
imported into member countries.
Goods imported from outside these countries are charged custom
duties and the revenue is shared among the member countries.
South Africa dominates SACU as it has control over the economy of
other members, and it seems to prevent manufacturing industries from being
able to develop in the other three members.
SACU’s STRENGTHS INCLUDE:
1. Free flow of goods.
2. Cheaper goods due to reduced tariffs or custom duties.
3. Easy movements of people, for example, skilled people move between
the countries
4. Expanded or large market area.
5. Easy flow of capital or money for investment in member countries.
2. SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY
(SADC)
It was established in April 1980 as Southern African Development
Coordination Conference (SADCC).
In August 1992 it was transformed for SADCC to SADC (Southern African
Development Community).
SADC has fourteen member states which are: Angola, Botswana, DRC,
Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, South
Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Seychelles has been member of SADC until 2004 when she failed to pay her
annual subscription and was thus dropped.
Some African countries like Rwanda who are outside the Southern African
region are interested in joining SADC. Rwanda has since submitted her
application for membership.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
The objectives of SADC are to:
1. Achieve regional development and economic growth.
2. Alleviate poverty and enhance the standard and quality of life of people
of Southern Africa.
3. Promote and defend peace and security.
4. Allow the exchange of trained workers and technology.
5. Build infrastructure together across borders.
6. Get foreign Aid to pay for development.
7. Encourage trade among member countries.
8. Achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources and effective
protection of the environment.
9. Evolve common political values, systems and institutions.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF SADC
A lot has been achieved in SADC since its inception in April 1980 in
Lusaka, Zambia. Some of the achievements are:
• It has demonstrated that regional cooperation is possible.
• It has inculcated a sense of regional belonging as well as a tradition
of consultation among the people and governments of Southern
Africa.
• A number of infrastructural projects have been undertaken such as
rehabilitating roads, railway lines and harbours.
• A variety of seeds have been discovered through research to carter
for various climatic conditions of the SADC region.
• A number of civil wars within the SADC have been ceased through
SADC.
• Collective bargaining.
• Membership security.
• Improved energy supplies.
MODULE 1-8
 • It aims at achieving at least 30% target of women in political and
decision making structures and countries are thriving to achieve
this in their political circles.
• SADC capital cities and major towns are linked by tarred roads.
• Since the region is prone to drought, member countries have
agreed to share water course systems.
• The member states share information on low cost energy
technologies.
14. Loss of human resources: SADC countries are faced with the
movement of skills and brain drain that leaves member states
vulnerable in essential sectors such as engineering and health.
Check Your Progress
1. What is regional cooperation?

THE PROBLEMS /CHALLENGES FACED BY SADC COUNTRIES Study Fig. 1 which is about types of regional co-operations

1. Lack of common currency.

2. Lack of a common development strategy
3. Diverse political paths.
4. Republic of South Africa dominance.
5. Political instability.
6. Completion and overlap of production of goods and services, for
example, Beef produced by Botswana and Namibia, Diamonds
produced by Botswana and DRC.
7. HIV/AIDS- SADC members have the highest infection percentage
world-wide. This is impacting negatively on the market and skilled
labour force within the region. Fig.1
8. Debts: SADC members have large debts especially external debts,
some members are repaying International Monetary Fund (IMF) and 2. Describe each type of regional co-operation shown in Fig. 1 and give an
World Bank loans and are unable to settle such debts. example for each.
9. Insufficient funds to carry out some projects.
10. An attempt to protect home industries has slowed down regional trade. 3. What are the aims of the Southern African Development Community
11. Persistent drought or recurrence of drought. This has threatened food (SADC)?
security and heightened the poverty level of some countries.
12. Rapidly growing population thus making it difficult to provide for or 4. Suggest ways by which membership of a regional community may help a
even solve problems of unemployment or poverty. country to develop economically.
13. Falling terms of trade.
5. Describe the economic, social and political activities of Southern African
Development Community (SADC)

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

6. What are the advantages of regional cooperation?
7. Describe the achievements of SADC
Describe the success of the Southern African Development
Community
(SADC)
8. Suggest ways by which regional co-operation could operate in bringing
development to its region.
9. Give three challenges faced by Southern African Development
Community (SADC) in achieving its objectives
10. Explain how any three actions can improve regional co-operation in
Southern Africa.
11. Suggest challenges that countries such as Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland
may face as members of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU).
12. Study Fig. 2, which is an extract on regional cooperation.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
Fig.2
13. Suggest ways in which regional trade associations such as SADC
help in the development of their member countries.
14. Describe factors that make it difficult for the Southern African
Community to achieve its aims.
15. Describe ways by which regional communities such as Southern
Africa Development Community (SADC) and Southern African
Customs Union (SACU) can be strengthened.
16. Describe ways by which regional cooperation can be strengthened in
Southern Africa
17. Suggest ways in which the formation of Southern African
Development Community (SADC) has contributed to the
development of the Southern African region.
MODULE 1-8

INTERNATIONAL TRADE
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries.
International trade involves the physical movement of goods and services from
one country to another.
THE ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Fig.1
• Imports are goods or services a country buys from other countries
• Exports are goods or services a country sells to other countries
• Inflows are sums of money or money that comes into the country, for
example, payments of exports and foreign aid.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• Outflows are sums of money or money that leaves the country, for
example, payments of imports and tourists expenditure out of the
country.
• Invisible trade is the buying or selling of services which are
intangible and unseen, for example, tourism and education
• Visible is the buying or selling of tangible goods or goods that can be
seen/touched.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE (REASONS
FOR TRADE OR EXCHANGE)
1. A country can get goods and services that it is unable to produce.
This means that a country gets access to goods and services it has
limitations of acquiring by its own human and physical resources.
2. This creates good international relationship between countries.
3. It helps developing countries to gain access to international
markets for their primary products like cocoa, rubber, coffee,
cotton, diamonds, gold, oil etc.
4. It creates employment in industries where goods are produced,
since more people will be employed in order to produce more.
5. It generates income for countries involved in trade.
6. It is a source of foreign exchange which is used by countries to
import goods from other countries and to finance development
projects like the building of roads, schools, hospitals within the
countries.
7. There is international specialisation which speeds up production
thus leading to mass production which is bound to lead to lower
prices.
Countries concentrate their efforts in the production of
particular commodities therefore countries and
individuals can develop expertise in specific areas, train
workers and find new methods of production.
MODULE 1-8
 8. It provides countries with a wider variety of goods from which
to choose to meet their basic needs and wants.
9. It enables goods to be obtained at different seasons, as various
parts of the world experience different climatic conditions at
different times of the year.
10. It helps some countries to get rid of surplus by exporting it, for
example, if a country produces more than it can consume it then
export.
11. A country may acquire technology and skills through international
trade.
12. It enables developing countries to get technical assistance and
knowledge from developed countries.
THE DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL
TRADE
1. It benefits the richer countries than the poor.
2. It often makes it difficult for poorer countries to change their pattern of
trade, for example, they are constant consumers of cheap raw materials
and buyers of expensive finished goods.
3. It may also lead to over production of goods which might lead to
economic depression.
4. It leads to interdependence therefore in times of war, when supply
sources of essential goods halt or stop, the standard of living will be
low.
5. It brings competition, international jealousy and mistrust.
THE PATTERNS OF GLOBAL/ INTERNATIONAL TRADE
International trade takes place at different levels and various patterns have
emerged.
(a)Trade between developed countries
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
The generally these countries trade products that both of them manufacture but
which one of the countries produces at a lower price or higher quality.
(b)Trade between developing countries
The main trade between developing countries is food.
The amount of trade between developing countries is generally much
lower than trade between developing and developed countries.
There is less trade because developing countries usually produce the
same kind of raw materials as one another.
Since they do not export many manufactured goods they have very
little to trade with one another.
(c)Trade between developed and developing nations
The developed world largely exports manufactured products
whereas the developing world largely exports raw materials,
resulting in the dominance of the world trade by developed
nations.
TRADE POLICIES
(a) FREE TRADE
Free trade is the principle or practice of exchange of goods and
services between countries in which controls or restrictions to
trade have been removed.
Free trade is a system whereby firms and people may trade anywhere
worldwide without being charged custom duties.
MODULE 1-8
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FREE TRADE Trade protectionism is a principle or practice of taking care of a country’s
• Prices are determined by supply and demand. own industry by subsidizing them or imposing barriers against imports.
• Trade may occur anywhere in the world without restrictions.
• The economy has to be privatized. Protectionism is a system whereby trade policies are imposed to safeguard
• There is free competition. local industries from foreign competition by raising import duties or tariffs.
This is the opposite of free trade.
THE ADVANTAGES OF FREE TRADE
The policies also restrict the free flow of goods and services across
• World production is increased because countries are enabled to use international borders.
their resources in the best possible way.
• Each country can enjoy a wider variety of goods and services leading to
higher standards of living.
• It promotes international competition which helps in keeping prices
down.
• Nations allow exports and imports free of custom duties (tax).
• The world is like one big market with prices determined by supply and
demand.
• Investment in resources can take place anywhere unrestricted.
• People buy where they find the best deal.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF FREE TRADE

• Free trade may increase world production but this often helps some
countries than others, that is those with a lot of resources will benefit
more.
• Easy access to resources will lead to exploitation of more resources.
• Greater mobility of labour from area to area will leave other countries
with few skilled human resources.
(b) TRADE PROTECTIONISM
Trade protectionism is also known as restricted trade
Fig.2
TYPES OF PROTECTION
• TARRIFS (Import duty) are taxes put on imports to
increase their prices so that imports are more expensive to
buy. This is done to discourage buyers from buying foreign
goods and at the same time protect local industries by
promoting their products.
• QUOTAS is a measure that limits the quantity of imports that
can be brought into a country by importers’ every year. This

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 would limit the consumers’ choice of goods hence forcing
them to buy locally produced goods and services.
• EXCHANGE CONTROLS is when the government
therefore limits the amount needed to pay for exports
International trade involves foreign currency exchange as exports are paid in
the local currency.
This means there is a certain foreign currency in the country that flows due to
payments of exports.
In the process free-flow of goods and services is reduced.
• ECONOMIC NATIONALISM/ QUARANTINE
SYSTEM is when the government can decide to use health
and safety regulations to limit the type and quantity of
imports.
For example, the government refuse to allow cattle from Zimbabwe into
Botswana because of the Foot and Mouth disease that is prevalent there.
This leads to discrimination in favour of home products.
• POLITICAL BOUNDARIES generally regulate the easy
flow of goods and services into a country. Traders cross at
certain points in order to declare their goods at the border
THE ADVANTAGES OF TRADE PROTECTIONISM
1. It protects infant industries or new industries from competition.
2. The local industries are protected from competing with foreign goods
or industries.
3. It boosts the number of exports.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
4. The countries charge tariffs or quotas to limit imports and at the same
time raise revenue.
5. The government encourage exports by giving subsidies,
ExportOriented Strategy.
6. Investment in other countries may be restricted or banned.
7. It keeps incomes and employment high. The more goods and services a
country produces the higher the incomes and employment level.
8. It makes a country to be self-reliant; enables a country to provide for its
basic needs.
9. It prevents dumping of foreign goods which are usually of low quality
but at the same time their prices are below the local goods.
10. It corrects an unfavourable balance of payment as strict exchange
controls and high tariffs reduce imports.
11. It also helps reduce imported inflation. That if there is rise of goods in a
country and another country buy such goods they have imported that
inflation or increase of prices.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF TRADE
PROTECTIONISM
1. Lack of competition may lead to expensive products in the
home market.
2. Sometimes local industries develop slowly because there is no
foreign competition.
MODULE 1-8
 This leads to waste of economic resources because Government try to avoid going into a negative balance of trade by restricting
money has been invested into these industries in order imports and encouraging exports.
to achieve economic development.

3. Protectionism narrows the market since trade with other

countries becomes difficult due to restrictions imposed as trade
is only with those countries with few restrictions.

BALANCE OF TRADE

The balance of trade refers to the difference between the amount of money
leaving a country to pay for imports and the amount of money coming into the
country from other countries to pay for exports in a year.

It is calculated by subtracting imports from exports to see if there is a trade

surplus (a positive balance) or a trade deficit (a negative balance).
(a) Positive or Favourable balance of trade is when a country exports
more goods than importing them in money terms.
For example: Fig.3
Exports -P5 billion
Imports-P4 billion SOLUTIONS TO NEGATIVE BALANCE OF TRADE

The surplus is P 1 billion How can the government solve the problem of deficit?
Positive balance of trade is also called trade surplus.
1. Try by every possible means to increase exports through: 
It is favourable because it means that the country is building up a surplus of Building more factories.
foreign currency that it can use in the future. • Encouraging farmers to grow export crops.
• Search for new sources of minerals.
(b) Negative Balance of trade is when the country is spending more on its • Limit imports.
imports than it earns for its exports.
2. The government may also devalue the currency, for example, reduce
Negative balance of trade is also known as trade deficit. the value of the local currency so that exports become cheaper for other
countries to buy. This will also make imports more expensive and
people will reduce buying from outside so much.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8


3. The government can also adopt the Export Oriented and Import
Substitution Industrialisation strategies.
4. The other solution is to borrow money from international organisation
and from private banks, for example, World Bank, IMF etc. but this
solution should be treated as a temporary measure as it simply
postpones the problem.
*Devaluation of currency is the most common solution especially in
developing countries as this helps a country to sell more exports and buy fewer
imports.
Devaluation is often the hardest on the poorest people in the country who
suddenly find their wages can no longer buy very much for them.
If a country spends more on buying imports than it earns form selling exports
then it has a negative balance of trade and this can lead a country into debts
with serious consequences.
Most developing countries experience a negative balance of trade and therefore
have to borrow money from the World Bank to pay for imports.
TERMS OF TRADE
Terms of trade refers to the rate at which exports buy imports.
If the terms of trade decline or fall the terms of trade is unfavourable but if they
rise they are favourable.
In developing countries the terms of trade have declined simply because they
export primary products which are less profitable than manufactured goods.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
BALANCE OF PAYMENT
Balance of trade is an account or financial records of all transactions of
a country and the rest of the world per annum.
Balance of payment is made up of the following:
(a) Balance of payment on current account – The current
account shows the present income and expenditure of a
country with the rest of the world.
(b) Balance of payment on capital account- Capital
movements that may be made by private individuals or
firms or government agencies also effect the balance of
payment.
There are four reasons for capital movement from one country to another:
• For investment abroad
• As loans
• For safety
• As a gift from one country to another.
(c) Balance of payment on the monetary movement
account: This part of balance of payments tells us how the
balance on both current account and capital account taken
together is settled. A deficit on combined currency and capital
account can be paid in several ways:
• By selling foreign investment
• By exporting minerals  By receiving a gift from another country.
Deflationary policy – This can involve the following:
• Reducing bank lending
• Raising interest rates  Increasing taxes
• Cutting government expenditure.
The aim of this method is to cut down domestic demand and reduce
imports. When demand is low, prices tend to go down and exports are
more attractive to foreign buyers.
MODULE 1-8
 THE CHALLENGES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE
3. Study Fig. 1 which shows an example of international trade
1. Economic conditions in developing countries

2. Access to world trade- Although world trade has increased

dramatically, the share of poor countries remains 5% in global trade.

The majority of people in developing countries are poor and

developing countries have the majority of people in the world.

3. The legacy of neo-colonialism- Whereas some countries have freed or

liberated themselves from neo-economic bondage through
industrialisation, the rest of the developing countries is still dependent
on the developed countries.

4. Globalisation

Fig.1
5. Political instability

Describe each aspect of international trade shown in Fig. 1.

4. Study Fig. 2 which shows trade patterns between countries

Check Your Progress

1. Define international trade

2. Describe three reasons for international trade

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 10. Describe three ways by which a country can protect its trade
11. Describe the challenges faced by developing countries in international trade.

12. Study Fig. 3, which shows a trade situation for country X and answer
the question that follows

Fig. 2

- Describe the trade patterns shown in Fig. 2.

- Suggest reasons why Botswana buys goods from other countries

- Describe difficulties experienced by developing countries when they

try to take part in international trade

- Suggest ways by which developing countries can increase trade Fig.3

amongst themselves Suggest ways by which country X could correct its negative balance of
trade.
5. State three features of the trade pattern of developing countries
Ideas such as:
6. Describe three challenges faced by developing countries that rely on a
• They limit quantity of goods from poor countries through quota
single export commodity
system
7. Suggest three ways by which developing countries can solve their problems
• They charge high tariffs on goods from poor countries to
associated with trade
discourage entrance
• They subsidise their own goods to make them cheaper than
8. Describe the typical trade pattern of a developed country
imported goods to discourage imported goods
9. Describe three way used to control trade

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • They demand high technological requirements so that poor
countries fail to attain the high standard
• They put exchange control measures to limit foreign exchange
(forex) for import
13. Define protectionism
14. Describe the advantages [benefits] of international trade.
Fig.4
Describe the ways through which rich countries protect their
industry from cheap imports.
• They impose high health standards on foreign goods and services
• They form cartels which restrict imports from outside the cartel
• They demand import licences/ permits/ legal agreements

15. What are imports? Suggest actions which poor countries could take, so they benefit
more from international trade.
16. Describe three ways in which a country can correct a negative balance of • Less Developed Countries(LDCs) should turn raw materials into
payment finished products/ add value to raw materials
• LDCs should form regional co-operations to create a market for
themselves
17. Study Fig. 4, which is a cartoon about trade between developing countries • LDCs should improve their technology to ensure high quality
and developed countries. goods/ invite Multi- National Companies to improve technology/
quality goods and services
• LDCs should form producer cartels to control prices and avoid low
fluctuating prices
• LDCs should appeal to World Trade Organisation to make
developed countries to relax trade barriers
• LDCs should promote research on their products
• LDCs should devalue their currencies to attract customers
• LDCs should diversify their economies/ should avoid dependence
on few commodities
18. What is meant by a positive balance of trade/favourable balance of
trade?
19. Give three different ways by which money can come into a country

20. Describe barriers in international trade

21. Why do countries come up with trade barriers?

22. Suggest benefits that people of Botswana may enjoy for

international trade

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

23. Suggest benefits that people in Botswana may enjoy from international
trade.
FOREIGN AID
Foreign aid is the assistance or help given to some countries from other
countries and other donor agencies.
EXPLANATION OF TERMS
• Recipient country- a state which receives aid.
• Donor country- a state which gives out aid.
• Donor agency- an organisation which gives out aid.  Tied aid- is the
help or assistance that comes with “strings attached”. This means that
the aid is given with certain instructions about how it may be used.
TYPES OF AID
Basically there are two main types of aid:
a) Official Aid is paid by taxpayers in donor countries and administered
by governments in those countries.
b) Voluntary Aid is the money or assistance raised by independent
organisations and private donations, for example, Oxfam and Red
Cross.
Types of Official Aid
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
i. Bilateral aid is the assistance given directly from one country to
another.
Generally it is the government to government and this is often tied,
that is there are strings attached.
For example, the USA might donate money directly to the
Botswana government help with development. ii. Multi-lateral
aid is the assistance given to a country by international
organisation.
For example, the United Nations, European Union, International
Monetary Fund, World Bank and other individual richer
countries give money and other resources to those organisations
with the understanding that it will be given out to deserving
countries when the need arises.
Emergency aid is basically food, medical supplies or other
materials that are given in times of natural disasters such as
droughts and earth quakes.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOREIGN AID DONORS
- Rich individuals, for example, Bill Gates who help
developing countries to fight diseases such as
HIV/AIDS through his foundation called Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation.
- Charities , for example, the Red Cross/ Red Crescent
which sometimes help people affected by natural
disasters such as flood by providing them with shelter
and food.
- Developed countries or rich countries, for example,
giving out assistance in the form of funds to developing
countries to carry out development projects.
- International Non –Governmental Organisations
(NGOs) working in specific areas or helping people and
MODULE 1-8
 countries in those areas, for example, Survival
International advocating for minority ethnic groups.
- Less Developed Countries (LDCs) which are well off
offering to help other countries, for example, Botswana
giving fuel to Zimbabwe.
- Agencies of the United Nations
FORMS OF FOREIGN AID
1. Financial assistance: Foreign aid in the form of financial assistance can
be divided in two forms:
a) Soft loans are money to developing countries by developed countries
to help in development.
This money is given on condition that developing countries should pay back
within a given period of time. The time is usually very reasonable, that is why
money is called soft loan.
b) Grants are the money given to developing countries by developed
countries to help in development.
Unlike soft loans, the money is given free of charge and is not refunded.
2. Technical assistance or specialist services refers to the services
offered to developing countries by experts, skilled staff from other
countries or developed countries and international organisations like
IMF, World Bank and United Nations.
This form of assistance is commonly known as technical and advisory
services.
Usually the salaries of the foreign specialist are paid by the developed
countries or international organisation that sent them.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
3. Education and training is a form of foreign aid whereby developed
countries and donor agencies offer scholarships and sponsorship to
students of developing countries to attend universities abroad.
They also avail their teachers and instructors to come and teach in
developing countries, for example, the Peace Corps from the USA.
4. Gift of consumer goods is the form of foreign aid in which food and
other consumer goods are given as free gifts to developing countries by
developed countries and other donor agencies.
For example, Botswana gets food resources from USA during
emergencies.
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) offers food resources to
developing countries which are faced with drought and poverty.
5. Foreign direct investment refers to the establishment of factories,
hotels and industries in some countries especially developing countries
by firms and corporations that originate from developed countries.
In some cases foreign direct investment takes the form
of a joint venture with the government of the developing
country and the donor country.
For example, in Botswana diamond mining industry is a joint
venture between the government of Botswana and De Beers
Company hence Debswana.
MOTIVATION FOR AID
This has been categorized into two broad areas:
 Donor oriented
 Development oriented
THE REASONS FOR GIVING FOREIGN AID
• Humanitarian reasons
MODULE 1-8
 • For development of skills and technology i) It encourages trade between countries by strengthening the
• Trade links relationship between them.
• Economic gains
• Creation of political satellites or strategic reasons j) Developed countries gain support from developing countries, they give
• Creation of employment aid against other countries.
• For infrastructure development
• For peace keeping k) It helps developed countries to protect their investments in developing
countries.

THE ADVANTAGES/ ARGUMENTS FOR AID
a) The aid can help developing countries in need or emergency assistance
and help for long term development.
b) Foreign aid helps governments in developing countries to provide
needed infrastructure, for example, roads, schools, water and bridges.
c) Where finance is lacking aid can assist in removing delays to
development.
d) Foreign aid is a means of expressing care and concern for the fellow
humans especially from the rich to the poor and can improve human
rights.
e) Foreign aid plays the role of redistributing resources which are
unevenly distributed throughout the world.
f) Foreign aid helps establish links between countries and consequently
enhance international understanding and world peace and students may
be given grants to study overseas.
g) Foreign aid encourages and facilitates mobility of labour to where it is
needed most and it also enhances technology transfer.
THE DISADVANTAGES/ ARGUMENT AGAINST FOREIGN AID
i. The aid does create dependency syndrome making weaker
countries depend more on stronger ones.
ii. The aid on bilateral basis is often used by richer and
powerful countries to consolidate their mighty or strength.
iii. The aid often makes countries to divert their attention from
trade to aid.
iv. Foreign aid reinforces master-servant relations in
international affairs and promotes superiority-inferiority
attitudes.
v. Foreign aid strengthens world inequalities and endorses or
supports the economic, political and social mighty of richer
countries over poor ones.
vi. Sometimes aid is project aid that is given on condition that
the country receiving the aid should use it for a project
chosen by the donor.

Then the problem sometimes is that the project chosen

h) It promotes the concept of interdependence by allowing the rich to help
by the donor may not be important to the developing
the poor.
country receiving the aid.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 vii. Sometimes a developed country gives aid to a developing
country on condition that the developing country should
buy certain materials from them.

viii. Foreign aid encourages waste especially grants. Recipient

countries are wasteful if they are given money without
having to pay back.

THE IMPLICATIONS OF FOREIGN AID ON DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES
• Tied aid ensures developed countries ready market for their products.
• Foreign aid is used to put political and economic pressure on poorer
countries.
• Foreign aid increases the recipient country’s external debts as loans are
repaid with interest.
• In most cases foreign aid only goes to the rich and urban dwellers in
recipient countries rather than the real poor people.
• In some cases foreign aid encourages corruption amongst officials in
donor and recipient countries.
• Foreign aid also distorts local markets in developing countries.
• Foreign countries do not encourage self-reliance of recipient countries
so it promotes neo-colonialism.
• Developing countries are often not given appropriate relevant
technology.
THE SPECIALISED AGENCIES AND PROGRAMMES OF THE
UNITED NATIONS
Fig.1
THE ROLE OF SPECIALISED AGENCIES AND PROGRAMMES
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
1. Food and Agricultural Organisation
This is a UN specialised agency formed in 1945.
It aims at promoting rural development by improving agricultural
production and increased food security.
It provides support to states preparing for emergency food crisis,
sometimes provides food relief in conjunction with World Food
Programme and is often involved in effort to re-establish
production following floods, livestock disease outbreaks and
other disasters.

This agency works to increase the output of farmlands, forests,

and fisheries as well as nutrition levels by collecting and passing
information concerning nutrition, food and agriculture.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

It helps countries that need technical advice on how to increase food
production, to fight pests and animal diseases and how to conserve the soil.
2. World Food Programme(WFP)
It was formed in 1963.
It specialised in providing food aid to the population caught up in the
natural and man-made disasters and wars.
Most of the resources are used for emergency relief.
Most of the food that it distributes is pledged in kind by donor
countries.
3. World Health Organisation (WHO)
It was formed in 1948 to provide worldwide guidance in the field of health.
It cooperates with government in planning and management and evaluation of
natural health programmes and promotes the development and transfer of
appropriate health technology, information and standards. The governing body
of WHO is the world health assembly that is composed of all member states
and meets every year.
It plays a key role for example in monitoring disease control research.
The organisation strives to prevent the spread of diseases internationally by
giving guidance to countries on health problems and control of diseases.
It fights an endless war against malaria, leprosy, typhus, polio, HIV/AIDS,
SARS, Ebola etc.
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
4. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC AND
CULTURAL ORGANISATION (UNESCO)
This organisation seeks to achieve universal literacy through programmes of
cultural and intellectual cooperation.
It encourages international cooperation in natural sciences, education and social
sciences.
It aims at extending educational opportunities for children and at rising
education levels among adults.
5. United Nations International Children Emergency Fund
(UNICEF)
It was formed in 1946, as a programme to meet the emergency needs of
children.
It helps in the relief of children. It specializes in the supply of
medicine, food and equipment for the children’s welfare service.
It expanded rapidly during the 1980s attracting considerable
funds with its high profile selective primary health care
programme in impoverished countries.
6. United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees
(UNHCR)
Its function is to provide protection and assistance to refugees
but this has been extended to include some groups of returned
refugees and internally displaced people.
MODULE 1-8
 7. International Labour Organisation (ILO)
It investigates working conditions, wages, trade union rights and social
security of workers in all parts of the world.
It advices on international labour questions.
Check Your Progress
1. Fig 1 shows the United Nations Specialised Agencies. Use it to
answer question 1(a) [BGCSE 2009]
Fig.1
(a)(i) Explain the function of any three of the specialised agencies on the
diagram.
• FAO: Collects and disseminates information on food and nutrition 
WHO: helps to fight diseases
• UNICEF: to improve living conditions of children/ improve children’s
education
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• ILO: investigates working conditions and security of workers- to
improve workers welfare.
• World Bank: gives financial assistance and technical advice to
countries
• UNCHR: helps to improve refugees welfare.
(ii) Describe possible problems that foreign aid can cause to countries
receiving it.
(b)(i) Describe the advantages of international trade.
(ii) Describe the challenges faced by developing countries in
international trade.
2(a) (i) Why do countries of the North give aid to the countries of
the South?
• Humanitarian reasons, for example, during emergencies such
as floods and drought/ sympathy
• To encourage more trade between donor and recipient
countries
• Protect donor investments in countries of the South/ interests
• Gain support of recipient countries against other countries/
political reasons
• Prestige/publicity/friendship
• Donors may wish to exercise control over recipient countries
 Donors creating employment for their own people 
To satisfy international requirements/redistribution of world’s
wealth
• To support their own industries/ open up markets for their own
industries.
(ii)Describe effects of foreign aid on developing countries.
MODULE 1-8
 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) helps to provide
basic needs and safety for refugees

World Bank provides loans to countries for development or reconstruction

and provide economic advice to countries

United Nations Education Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) fund research

in education
(ii) Suggest challenges that the World Food Programme faces in
developing countries.
2. Study Fig. 2 which shows specialised agencies of the United Nations
Organisation. [BGCSE 2015] Ideas such as:

- misuse of donated food/ people sell donated food for personal gain
- Cultural barriers where people reject food from other cultures
- Large population to feed
- Wars/conflicts disturbing food distribution
- Uncooperative leaders/ dictators wanting to control the duties of
WFP
- Leaders wanting to use WFP food aid for political gains
3. (a) Define the term tied aid.

(b) State three reasons for giving foreign aid.

Describe the forms of foreign aid received by Less Developed

Countries.
Fig.2
Ideas such as:
(a)(i) Describe ways by which each of the specialised agencies shown in Fig. 2
• Technical assistance, for example, experts sent to work
helps countries to develop.
in a developing country
World Health Organisation (WHO) controls diseases and promotes people’s • Financial help, for example, interest free loans and
health grants/ monetary
• Gift of consumer goods, for example, food aid/
World Food Programme (WFP) distributes food to starving people or those humanitarian
suffering from disaster and advice on nutrition

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 • Military aid, for example, soldiers sent to keep law and
order in a country
• Emergency aid, for example, help given during floods
and drought
(ii) Suggest problems that a Less Developed Country, which receives
foreign aid, can experience.
• Corruption, for example, money misused by leaders
• Reinforcement of master-servant relations/ foster superiorityinferiority
ideology
• Aid is often tied/ conditional/ benefiting the developed countries/ neo-
colonialism
• Creates dependency syndrome/ loss of self-reliance
• Some aid encourages inappropriate technology
• Less Developed Countries end up in debt crisis
• Encourages wastefulness
• Less Developed Countries become dumping grounds for developed
countries
• Less Developed Countries turned into marketing area for donor
products/ creates competition with local products
Describe the problems faced by poor countries as a result of receiving aid
from rich countries.
• Aid encourages corruption among government officials
• Aid encourages laziness among locals/ dependency syndrome
• Aid encourages wastage of resources
• Aid cause debt crisis
• Aid increases inequality within the country when it benefits selected
groups
• Aid promotes dumping of discarded resources form donors/
inappropriate technology/ environmental unfriendly
Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes
• Donors may interfere in recipients’ politics  Aid may be tied/
strings attached
• Reinforces master-servant relationship.
(ii) Suggest ways in which rich countries may help poor countries
to speed up development.
Ideas such as:
• Developed countries (DCs) should send exports to help
development in Less Developed Countries (LDCs) 
DCs can sponsor LDCs’ students to gain skills/
scholarships/ skills development
• Technology transfer to LDCs
• Send Multi-National Companies to LDCs/ Foreign Direct
Investment
• Provide financial assistance for development projects, for
example, schools and roads construction/ monetary aid
• Provide emergency/ reconstruction aid when crises occur,
for example, the Haiti example and Doctors without
borders
• Developed countries should relax trade barriers so that
poor countries can participate in international trade/
provide reliable market
• Developed countries should facilitate research for
development in Less Developed countries
• Developed countries can send peace keepers to war torn
countries to stabilise political environment
• The rich countries can reduce interest rates/ debt
cancellation of poor countries
(Marks allocation: 5/5 6/4 4/6)
MODULE 1-8
 - Agencies of the United Nations

(ii) Ways by which developing countries can use foreign aid to

achieve higher levels of development.

Ideas such as:

- Use donated funds to invest in industries or production

activities - Use foreign experts to train locals / to work
in the country.
- Send students to overseas institutions where doors have
been opened.
- Use donated funds to construct or improve social services,
for example, schools, hospitals and libraries.

- Use foreign loans to construct transportation routes or use

them on development projects, for example, building of
highways.
(a)(i) Description of different types of foreign aid donors - Use funds to import machinery for production.

Ideas such as: (b)(i) Description of different forms of foreign aid

- Rich individuals, for example, Bill Gates who help developing
- Gift of consumer goods, for example, food
countries to fight diseases such as HIV/AIDS through his foundation
- Financial or monetary, for example, loans and grants
called Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
- Foreign Direct investment which involves establishment
- Charities , for example, the Red Cross/ Red Crescent which sometimes
of production activities, for example, factories, farms and
help people affected by natural disasters such as flood by providing
mines in poor countries.
them with shelter and food.
- Technical assistance where developed countries provide
- Developed countries or rich countries, for example, giving out
expertise to advise poor countries.
assistance in the form of funds to developing countries to carry out
- Education where rich countries sponsor students from
development projects.
poor countries to study overseas and send teachers to teach
- International Non –Governmental Organisations (NGOs) working
students in poor countries.
in specific areas or helping people and countries in those areas, for
- Specialised services where specialised agencies of the
example, Survival International advocating for minority ethnic groups.
United Nations Organisation, for example, World Bank or
- Less Developed Countries (LDCs) which are well off offering to help
other countries, for example, Botswana giving fuel to Zimbabwe

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 other agencies carry out research for the benefit of the - Military where rich countries give weapons or solider
poor country. services to poor ones.
- Trade where rich nations give poor countries opportunities
to sell their products on the world market or them.
(ii) How the act of giving may benefit the donor country.

Ideas such as:

- Protection of donor investments or interests in the recipient country.

- Creation of employment for the donor country’s citizens.
- Recipient country becomes a secure market for donor country’s goods and services.
- Donor country gains prestige or publicity.
- Donor country gains support of recipient country in international debates.
- Donor country satisfies international requirements, for example, rich countries are
required by the United Nations Organisations to give out percentage of their GNP to
help poor countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8