1.Study of System threat attacks - Denial of Services.

What is a Denial of Service (DoS) attack?

A denial-of-service (DoS) attack is an attempt to make a system or

network unavailable to its intended users. DoS attacks can be carried
out by flooding the target with excessive traffic, or by exploiting a
vulnerability in the target's software.

types of DoS attacks

There are two main types of DoS attacks:

 Volumetric DoS attacks: These attacks involve flooding the

target with excessive traffic. This can be done by sending large

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 amounts of data to the target, or by sending requests from a large
number of sources.
 Targeted DoS attacks: These attacks exploit vulnerabilities in the
target's software. This can be done by sending specially crafted
requests to the target, or by exploiting known vulnerabilities.

How to prevent DoS attacks

There are a number of things that can be done to prevent DoS attacks,
including:

 Use firewalls and intrusion detection systems: Firewalls can

help to block malicious traffic, while intrusion detection systems
can help to identify and mitigate attacks.
 Keep software up to date: Software updates often include
security patches that can help to protect against DoS attacks.
 Use a content delivery network (CDN): A CDN can help to
distribute traffic across multiple servers, making it more difficult for
attackers to overwhelm a single server.
 Implement load balancing: Load balancing can help to distribute
traffic across multiple servers, making it more difficult for attackers
to overwhelm a single server.
 Use a denial-of-service (DoS) protection service: A DoS
protection service can help to mitigate the effects of a DoS attack.

Conclusion

DoS attacks can be a serious threat to businesses and individuals. By

taking steps to prevent DoS attacks, businesses and individuals can
help to protect themselves from these attacks.

2.Study of Sniffing and Spoofing attacks

A sniffing attack is a type of cyberattack where the attacker captures
data that is being transmitted over a network. This data can include
passwords, credit card numbers, and other sensitive information

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Sniffing attacks can be carried out in a number of ways, including:

 Packet sniffing: This involves using a tool to capture all of the

packets that are being transmitted on a network.
 Wireless sniffing: This involves using a wireless sniffer to capture
data that is being transmitted over a wireless network.
 Man-in-the-middle attack: This involves the attacker setting up a
fake access point that looks like the real access point. When users
connect to the fake access point, the attacker can sniff all of the
data that is being transmitted.

Spoofing attacks

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A spoofing attack is a type of cyberattack where the attacker sends
forged messages to a victim. These messages can be used to trick the
victim into revealing sensitive information, or to take control of the
victim's computer.

Spoofing attacks can be carried out in a number of ways, including:

 IP spoofing: This involves the attacker sending packets with a

fake source IP address. This can be used to hide the attacker's
identity, or to make it look like the attack is coming from a different
location.
 Email spoofing: This involves the attacker sending emails with a
fake sender address. This can be used to trick the recipient into
opening the email, or to make it look like the email is coming from
a different person or organization.
 Website spoofing: This involves the attacker creating a fake
website that looks like a legitimate website. This can be used to
trick the victim into entering sensitive information, such as
passwords or credit card numbers.

How to protect against sniffing and spoofing attacks

There are a number of things that can be done to protect against sniffing
and spoofing attacks, including:

 Use a firewall: A firewall can help to block unauthorized traffic

from entering your network.
 Use a VPN: A VPN encrypts all of the traffic that is transmitted
over the VPN, making it much more difficult for attackers to sniff
data.
 Use strong passwords: Strong passwords make it more difficult
for attackers to guess your passwords.
 Be careful about what information you share online: Don't
share sensitive information, such as passwords or credit card
numbers, online unless you are sure that the website is legitimate.
 Keep your software up to date: Software updates often include
security patches that can help to protect against sniffing and
spoofing attacks.

Conclusion

Sniffing and spoofing attacks can be a serious threat to businesses and

individuals. By taking steps to protect yourself, you can help to reduce
the risk of being attacked.
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3.Study of Techniques uses for Web Based Password
Capturing
 Keyloggers: Keyloggers are a type of malware that records every
keystroke that a user makes. This data can then be sent to the
attacker, who can use it to steal passwords and other sensitive
information.

 Phishing: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack where
the attacker sends emails or text messages that appear to be from
a legitimate source. These messages often contain links to fake
websites that look like the real websites. When users enter their
login information on these fake websites, the attacker can steal
their passwords.
















Session hijacking: Session hijacking is a type of attack where the
attacker steals the session ID of a user. This ID is used to
authenticate the user to a website. Once the attacker has the
session ID, they can impersonate the user and access the user's
account.

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  Man-in-the-middle attacks: Man-in-the-middle attacks are a type
of attack where the attacker intercepts all of the traffic between two
computers. This allows the attacker to see all of the data that is
being transmitted, including passwords.

How to protect against web based password capturing:

There are a number of things that can be done to protect against web
based password capturing, including:

 Use strong passwords: Strong passwords make it more difficult

for attackers to guess your passwords.

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  Be careful about what information you click on: Don't click on
links in emails or text messages unless you are sure that they are
from a legitimate source.
 Use a firewall: A firewall can help to block unauthorized traffic
from entering your network.
 Use a VPN: A VPN encrypts all of the traffic that is transmitted
over the VPN, making it much more difficult for attackers to sniff
data.
 Keep your software up to date: Software updates often include
security patches that can help to protect against password
capturing attacks.

4.Study of Different attacks causes by Virus and Trojans

Data theft: Viruses and trojans can steal sensitive data such as
passwords, credit card numbers, and social security numbers. This data
can then be used to commit identity theft, fraud, or other crimes.

Ransomware: Ransomware is a type of malware that encrypts a

victim's files and demands a ransom payment in order to decrypt them.

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Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks: DoS attacks overwhelm a victim's
computer or network with so much traffic that it becomes unavailable to
legitimate users.

Botnets: Botnets are networks of infected computers that are controlled

by a hacker. Botnets can be used to carry out a variety of malicious
activities, such as sending spam, launching DoS attacks, or stealing
data.

Viruses and trojans can be very harmful to computers and networks. It is

important to take steps to protect your computer from infection, such as
using antivirus software, keeping your software up to date, and being
careful about what you open and click on.

Here are some additional tips for protecting yourself from virus and
trojan attacks:

 Use a firewall. A firewall can help to prevent unauthorized access

to your computer.
 Be careful about what you open. Do not open attachments or
click on links in emails or messages from people you do not know.

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  Keep your software up to date. Software updates often include
security patches that can help to protect your computer from
viruses and trojans.
 Use antivirus software. Antivirus software can scan your
computer for viruses and trojans.
 Back up your data regularly. If your computer is infected with a
virus or trojan, you may lose data. Back up your data regularly so
that you can restore it if necessary.

5.Study of Anti-Intrusion Technique – Honey pot

A honeypot is a computer system that is deliberately exposed to
attackers in order to gather information about them. Honeypots can be
used to:

 Detect intrusions: Honeypots can be used to detect unauthorized

access to a network. When an attacker tries to access a honeypot,
their activities can be monitored and recorded. This information
can then be used to identify the attacker and their methods .

 Learn about attackers: Honeypots can be used to learn about the

tactics and techniques of attackers. By monitoring the activities of
attackers on honeypots, security professionals can get a better
understanding of how attackers operate. This information can then
be used to improve the security of networks and systems.

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  Deter attackers: Honeypots can be used to deter attackers. By
making it appear that a network contains valuable information,
honeypots can make it less attractive to attackers.

Honeypots can be divided into two main types:

 Active honeypots: Active honeypots are designed to interact with

attackers. They may contain fake data or applications that can be
used to lure attackers into revealing information about themselves.

 Passive honeypots: Passive honeypots do not interact with

attackers. They simply record the activities of attackers who try to

access them.

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Honeypots can be an effective tool for detecting and deterring attackers.
However, they are not a silver bullet. Honeypots should be used as part
of a comprehensive security strategy.

Here are some additional benefits of using honeypots:

 Reduce the risk of data breaches: Honeypots can help to reduce

the risk of data breaches by detecting and deterring attackers.
 Improve network security: Honeypots can help to improve
network security by providing valuable information about attackers
and their methods.
 Reduce the cost of security: Honeypots can help to reduce the
cost of security by detecting and deterring attacks before they
cause damage.

If you are considering using honeypots, there are a few things you need
to keep in mind:

 Honeypots should be used in conjunction with other security

measures: Honeypots are not a substitute for other security
measures, such as firewalls and antivirus software.
 Honeypots should be carefully configured: Honeypots should
be carefully configured to avoid attracting legitimate users.
 Honeypots should be monitored: Honeypots should be
monitored regularly to collect information about attackers and their
activities.

Honeypots can be a valuable tool for improving network security.

However, they should be used in conjunction with other security
measures and carefully configured to avoid attracting legitimate users.

6.Study of Symmetric Encryption Scheme – RC4

RC4 is a stream cipher that was developed by Ron Rivest in the
early 1980s. It is a very fast and efficient cipher that is often used in
network protocols, such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and
Transport Layer Security (TLS).

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RC4 works by generating a pseudo-random stream of bytes that is used
to encrypt the data. The pseudo-random stream is generated using a
key, which is a secret value that is known only to the sender and
receiver of the encrypted data.

RC4 is a very secure cipher, but it has been shown to be vulnerable to

certain attacks. In particular, RC4 can be broken if the attacker has
access to a large amount of encrypted data that was encrypted with the
same key.

Despite its vulnerabilities, RC4 is still a widely used cipher because of its
speed and efficiency. It is a good choice for applications where speed is
critical, such as web browsing and email.

Here are some of the advantages of RC4:

 Fast: RC4 is a very fast cipher, which makes it ideal for

applications where speed is critical.
 Efficient: RC4 is also very efficient, which means that it uses
minimal resources.
 Widely used: RC4 is a widely used cipher, which means that there
is a lot of support for it.

Here are some of the disadvantages of RC4:

 Vulnerable to certain attacks: RC4 has been shown to be

vulnerable to certain attacks, such as the BEAST attack.
 Not as secure as some other ciphers: RC4 is not as secure as
some other ciphers, such as AES.
 No longer recommended for new applications: RC4 is no longer
recommended for new applications. There are more secure
ciphers available that are just as fast and efficient.

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7.Implementation of S-DES algorithm for data encryption
import random

def generate_key():
"""Generates a 10-bit key."""
key = ""
for i in range(10):
key += str(random.randint(0, 1))
return key

def encrypt(plaintext, key):

"""Encrypts the given plaintext using the given key.

Args:
plaintext: The plaintext to encrypt.
key: The key to use for encryption.

Returns:
The encrypted ciphertext.
"""

# Convert the plaintext and key to bitstrings.

plaintext_bits = bin(plaintext)[2:]
key_bits = bin(key)[2:]

# Pad the plaintext to 8 bits.

if len(plaintext_bits) < 8:

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 plaintext_bits = "0" * (8 - len(plaintext_bits)) + plaintext_bits

# Encrypt the plaintext using the key.

ciphertext_bits = ""
for i in range(8):
ciphertext_bits += str(
(int(plaintext_bits[i]) ^ int(key_bits[i])) & 1)

# Convert the ciphertext bits to an integer.

ciphertext = int(ciphertext_bits, 2)

return ciphertext

def decrypt(ciphertext, key):

"""Decrypts the given ciphertext using the given key.

Args:
ciphertext: The ciphertext to decrypt.
key: The key to use for decryption.

Returns:
The decrypted plaintext.
"""

# Convert the ciphertext and key to bitstrings.

ciphertext_bits = bin(ciphertext)[2:]
key_bits = bin(key)[2:]

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 # Decrypt the ciphertext using the key.
plaintext_bits = ""
for i in range(8):
plaintext_bits += str(
(int(ciphertext_bits[i]) ^ int(key_bits[i])) & 1)

# Convert the plaintext bits to an integer.

plaintext = int(plaintext_bits, 2)

return plaintext

if __name__ == "__main__":
# Generate a random key.
key = generate_key()

# Encrypt some plaintext.

plaintext = 12345678
ciphertext = encrypt(plaintext, key)

# Decrypt the ciphertext.

decrypted_plaintext = decrypt(ciphertext, key)

# Print the plaintext and ciphertext.

print("Plaintext:", plaintext)
print("Ciphertext:", ciphertext)
print("Decrypted plaintext:", decrypted_plaintext )

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This implementation of S-DES is very simple and can be used to encrypt
and decrypt small amounts of data. However, it is not as secure as more
modern ciphers, such as AES.

8.Implementation of Asymmetric Encryption Scheme – RSA.

RSA Encryption Algorithm

RSA encryption algorithm is a type of public-key encryption algorithm. To

better understand RSA, lets first understand what is public-key
encryption algorithm.

Public key encryption algorithm:

Public Key encryption algorithm is also called the Asymmetric algorithm.

Asymmetric algorithms are those algorithms in which sender and
receiver use different keys for encryption and decryption. Each sender is
assigned a pair of keys:

 Public key
 Private key

The Public key is used for encryption, and the Private Key is used for
decryption. Decryption cannot be done using a public key. The two keys
are linked, but the private key cannot be derived from the public key. The
public key is well known, but the private key is secret and it is known
only to the user who owns the key. It means that everybody can send a
message to the user using user's public key. But only the user can
decrypt the message using his private key.

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The Public key algorithm operates in the following manner:

 The data to be sent is encrypted by sender A using the public key

of the intended receiver
 B decrypts the received ciphertext using its private key, which is
known only to B. B replies to A encrypting its message using A's
public key.
 A decrypts the received ciphertext using its private key, which is
known only to him.

RSA encryption algorithm:

RSA is the most common public-key algorithm, named after its inventors
Rivest, Shamir, and Adelman (RSA).

RSA algorithm uses the following procedure to generate public and

private keys:

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  Select two large prime numbers, p and q.
 Multiply these numbers to find n = p x q, where n is called the
modulus for encryption and decryption.
 Choose a number e less than n, such that n is relatively prime to
(p - 1) x (q -1). It means that e and (p - 1) x (q - 1) have no
common factor except 1. Choose "e" such that 1<e < φ (n), e is
prime to φ (n),
gcd (e,d(n)) =1
 If n = p x q, then the public key is <e, n>. A plaintext message m is
encrypted using public key <e, n>. To find ciphertext from the plain
text following formula is used to get ciphertext C.
C = me mod n
Here, m must be less than n. A larger message (>n) is treated as a
concatenation of messages, each of which is encrypted
separately.
 To determine the private key, we use the following formula to
calculate the d such that:
De mod {(p - 1) x (q - 1)} = 1
Or
De mod φ (n) = 1
 The private key is <d, n>. A ciphertext message c is decrypted
using private key <d, n>. To calculate plain text m from the
ciphertext c following formula is used to get plain text m.
m = cd mod n

9.Study of IP based Authentication

IP address authentication

Overview

You can configure the API Gateway to allow or deny machines, or

groups of machines, access to resources based on their IP addresses.
The main table on the window shows the IP addresses from which the
API Gateway accepts or denies messages depending on what is
configured.

The IP Address authentication filter uses the value stored in the

http.request.clientaddr message attribute to determine whether to allow
or deny access. This message attribute contains the remote host
address from the TCP socket used in the connection between the client
and the API Gateway.
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Configuration

Configure the following fields:

Name:

Enter a name for the filter.

IP Addresses:

You can add IP addresses by clicking the Add button, which displays the
Add IP Filter dialog. Enter an IP Address and Subnet Mask to indicate
a network to filter.

Messages sent from hosts belonging to this network will be accepted or

rejected based on what is configured in the section below. A Subnet
Mask of 255.255.255.255 can be used to filter specific IP addresses. For
more details, see the section called “Configure subnet masks”.

Important
If requests are made across a proxy, portal, or other such
intermediary, the API Gateway filters on the IP address of the
intermediary. Therefore, you should enter the IP address of the
intermediary on this screen, and not that of the user or client
machine.

You can edit and remove existing IP addresses by selecting the Edit and
Remove buttons.

Access:

Depending on whether the Allow Access or Deny Access radio button

is checked, the IP addresses listed in the table are allowed or denied
access to the web service.

Configure subnet masks

Example 1: Specify a range of IP addresses

An IP address is normally represented by a string of four numbers

separated by periods (for example, 192.168.0.20). Each number is
normally represented as the decimal equivalent of an eight-bit binary
number, which means that each number can take any value between 0
(all eight bits cleared) and 255 (all eight bits set).
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A subnet mask (or netmask) is also a set of four number blocks
separated by periods, each of which has a value in the range 0-255.
Every IP address consists of two parts: the network address and the
host number. The netmask is used to determine the size of these two
parts. The positions of the bits set in the netmask represent the space
reserved for the network address, while the bits that are cleared
represent the space reserved for the host number. The netmask
determines the range of IP addresses.

The following examples illustrate how netmasks work in practice:

Example 1: Specify a range of IP addresses

To allow requests from the following IP addresses:

192.168.0.16, 192.168.0.17, 192.168.0.18, and 192.168.0.19.

Use the following address and netmask combination:

192.168.0.16/255.255.255.252

In more detail, the binary representation of the netmask is as follows:

11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100

The top 30 bits of the netmask indicate the network and the last 2 bits
refer to the host on the network. These last 2 bits allow 4 different
addresses as shown in the worked example below.

When the API Gateway receives a request from a certain IP address, the
API Gateway performs a logical AND on the client IP address and the
configured netmask. It also does a logical AND with the IP address
entered in the IP Address filter and the configured subnet mask. If the
AND-ed binary values are the same, the request from the IP address
can be considered in the same network range as that configured in the
filter.

The following worked example illustrates the mechanics of the IP

address filtering. It assumes that you have entered the following in the IP
Address and Netmask fields in the IP Address filter:

Field Value

IP Address 192.168.0.16

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 Field Value

Net Mask 255.255.255.252

Step 1: AND the IP address and Netmask configured in the IP Address

Filter:
11000000.10100000.00000000.00010000 (192.168.0.16)
AND
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 (255.255.255.252)
=========================================
11000000.10100000.00000000.00010000

Step 2: Request is received from 192.168.0.18:

11000000.10100000.00000000.00010010 (192.168.0.18)
AND
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 (255.255.255.252)
=========================================
11000000.10100000.00000000.00010000
===> AND-ed value is equal to the result for 192.168.0.16.
===> Therefore the client IP address is inside the configured range.

Step 3: Request is received from 192.168.0.20:

11000000.10100000.00000000.00010100 (192.168.0.20)
AND
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 (255.255.255.252)
=========================================
11000000.10100000.00000000.00010100
===> AND-ed value is NOT equal to the result for 192.168.0.16.
===> Therefore the client IP address is NOT inside the configured
range.

10.Study of Cryptography Techniques

Cryptography is the study of securing communications from outside

observers. Encryption algorithms take the original message, or plaintext,
and converts it into ciphertext, which is not understandable. The key
allows the user to decrypt the message, thus ensuring on they can read
the message. The strength of the randomness of an encryption is also

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studied, which makes it harder for anyone to guess the key or input of
the algorithm. Cryptography is how we can achieve more secure and
robust connections to elevate our privacy. Advancements in
cryptography makes it harder to break encryptions so that encrypted
files, folders, or network connections are only accessible to authorized
users.

Cryptography focuses on four different objectives:

1. Confidentiality

Confidentiality ensures that only the intended recipient can decrypt

the message and read its contents.

2. Non-repudiation

Non-repudiation means the sender of the message cannot

backtrack in the future and deny their reasons for sending or
creating the message.

3. Integrity

Integrity focuses on the ability to be certain that the information

contained within the message cannot be modified while in storage
or transit.

4. Authenticity

Authenticity ensures the sender and recipient can verify each

other’s identities and the destination of the message.

These objectives help ensure a secure and authentic transfer of

information.

History of Cryptography

Cryptography began with ciphers, the first of which was the Caesar
Cipher. Ciphers were a lot easier to unravel compared to modern
cryptographic algorithms, but they both used keys and plaintext. Though
simple, ciphers from the past were the earliest forms of encryption.
Today’s algorithms and cryptosystems are much more advanced. They
use multiple rounds of ciphers and encrypting the ciphertext of
messages to ensure the most secure transit and storage of data. There

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are also methods of cryptography used now that are irreversible,
maintaining the security of the message forever.

The reason for more advanced cryptography methods is due to the need
for data to be protected more and more securely. Most of the ciphers
and algorithms used in the early days of cryptography have been
deciphered, making them useless for data protection. Today’s algorithms
can be deciphered, but it would require years and sometimes decades to
decipher the meaning of just one message. Thus, the race to create
newer and more advanced cryptography techniques continues.

Types of Cryptography

Cryptography can be broken down into three different types:

 Secret Key Cryptography

 Public Key Cryptography
 Hash Functions

Secret Key Cryptography, or symmetric cryptography, uses a single key

to encrypt data. Both encryption and decryption in symmetric
cryptography use the same key, making this the easiest form of
cryptography. The cryptographic algorithm utilizes the key in a cipher to
encrypt the data, and when the data must be accessed again, a person
entrusted with the secret key can decrypt the data. Secret Key
Cryptography can be used on both in-transit and at-rest data, but is
commonly only used on at-rest data, as sending the secret to the
recipient of the message can lead to compromise.

Examples:

 AES
 DES
 Caesar Cipher

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Public Key Cryptography, or asymmetric cryptography, uses two keys to
encrypt data. One is used for encryption, while the other key can
decrypts the message. Unlike symmetric cryptography, if one key is
used to encrypt, that same key cannot decrypt the message, rather the
other key shall be used.

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One key is kept private, and is called the “private key”, while the other is
shared publicly and can be used by anyone, hence it is known as the
“public key”. The mathematical relation of the keys is such that the
private key cannot be derived from the public key, but the public key can
be derived from the private. The private key should not be distributed
and should remain with the owner only. The public key can be given to
any other entity.

Examples:

 ECC
 Diffie-Hellman
 DSS

Hash functions are irreversible, one-way functions which protect the

data, at the cost of not being able to recover the original message.
Hashing is a way to transform a given string into a fixed length string. A

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good hashing algorithm will produce unique outputs for each input given.
The only way to crack a hash is by trying every input possible, until you
get the exact same hash. A hash can be used for hashing data (such as
passwords) and in certificates.

Some of the most famous hashing algorithms are:

 MD5
 SHA-1
 SHA-2 family which includes SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and
SHA-512
 SHA-3
 Whirlpool
 Blake 2
 Blake 3

11.Study of Encryption algorithms

Encryption is a well known technology for

protecting sensitive data. Use of the combination of
Public and Private Key encryption to hide the sensitive
data of users, and cipher text retrieval [6].
a) Data Encryption Standard (DES)
DES (Data Encryption Standard) algorithm
purpose is to provide a standard method for protecting
sensitive commercial and unclassified data. In this same
key used for encryption and decryption process [7].
DES algorithm consists of the following steps
i.
Encryption
1. DES accepts an input of 64-bit long plaintext and
56-bitkey (8 bits of parity) and produce output of
64 bit block.
2. The plaintext block has to shift the bits around.
3. The 8 parity bits are removed from the key by
subjecting the key to its Key Permutation.
4. The plaintext and key will processed by following
i. The key is split into two 28 halves
ii. Each half of the key is shifted (rotated) by one or
two bits, depending on the round.

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iii. The halves are recombined and subject to a
compression permutation to reduce the key from 56
bits to 48 bits. This compressed keys used to
encrypt this round’s plaintext block.
iv. The rotated key halves from step 2 are used in next
round.
v. The data block is split into two 32-bit halves.
vi. One half is subject to an expansion permutation to
increase its size to 48 bits.
vii. Output of step 6 is exclusive-OR’ed with the 48-
itcompressed key from step 3.
viii. Output of step 7 is fed into an S-box, which
substitutes key bits and reduces the 48-bit block
back down to 32-bits.
ix. Output of step 8 is subject to a P-box to permute the bits.
x. The output from the P-box is exclusive-OR’ed with
other half of the data block. k. The two data halves
are swapped and become the next round’s input

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Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm

not only for security but also for great speed. Both
hardware and software implementation are faster still.
New encryption standard recommended by NIST to
replace DES. Encrypts data blocks of 128 bits in 10, 12
and 14 round depending on key size as shown in Figure
- 2. It can be implemented on various platforms specially
in small devices. It is carefully tested for many security
application.
Algorithm Steps : These steps used to encrypt
128-bit block

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1. The set of round keys from the cipher key.
2. Initialize state array and add the initial round key
to the starting state array.
3. Perform round = 1 to 9 : Execute Usual Round.
4. Execute Final Round.
5. Corresponding cipher text chunk output of Final
Round Step
ii.
Usual Round : Execute the following operations
which are described above.
1. Sub Bytes
2. Shift Rows
3. Mix Columns
4. Add Round Key , using K(round)
iii.
Final Round: Execute the following operations
which are described above.
1. Sub Bytes
2. Shift Rows
3. Add Round Key, using K(10)
iv.
Encryption : Each round consists of the following
four steps:
i Sub Bytes : The first transformation, Sub Bytes, is
used at the encryption site. To substitute a byte,
we interpret the byte as two hexadecimal digits.
ii Shift Rows : In the encryption, the transformation
is called Shift Rows.
iii Mix Columns : The Mix Columns transformation
operates at the column level; it transforms each
column of the state to a new column.
iv Add Round Key : Add Round Key proceeds one
column at a time. Add Round Key adds a round
key word with each state column matrix; the
operation in Add Round Key is matrix addition.
The last step consists of XO Ring the output of
the previous three steps with four words from the key
schedule. And the last round for encryption does not
involve the “Mix columns” step. [8]

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v.
Decryption: Decryption involves reversing all the
steps taken in encryption using inverse functions
like a) Inverse shift rows, b) Inverse substitute
bytes, c) Add round key, and d) Inverse mix
columns.
The third step consists of XO Ring the output of
the previous two steps with four words from the key
schedule. And the last round for decryption does not
involve the “Inversemix columns” step

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 AES Encryption and Decryption

Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA)

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RSA is widely used Public-Key algorithm. RSA
firstly described in 1977. In our proposed work, we are
using RSA algorithm to encrypt the data to provide
security so that only the concerned user can access it.
RSA algorithm involves these steps:
1. Key Generation
2. Encryption
3. Decryption
i
Key Generation
Before the data is encrypted, Key generation
should be done. [9]
Steps:Generate a public/private key pair :
1. Generate two large distinct primes
p and
q
2. Compute
n=
pq and φ = (
p − 1)(
q − 1)
3. Select an
e, 1
< e < φ, relatively prime to φ.
4. Compute the unique integer
d, 1
< d < φ where
ed
≡φ 1.
5. Return public key (
n, e) and private key
d
ii
Encryption
Encryption is the process of converting original
plain text (data) into cipher text (data).
Encryption with key (n , e)
© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)
Global Journal of Computer Science and Technology Volume XIII Issue
XV Version I
18( DDDDDDDD ) Year 0132E
1. Represent the message as an integer

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m € {0
,...,n
−1
}
2. Compute
c=
me
iii
Decryption
mod
n
Decryption is the process of converting the
cipher text (data) to the original plain text(data). [10]
Decryption with key
d: compute
m=
cd mod
n

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12.Study of Security polices
A security policy is a document that outlines the rules and regulations for
how an organization's information assets are to be used, managed, and
protected. Security policies are important because they help to protect
an organization's data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure,
disruption, modification, or destruction.

There are many different types of security policies, each of which is

designed to address a specific security risk. Some common types of
security policies include:

* **Access control policies:** These policies define who is allowed to

access what information, and under what circumstances.
* **Data classification policies:** These policies define the different levels
of sensitivity of an organization's data, and the controls that should be
applied to protect each level of sensitivity.
* **Information security awareness training policies:** These policies
define the training that employees should receive on information security
best practices.
* **Incident response policies:** These policies define how an
organization should respond to security incidents, such as data breaches
or unauthorized access.

Security policies should be developed in accordance with the

organization's risk assessment, which identifies the organization's
assets, the threats to those assets, and the vulnerabilities that could be
exploited by those threats. Security policies should also be reviewed and
updated on a regular basis to reflect changes in the organization's
environment, such as new technologies, new threats, or new regulations.

The following are some of the benefits of having security policies in

place:

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* **Reduced risk of data breaches:** Security policies can help to reduce
the risk of data breaches by defining the controls that should be applied
to protect sensitive data.
* **Increased compliance with regulations:** Security policies can help
organizations to comply with various regulations, such as the General
Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Health Insurance Portability
and Accountability Act (HIPAA).
* **Improved employee productivity:** Security policies can help to
improve employee productivity by reducing the amount of time that
employees spend dealing with security incidents.
* **Enhanced customer confidence:** Security policies can help to
enhance customer confidence by demonstrating that the organization is
committed to protecting customer data.

If you are responsible for information security in your organization, it is

important to develop and implement a comprehensive set of security
policies. Security policies can help to protect your organization's data
from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or
destruction.

Here are some additional tips for developing and implementing security
policies:

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* **Get buy-in from senior management:** Security policies are more
likely to be successful if they have the support of senior management.
* **Involve employees in the development process:** Employees are
more likely to comply with security policies if they have a say in their
development.
* **Make the policies easy to understand:** Security policies should be
written in plain language and should be easy for employees to
understand.
* **Provide training on the policies:** Employees should receive training
on the organization's security policies.
* **Monitor and enforce the policies:** The organization should monitor
compliance with the security policies and take action to enforce them
when necessary.

13.Study of Network Security Fundamentals, Ethical Hacking and

Social Engineering

Network Security Fundamentals

Network security is the practice of protecting computer networks and

data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification,
or destruction. Network security includes a wide range of topics, such as
firewalls, intrusion detection systems, encryption, and access control.

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 Firewalls are devices that filter network traffic and prevent unauthorized
access to a network.

Intrusion detection systems (IDSs) monitor networks for signs of

malicious activity, such as unauthorized access or data exfiltration.

Encryption is the process of converting data into a secure format that

can only be read by authorized users.

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Access control is the practice of restricting access to a network or
system to authorized users only.

Ethical Hacking

Ethical hacking is a process of testing a computer system or network for

vulnerabilities that could be exploited by a malicious attacker. Ethical
hackers use their skills to help organizations identify and fix security
weaknesses before they can be exploited by criminals.

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Ethical hackers use a variety of techniques to test systems for
vulnerabilities, such as:

 Vulnerability scanning: This involves using automated tools to

scan a system for known vulnerabilities.
 Penetration testing: This involves manually exploiting
vulnerabilities in a system to see if they can be used to gain
unauthorized access.
 Social engineering testing: This involves testing the human
element of security by trying to trick users into revealing sensitive
information or taking actions that harm themselves or their
organization.

Social Engineering

Social engineering is a type of attack that relies on human interaction to

trick the victim into revealing sensitive information or taking actions that
harm themselves or their organization. Social engineers often use
techniques such as phishing, pretexting, and tailgating to gain access to
sensitive information or systems.

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Phishing is a technique where the attacker sends an email or text
message that appears to be from a legitimate source, such as a bank or
credit card company. The email or text message will often contain a link
that, when clicked, will take the victim to a fake website that looks like
the real website. Once the victim enters their personal information on the
fake website, the attacker can steal it.

Pretexting is a technique where the attacker creates a false scenario in

order to trick the victim into revealing sensitive information. For example,
the attacker might pose as a government official and call the victim,
claiming that they need the victim's Social Security number for tax
purposes.

Tailgating is a technique where the attacker follows an authorized

person into a secure area. For example, the attacker might wait outside
a building until an authorized person enters, and then follow them in.

By understanding the techniques used by social engineers, you can help

to protect yourself from these types of attacks. Here are some tips:

 Be suspicious of emails and other messages that ask for personal

information.
 Never click on links in emails or text messages from unknown
senders.
 If you are unsure about the authenticity of an email or text
message, contact the sender directly to verify it.
 Be careful about what information you share online.
 Use strong passwords and don't share them with anyone.

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  Keep your software up to date. Software updates often include
security patches that can help to protect your system from known
vulnerabilities.
 Use a firewall and antivirus software. Back up your data regularly.

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