Technical English For Engineers

TECHNICAL
ENGLISH FOR
ENGINEERS
Prof. Aysha Iqbal Viswamohan

Humanities & Social Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
INDEX
S.No Topic Page No.

1 An Introduction to the Course 01
Week 1
2 Parts of Speech - Nouns 10
3 Parts of Speech - Preposition and Noun Phrases 21
4 Countable and Uncountable Nouns 34
5 Reading (Identifying main ideas) and Listening 52
6 What is a Sentence 67
7 What is a Sentence (Continued) 80
Week 2
8 Subject Verb Agreement 96
9 Articles 111
10 Verbs 124
11 Comparatives 140
12 Modals and Voices 149
13 Passive Voice (Continued) 169
14 Tenses 185
Week 3
15 Tenses (Continued) 203
16 Effective Speaking 216
17 Formal Presentation 224
18 Punctuation 239
19 Punctuation (Continued) 258
20 Reading – SQW3R Method and Note-taking 275
21 Phrasal Verbs 297
Week 4
22 Collocation 316
23 Word Formation 329
24 Understanding the text organization 347
25 Writing Emails 370
Week 5
26 Academic Writing & Linking Words 385
27 Paragraph Writing 405
28 Describing/Explaining Processes 420
29 Essay Writing 445
Week 6
30 Essay Writing and Formal Letters 461
31 Letter Writing & Usage 479
32 Understanding the Mechanics of Publishable Essays 501
33 Writing Publishable Essays and Usage 523
34 Report 545
Week 7
35 Everyday Usage 570
36 Writing a Statement of Purpose 586
37 CV/Resume and Cover Letters 598
Week 8
38 Conclusion 620
Technical English for Engineers
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Department of Humanities and Social Science
Lecture - 01
Introduction to the Course
Hello, welcome to the first lecture for Technical English for Engineers. This is your
introduction. I am your faculty here, Aysha Iqbal Vishwamohan. I work in the department of
humanity and social sciences. So, this course is a 20-hour course where you will learn the
four skills of L S R W.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)
L S R W that is listening, speaking, reading and writing. Along with plenty of grammar and
vocabulary; as the title of the course suggest, this is a course essentially meant for those
studying or working in the area of science and technology. Let me reiterate here, this is an
under graduate course. So, it is not really meant for those who are pursuing, let us say PhD's
in English this is not a theoretical course. The course gives you sort of an entry point into a
learning the new answers of communications. Let me also tell you this is not a soft skills
course. The course is what it exactly what it appears here, it is going to focus on the 4
communicative skills and the course is basically gear towards in proving, the communicative
1
skills of those working and is studying in the area of science and technology.
Having said that, those who want to improve their overall communication skills may also find
it useful I am sure. People who are not necessarily teaching or working in the area science
and technology in a those kinds of domain, they may also find it useful because the course
will definitely tell you something about the essentials of the skills along with grammar. What
are the common pitfalls areas of pitfalls and also plenty of vocabulary? Those of you who are
watching this lecture if you are interested in this kind of area, and if you are interested in this
domain then the course is definitely meant for you.
Let me give you a very brief overview of the course contents. Now, the course content
include listening, that is your L. Now you will be given plenty of listening exercises, listening
exercises include description of people, anecdotes, and it (Refer Time: 03:51) short stories
and processes. You will be exposed to listening for gist, listening for details and inferring
meaning from contexts. It is important that while listening to the text that I will be reading
out and most of these texts please note would be in the area of science and technology. Even
the short stories that I am going to discuss or do as part of your activities they too are based
on science and technology. This is what the course is all about. So, please make no mistakes
about the content of the course and I would suggest that while listening it is important that
you make notes and also listen for keywords.
Now, this is a short term course 20 hours only. So, I may not be able to repeat it that make
notes listen for the keywords. So, remember this is not just an introductory class for you.
Please take it as some of the useful tips that are going to be of great advantage, great benefit
as you do the exercises. Remember, always to make notes, take down notes and certain
keywords while listening to exercises and passages.
Now moving on to Speaking, you will be given tips on making formal presentations. Of
course, this being an online course I cannot actually make you practice in a speaking, but I
will always give you certain topics that you can discuss between friends. If you are doing this
course along with a group of students, a group of friends please sit with them and discuss and
practices speaking. I will always give you some relevant topics. So, you will be given tips on
making formal presentations also, you will be given tips on correct pronunciation including
elements of stress, rhythm, phase and the importance of pause. We will also include some
information about group discussion. That will come at a slightly later stage.
2
We will be having plenty of Reading, we note know that as technologist, scientists. You need
to read various kinds of texts, compositions, books etcetera. So, it is very important that you
familiarise yourself with a wide range of reading text and you know how to read and how to
look for information. Reading will include the skills of skimming these are the sub skills of
reading. So, skimming, scanning, predicting and I am going to tell you and work on these
things in details as the we go deep into the course. Right now please make a note what are the
things we are going to do we will be doing skimming, scanning, predicting, identifying key
words and main ideas, making inferences also note taking etcetera. With all those are part of
your reading skills, reading passages themselves are designed to develop these skills and are
adopted from various authentic sources. I will always give the link, the source from where I
have taken a particular passage these are all authentic sources.
Coming to this major skill Writing, we will be starting with definitions; definitions of what?
Scientific concepts; concept that you may need on a day-to-day basis. We will be talking
about describing processes, describing experiments; we will start with short paragraphs we
will move on to longer essays. Will also talk about informal as well as formal letters, emails
and very importantly there will be discussion on report writing. At some stage we will also
talk about writing a statement of purpose that is your SOP and also your resume or
curriculum vitae, that is your CV. Some attention will also be given to writing the business
letters. Writing is always inverse involves efficient use of connectors and adequate cohesive
devices. This course will give immense attention to that aspect as well.
Coming to grammar, so the course covers the essentials of grammar, including verb tenses
particularly, simple past, simple present and present perfect also voice active and passive
articles prepositions clauses types of sentences including simple, compound and complex
sentences. There is some attention paid to nouns and noun phrases, that is because I am aware
that it is very basic kind of a lecture; however, it is essential for building up the rest of the
classes. So, it is the rest of the lecture. So, please observe or please watch that lecture very
carefully, it is important that you know the distinction between various parts of speech
therefore, it is important that some attention is paid to noun.
We will also do a little bit of comparatives it is a short lecture on comparatives that is

comparing the degrees of that in words. There is going to be plenty of exercises involving
vocabulary. Vocabulary activities will develop your word power through a variety of
interesting task as well as interesting activities and passages. We will include word formation
3
using suffixes and prefixes. We will do changing the category of a particular word. For
example, changing the class from noun to adjective and verb and vice verse, these are things
that you require in good writing.
We will do phrasal verbs as well as collocation and some amounts of idioms, but not too
much of it. Idioms, proverbs are not really a part of what we are striving to achieve here but,
however once you develop interest in improving your English, once develop and interest in
learning more about vocabulary, I am sure you will do lot of reading and practice lot of
exercises that will also familiarise you with proverbs and idioms of the English language.
There will be some discussion on developing dictionary skills. I will be a referring to oxford
advance learners dictionary. It is an immensely useful tool for all those who are interested in
developing theire vocabulary and grammar also I would suggest that you look at another very
essential dictionary that is Cambridge advanced learners dictionary, so Oxford ALD and
Cambridge ALD.
Here is Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.
4
And this is another book please take a look at it Advanced Grammar in Use. So, what is this
book? Advanced English Grammar is Martin Hewings book, which is intended for advanced
students of English, that is for people like you. It is very useful resource for people who want
to do self learning. So, it is basically written as a self study book with plenty of explanations,
plenty of exercises and answers given at the back at the end of the book. This book can also
be used in class room situation along with the other students with the help of your teacher.
The book is extremely accessible; it has a wide range of topics and activities.
5
Here is another book, very useful book. Please take a look Essential Grammars in Use by
Raymond Murphy. You can always supplement the first book with this one.
Here is the title of book that may help you in learning spoken English, Better Spoken English.
Better Spoken English is a very practical document it demonstrates how to improve the
6
spoken English of Indian students, it gives an in-depth understanding about the rate of
speech, rhythm, stress, intonation etcetera. The core philosophy here is to make non native
speakers more intelligible and understandable. So, you will learn when we use the writer
stress and intonation on words and in also while speaking in sentences and paragraphs we
make ourselves more intelligible to the listeners. So, that is the purpose of better spoken
English. Again look at this book.
Better English Pronunciation by J. D. O Connor. Book provides a thorough introduction to

the pronunciation of English to help intermediate and more advanced students to improve
pronunciation. It has lots of things such as frenetic Phonetic symbols etcetera, some of you
who have already done a little bit of frenetic Phonetic and you understand the symbols you
will enjoy the book immensely.
7
Here is a book which is a text book. Essentially, English for Technical Communication and
this book contains material basically to meet the needs of undergraduate students of technical
institutes. It comes along with a CD for developing your listening comprehension. The plenty
of web resources also as we move deeper into the course, as we good deeper into the course I
will be giving you some a very essential web resources also, periodically. So, it would do you
well, it would serve you well, if you please keep looking and see remember entire purpose of
the course is to make you more interested in developing your communication skills, please
remember that. This course aspires to give you and entry point; it also aspires to give you and
over view of certain skills; how to developed certain skills. However, it is you who should be
able to help yourself in the longer run.
So, coming to the evaluation part of the course, there will be assignments. We will be
uploading assignment periodically based on the week's lecturers. Every week you may expect
two and half and three hours of lectures and after that there will be assignments. If not
immediately, then may be at a later stage based on those particular weeks. So, the aim is to
test you on practically every module of this course and finally, we will have an end semester
exam essentially you can expect MCQ types of questions. So, there will not be essay type
questions there.
Thank you very much. I hope you enjoy the course and you learn a lot from the course.
8
Tags
Reading English, English for Engineers, English words, English Exercise, Exercises in
English, Grammar usage, English Grammar, vocabulary, words and phrases, spoken
communication, written communication, Verbs, Noun, adverb, adjective, suffix, prefix,
English writing, English speaking, scientific English, report writing, CV, formal letter,
Essay writing, word categories, word formation, formal tone, paragraph writing, tone in
writing, speaking tone, signal words, Letter writing, understanding essays, Mechanics of
Essays, publishable essays
9
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 02
Parts of Speech - Nouns
Hello, friends. So, we will start with talking about Word classes. So, words, what are
words? We will see, we will understand; but just like that. What do you understand by
the term word and what are word classes? Now, see every word that is used in our
writing, in our communication, in our speaking, the things we read, and the things we
listen to. They are all words and every word as a class. We will soon see what are word
classes.
Now see, the idea is that all of you are doing your various technical courses, engineering
courses. The idea is that you should be well versed with the categories of words before
you move on to more advance level of written and spoken English. So, that is what we
are here for. So, we start from the fundamentals. Now there are 8 kinds of or 8 different
kinds of words or parts of speech as we call them, and broadly speaking, I am very sure
you know these things; they are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives,
propositions, determiners and linking words. You get your 8 parts of speech. Each word,
every word that you hear or that you speak can be classified thus. So, it is very important
to understand especially in academic kind of English that, how we are using these words.
10
Now, suppose I give you an example and you may take it down. Ram has an important
meeting at work tomorrow so he is quite busy. I will repeat, Ram has an important
meeting at work tomorrow, so he is quiet busy. Now where are the nouns? As you know,
the definition a working definition of a noun is, noun is a name of a person, place or
thing. So, Ram is a noun and Ram is a name and meeting also is a noun. Now, when I
say I am meeting, so and so today then this becomes a kind of verb. However, when we
say Ram is in a meeting today or I am in a meeting today it becomes a noun we have to
understand the categories. So, same word can be used as different kinds of parts of
speech. This is important to learn.
Now, Ram has an important meeting at work tomorrow; again remember that work is
also a noun. The reason is in this context is a noun. He is at work, but if you say, he
works hard, then is the main verb; again remember we do not say he works hardly that is
a wrong usage of English or wrong use of English. We do not say he works hardly,
hardly has a negative connotation. So, it was; he hardly worked, it means he did not work
at all. But when we mean someone works hard it means he is really very good worker,
hard worker; that is what we mean. He works hardly means; he does not work at all; that
is a the difference. Coming to the verbs in this sentence, again let us go back to the
sentence. Ram has an important meeting at work tomorrow so he is quite busy. Now 'is'
11
and 'has' remember in the first part of the sentence 'has' is a verb in the second part of the
sentence 'is' is a verb.
We are going to see that, there is something called verb and the 'be' form, be. I will make
it better the 'be' form is falls under this particular form. So, the 'be' form 'is' is a kind of
verb has, have, had, these are verbs as well. Ram is the singular, therefore, has work. If
boys are hard at work or boys have lot of work to do, then it becomes have; has and
have, singular – plural. Now, an important meeting; 'an' is a determiner we will learn
more about it. Now, important meeting we have already seen; meeting is a noun and
important is something that adds to the meeting. What kind of a meeting? Not just casual
meeting, not just any meeting is an important meeting. So, any thing that adds or that
qualifies a noun becomes your adjective.
We learn more about that in detail in our subsequent classes. Now next word, at work
tomorrow; so 'at' is a next word and that is a proposition. Proposition is a category, many
people make lots of mistakes in this particular category but and in proposition; we have
to be little more careful about it. So, he has meeting at work; we do not say. So,
propositions are very specific kinds of words you cannot say meeting in work or meeting
to work you have to say meeting at work. Tomorrow, tomorrow and quite both are
adverbs, they add something to, they tell you the time that define, a kind of time or the
degree. So, quite busy, extremely busy degree extend to it therefore they become
12
adverbs; very interesting category of verb. 'So' is a linking word, see it links the two
sections; Ram has an important meeting at work tomorrow so he is quite busy or rather
busy. So, rather also becomes your adverb. Remember, quite often, rather word
suggesting degrees they are adverbs. 'So' is a linking words which connects two sections,
two part of a sentence and he is rather busy, he is quit busy. Who is busy? Ram is busy.
So, we do not say Ram has an important meeting at work tomorrow. So, Ram is quite
busy instead of Ram we use the word he. It is called the category pronoun; it is a
referential word it refers to something that has already been said earlier.
I am writing on the board, the board is green, the board is big, the board belongs to this
recording studio; the board, the recording studio is at IIT madras. Now, this is not the
way, we use the link language. It may be correct, but it is not very effective. The board is
large and it is green and it is very big perhaps that is the way you can use it and we are
using the reference word; that is it. Rather than repeating the word board, which is the
noun again and again. So, remember these things. Now let us talk about how words are
used in sentences, some words could belong to different classes in different context.
For example, I work on my thesis for 6 hours every day and this work is really tiring.
Now where do you use the verb and where do you use the noun. I am talking about word
work. Let us say, I work hard, I work long hours you know any kind of any number of
permutations combinations. I work late you can use all these words here, qualifies here. I
work late, I work hard, I work long hours. Still the category of the word work this is
important; would not change, it remains a main verb. However, the work is tiring, the
work is boring, the work is demanding then it becomes your noun. So, work in the first
sentence is a verb while the word work in the next sentence in the next context is a noun.
So, we have to remember the categories and the context.
Sentences can also be without verbs. Now those are quite often used, but in a very
different kind of a situation or context. So, you as engineers or as people who are
pursuing technical degrees may not find much use for such kinds of sentences; however,
you should know. Now when do we use sentences without verbs, I will give you an
example; let us say he looks 50 years old full stop perhaps, older. Now he looks 50 years
old full stop looks is a verb here full stop perhaps older, is a; is a sentence by itself, but it
13
has no verb in it. However, it depends on the first part of the sentence to or first sentence
to give a complete meaning to itself. Those are some context, some situation, some
circumstances when you can use sentences without a verb.
She has lost her mind full stop pretty that or alas. Now again, you are not using verb in
the second sentence, but it depends on its meaning on the first sentence, so those are the
instances where you can use a verb or you can have a sentence without a verb and these
second sentences achieve their punch because of the contrast they mark with the first
sentence used.
Now, I would like to draw your attention to this exercise, please read it. Here is a
paragraph that I have done for you. Identify class or the class of the underlined words. I
will read it for you. Aditya did not go to the cafe with the other students. Rani told him
they were going there, but he wanted to finish his work. Aditya is not very sociable. He
stays in his room and concentrates totally on his studies. I will repeat, Aditya did not go
to the cafe with the other students. Rani told him they were going there, but he wanted to
finish his work. Aditya is not very sociable. He stays in his room and concentrates totally
on his studies. The first example is done for you, 'to' is a the proposition and 'café' is a
noun, do the rest yourself. I will give you 2 minutes and then will get back, alright.
14
Let us start solving the exercise and here the answers are given on this particular slide.
You already know 'to' is a proposition 'café' is a noun is a name of a place. 'The' is
determiner, 'told' is a verb, 'they' is a pronoun, it is stands for other students. 'There'
adverb suggesting the place, 'he' pronoun again referring to Aditya. You have finished as
verb here. Sociable, he is not a very sociable person is an adjective. It adds something to
Adithya's qualities he is not sociable, unsociable, unfriendly, very friendly so these are
adjectives. 'In' again is a proposition, 'and' is a linking word just like so in the previous
sentence and 'totally' suggest degrees and it is an adverb. So, I hope you got some
understanding of what we are tying to do here.
15
Now, again I will draw your attention to the second exercise, again you have to read the
passage and answer the questions.
Read the passage very carefully I read it out for you. Change is often met with suspicion,
and the rapidly raging SMS culture is no exception. As the world and its children went
'mobile', the cell phone's most-loved features- Short Message Service (SMS) became the
handiest tool of communication.
16
Beside convenient templates like 'I will be late', 'I am busy right now', and even 'I am
sorry' SMS is now to convey all minds of emotions, jokes, SOS alerts, news and
entertainment information. The language, which converted 'too' as in two double o to
'two', 'you are' to 'ur' and take care to 'tc', among the million other sms-isms, may well
have begun to save space and cost. However, the conundrum of figuring out newly
coined short forms caught on with such fervor that despite the rapidly declining rates
offered by phone companies, the trend continues.
Students and young professionals often employ this 'half baked' language to almost all
aspects of their lives. "five out of 10 resumes I see are prepared with SMS languages",
reveals in an HR executive adding, “beside coming across as highly unprofessional,
these CVs are instantly rejected, even though the qualifications may be up to the mark."
SMS lingo has also invaded the usually meticulous examination system, with students of
all classes almost subconsciously using short forms in their answer papers. “We have
made it a policy to cut half a mark per short forms in class and unit tests. Children have
failed, but the trend continues,” laments an English teacher at a suburban school.
17
Now, here is your exercise, please look at it and then I will go back or I will take you
back to the passage. Dash is a way of life and the dash and its children have adopted to
dash tool of adaptation which is referred to as dash. In fact, SMS language has become a
dash and parcel of their life which has also not spared the dash system which is supposed
be a meticulous system.
I will take you back to the; if you want you may take it down, note down this very short
passage and the exercises. You should complete the summary of the passage by filling
the appropriate words. Will go back to those earlier slides.
The change is a way of life and the world and its children have adopted, adopted what?
Is a rather lengthy word, right? Short Message Service, it has become the handiest tool of
communication. So, what are you going to write in c? Adapted the handiest tool of
adaptation which is referred to as Short Message Service that is your answer d you can
even use SMS for it. In fact, SMS language has become a pattern parcel.
A pattern parcel any way is an idiom, standard idiom which is also not spared the, what
system? The examination system, which is supposed be a meticulous system. So, this the
way you are so; you do an exercise where whatever words you have filled in change,
handiest, SMS, part, examination look up a dictionary and try to figure out what parts of
18
speech these words are? This is important, because this is an online course and we are
here to help you, but I would strongly suggest that you do some part of this course you
know some part of learning yourself. So, it should be a blend of what we are doing here
online as well as self learning.
So, a good dictionary for this kind of an exercise and for many other things would be
Advanced English Learners Dictionary. This is an Oxford Dictionary, Oxford Dictionary
for Advance English Learners - AELD. So, this is one of the seminal dictionary you can
also use Cambridge Advance English Learners Dictionary. So, these are very standard
dictionaries and I would suggest that all of you have a copy of this, it would be a great
help it would come in extremely handy to use the word, which we have just seen in this
passage. So, we end today's class at this point and I will see you soon.
Thank you very much.
Tags
19
communication, written communication, English writing, English speaking, scientific
English, report writing, CV, formal letter,
Essays, publishable essays, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, propositions,
determiners, linking words, 'be' form, linking words
20
Technical English For Engineers
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 03
Parts of Speech-Preposition & Noun Phrases
We have been talking about parts of speech and word classes etcetera. So, let us talk
about Prepositions. What are prepositions? Prepositions are those words that are placed
before a noun phrase or before an ‘ing’ clause to form a preposition phrase. Now, I have
return this on the board preposition, Preposition phrases and Noun phrases this is what
we will be doing for now. So, let me show you this slide, which contains some common
prepositions.
Let us look at it, and I will read out. This is a list of preposition some very commonly
used prepositions. Let us look at this; aboard, above, across, after, against, along, amid
and you may notice that amid is sometimes also used as amidst with and an extra –st,
that is more older form of English. Now a days we use this word as amid; but, by,
despite, down, except, during, for, since, through, till, to, before, behind, the list is not
terribly alphabetically arranged so mind that.
21
Until, then we have beside and also besides; and you have to understand that difference
between the two beside and besides, where do we use beside and what are the place of
situations where we use besides, so it is different. Beyond, from, toward, in, and into,
inside, near, next, of, an o double off - completely different meanings; over, round, under,
with, so these are the commonly used prepositions, they are not all, but these are the
words that we very frequently used.
22
Now, I am giving you an exercise and you should fill in the blanks with the correct form
of prepositions. Look at this passage and fill in the blanks with prepositions.
23
I am mentioning the source here, from where the extract has been taken. Please look at it
and do your exercise. We will discuss the answer within once you complete the exercise.
So, let me give you, let us say 3 to 4 minutes.
So, let us discuss the answers now. One day an orthopedic surgeon and what have you
written here, the answer should be from Nizam Institute of Medical Sciences visited my
laboratory. He lifted the material and found it so light that he took me and what should
we write there what preposition to his hospital, and showed me his patients. There were
these little girls and boys with heavy metallic calipers weighing, what should be the
answer? Over 3 kgs each dragging their feet around. He said to me: Please remove the
pain of my patients. In three weeks, we made these Floor reaction Orthosis 300 gram
calipers and took them to the orthopedic center. The children did not believe their eyes.
From dragging around a 3 kg load on their legs, they could now move around. Their
parents had tears in their eyes. So, the correct prepositions.
24
I am going to give you a couple of sentences, please look at these sentences and you
have to correct the mistakes in preposition. So, look at these sentences, I am going to
read out to you. The shop is right opposite to the bus stand. She returned back from
Hyderabad yesterday. He could not cope up with the workload. Despite of the rains, the
classes went on as per the schedule. The teacher discussed about the subject for a long
time. The book comprised of several chapters or comprises of several chapters. Now let
us discuss these, and what should be the correct form of prepositions here. The first
sentence the shop is right opposite the bus stand and ‘not opposite to’ we never use this. I
am setting opposite the teacher; I am standing opposite the studio, but I am standing right
opposite the building; we do not say opposite to the building, opposite to the studio,
opposite to the teacher, this is a common mistake.
Second sentence, she returned back from Hyderabad yesterday; correct form she returned
from Hyderabad yesterday, we do not use the form returned back that is incorrect, but
very commonly used. We just say she returned from Hyderabad. He returned my book; I
returned something that I have borrowed from my friend. So, we do not use it as returned
back. He could not cope up with the workload; he could not cope with the workload, we
do not cope up, but you cope.
25
Despite of the rains, the classes went on as per the schedule; the correct form despite the
rains, we say in spite of, but despite. So, despite does not go with of; so despite the rains,
the classes went on as per the schedule. We are talking about mistakes, some common
mistakes that we make while using prepositions. The teacher that is our fifth sentence,
the teacher discussed about the subject for a long time. What should be the correct form,
the teacher discussed the subject for a long time. We do not say discussed about the
correct English is not - discussed about. And the last one the book comprises of several
chapters; we say the book comprises several chapters or we say the book consist of
several chapters, but not comprises of.
Let us now move on to another category and that is noun phrases. We already know what
is noun or what is the noun. Now noun phrase is the phrase that plays a role of a noun, I
will explain that to you. Now, the head noun in a noun phrase is often a noun or a
pronoun. Noun phrases are extremely common, and a noun with any sort of modifier
including just a number or an article is a noun phrase.
Let me give you an example such as I like working in the morning. In the morning
becomes noun phrase. I know the market place. So, the market place becomes the noun
phrase. I will also give you another example, I know the senior scientist. Let me write it
26
down here. I know the senior scientist; now the senior scientist here becomes the noun
phrase. Noun phrase is nothing but a phrase where the headword is the noun. So, you
look at these words the morning, the market place, the senior scientist, so these are the
noun phrases not just nouns.
Now, look at this slide and I would like you to correct the errors of noun phrases here.
He is a tall gentleman. The gentleman was wearing a new dress. She is my cousin sister.
My friend has fallen into bad companionship. You may put your sign here. Now you will
find certain noun phrases. I do not want you to give me the exact noun phrase here, but I
would like you to correct the errors, these are very common mistakes in using noun
phrases.
So, what do we say, he is a tall gentleman the correct form is he is a tall man. In day-to-
day English, we often use the word such as gentleman and lady, and female, very
loosely; at times rather at most times it is preferable just to use the form he is a tall man.
The gentleman was wearing a new dress. Now here we there is no problem of in the
expression or in the phrase the gentleman, it is absolutely fine, where is the problem, the
gentleman was wearing a new dress. Now very often we confuse dress with clothing, but
in correct English, we have to be very careful about using the word dress. Now dress is
27
something, which is associated with women, men do not wear dresses. So, you can
always say the gentleman was wearing a new uniform or a new shirt or a new suit, but
you do not say a man was wearing a new dress that completely changes its meaning.
Now she is my cousin sister very common use or usage rather this is not correct, this is
not appropriate this is we use or generally say she is my cousin. So, she is my cousin and
that is implicit that you are talking about a girl here, so she is my cousin; not cousin
sister, he is my cousin; not cousin brother. My friend has fallen into bad companionship;
my friend has fallen into bad company, not companionship. You may put your sign here
that two ways to correct this sentence, you may sign here or you may put your signature
here, but not sign you do not put your sign anywhere.
Now, we were talking about prepositions and now let us move on to talk about
prepositional phrases. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a
prepositional complement. The complement is a noun phrase, but can also be another
element. So, there are some examples like let us meet at the canteen. So, here at the
canteen becomes your prepositional phrase. We were surprised at what happened, we
were surprised at what happened. So, at what happened becomes here prepositional
phrase. We may need the machine in the morning. So, in the morning becomes here
28
prepositional phrase. Rather even in the earlier sentence, I like working in the morning;
in the morning is more prepositional phrase and not a noun phrase. So, the morning can
be your phrase the noun phrase, but in the morning because of the presence of in, it
becomes your prepositional phrase. So, you can make that correction.
Now a prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb. As an adjective, the

prepositional phrase answers the question which one. So, when we use a sentence in the
using a prepositional phrase. So, when you ask a question which, it should give you the
answer as prepositional phrase, when it is used as an adjective. Now let me direct your
attention to some another set of words which is these are all nouns. They can also be
used as noun phrases, but that is not what we are talking about here, I would like you to
find the plurals for the words given here. So, look at this slide.
Now this is your exercise, find the plurals for the following Passer by, Scissors, Sugar,
Salt, News, Technology, Knowledge; only these words and what could be or what should
be the plurals or plurals form of these words. So, Passer by – Passers by, we do not say
Passer by; likewise, mothers in law or sisters in law or daughters in law, not daughters in
laws, mother in laws, sister in laws, so Passers by. Scissor - Scissors rather and we say a
pair of scissors, a pair of trousers, so it cannot be anything else.
29
Sugar and Salt, we cannot count the number of sugar or salt, so they remain just as they
are. So, we use another unit of measurement, so 1 kg of salt, 500 grams or half a kg of
salt or sugar. News, it is never newses plural of news remains news; again Technology
and Knowledge are used as such. So, we say he has lot of plenty of knowledge about
some subject matter, we do not say knowledges.
Here are some common mistakes; look at this slide. These furnitures should be replaced;
the correct form, these furniture should be replaced; we do not say furnitures. We have
no informations on this issue; the correct form, we have no information on this issue. She
has many luggages; you can say she has many pieces of luggage, but not luggages. He
read the newses, you already know that we have already talked about it; he read the
news. There are many beautiful sceneries in Ooty; there many beautiful scenery in Ooty;
we do not say sceneries. Now we are soon going to talk about another very important
part of a speech, which is an adjective.
What is an adjective? An adjective is something that adds something to a noun. We had

already talked about it; heavy luggage, beautiful scenery, new furniture, interesting news,
important information. So, beautiful, interesting, old, new, influential, irritating,
annoying, useful all these words are adjectives. What do they do? They do not make
30
complete meaning by themselves, although they have their own meanings, but they are
not complete unless they are used with a noun or a pronoun. It is a useless program; it is
a worthless program, it is very provocative news. So, here useful, useless, worthless,
provocative these are all instances of adjectives. They add something to a noun or
pronoun, they add something to we learn something more about a noun or pronoun. We
learn more about adjective, but let us first fill in the blanks do this exercise that is fill in
the blanks with correct use of adjectives.
Look at it; look at this particular slide, take a minute or two, and then we will do this
exercise together. Alright, GAGAN and the full form is given developed jointly by the
Indian Space Research Organization and the AAI is more what should be the correct
adjective here. Now in the context, you always should look for the context of the
sentence and what word would you like to fill in here; even I could have given you a list
of adjectives, we will do an exercise like that also but I just thought this is a good warm
up exercise because this is a very recent news. So, is more the correct adjective should be
accurate when than any other global positioning system currently available, GAGAN is
better than any GPS as it ensures that at any given point in time the measures are
reliable.
31
Standard GPS measurements can at times be off the mark by a dash value, you can a
great value by significant value anything would do, but GAGAN enabled signals can be
relied on all the time other space based navigation systems are GPS of the US, Glonass
of Russia, Galileo of Europe. GAGAN and the now look at the context of this sentence
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System of India aim to enhance. Now what could
be the right form of adjective here, it could be the existing IRNSS of India aim to
enhance the capability of GPS to provide, accurate information or if it is not existing
then you can also say upcoming satellite system or you can even say forth coming. So,
what I am trying to do here is develop your vocabulary. So, there are certain words,
especially adjectives are those words, where you can have some kind of flexibility. You
cannot have flexibility where verbs and tense and articles are concerned, but with
adjectives you can have a little more flexibility try to develop your vocabulary.
At the other day, I was talking to you about a good dictionary and here is that dictionary
that I have been talked about Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, this is a very
standard book that all of you must possess. And many things that we are talking about
and we will be talking about in this course are something that you will find, and you can
always argument augment your knowledge and information give in this book. Let us
move on, let me give you some examples from this book. Now those of you who have
this dictionary, in section-47, and it is marked as R-47, there is a component on
adjectives. And the book talks about comparative and superlative forms of adjectives.
So, what do you understand by these words comparative and superlative adjective. See,
when you write your reports when you write your emails, particularly those that are
related to your assignments to your work, you are writing to your teacher, so this is the
kind of language you should be using. So, very often we find students making mistakes
by way of comparative and superlative adjectives, these are called degrees.
So, for example, the word is cold, comparative is colder, superlative is coldest. So, these
are the words that you should know, but we cannot be using the -er and -est, this is not a
hard and fast rule. For example, you have a word like pretty. So, you have prettier and
prettiest, but let us take a word like intelligent, now you do not have, you cannot apply
the same rule here -er and -est. So, what do we use for degrees? Now, for comparative
32
degree more intelligent; and if you have to single out one student from the class, most
intelligent, so these are the terms, these are the words that you should be able to use
when it comes to your conversation and your communication in day-to-day life. So, as
your self-learning practice, I would like you to look at section R-47 because naturally in
every topic cannot be covered in this course.
So, I would like you to do some self-learning; perhaps I would like to go back to this
topic once more. I will be doing some certain amount of adjectives with you soon, but
please be familiar with what are adjectives of degrees, comparative and superlative.
Thank you very much. We will be meeting soon for the next class.
Tags
English, report writing, CV, formal letter, Speech-Preposition, Noun Phrases
determiners, linking words, 'be' form, linking words
33
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 04
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Good morning. Today we are going to start with something that all of us know and we
have been taught this topic from right from our childhood.
Now, this is nouns. All of us are familiar with what is definition of noun. Noun is a name
of a person, place or thing. In scientific English, you will need of course, less proper
noun which is a name of a person, place or thing, but of course, you have to use proper
names of the proper gasses, solutions and also a kinds of burners you use. So, those are
the things that may required knowledge of proper nouns, but that I am sure most of you
would find very easy to do. Common nouns are we say a black table, a black board; we
are not going to talk about very specific kind of a black board. So, therefore, I mean I
will give you very common example, I have a pen, but if I say I have sheaffer (Refer
Time: 01:31) pen or I have a Parker pen so that makes it very proper. So, because I am
using a proper noun, specific name here.
34
And then abstract are those that cannot be seen, but only felt, for example - heat, for
example- frozen, for example, of course, we can see boiling, but then heat, colds, freeze
these are the thing that we can only feel, these are abstract. In English, generally, we use
abstract nouns to express feelings and emotions; love, hate, anger, and excitement these
things cannot be touched and felt. Of course, heat can also cannot be touched can be
touched and felt, but then again it has no shape of a form. So, this It becomes more
abstract. Countable, uncountable this is something that I am going to focus a lot today on
because a scientist you should know what elements can be counted and what are those
words in the English language that are uncountable and therefore, you have to be very
clear about the way you write and speak.
Here, we are also going to something very briefly Possessive nouns. You know there is a
thing called apostrophe; for example, Meena's notebook, the better way is to say Meena's
notebook and not notebook of Meena. So, This is something where to use possessive and
where not to use possessive that is what you should be familiar with. As we have been
talking about noun is a name of a person, place or thing; it denotes often when we talk
about common nouns and sorry abstract nouns also, then they can also suggest things or,
ideas.
35
The word noun by the way is derived from the Latin word nomen - n o m e n which
means name. And of course, it goes without saying that nouns are prevalent, nouns exist
not just in are English language, but also in every language.
Types of noun, you have as I am sure all of us have been taught in schools; we have
common noun, you have proper noun, you have abstract noun, you have collective and
material noun. Material noun is also a something very interesting and that you should be
familiar with. Now, a common noun are used to refer general things or places, rather than
is specific examples as I have already given you the example of Parker pen, Sony's
camera and we are not using just any semi camera. Common nouns are not capitalize, so
when you use the word camera, you know do not have to capitalize- C there, but when
you say Sony's camera then you have to capitalize-S. So, and of course, there is another
rule that whenever you begin a sentence, any word that you begin that sentence with it
has to have a capital. So only in two situations a common noun has to be capitalized.
Now, let us talk about proper noun. I live in Chennai; Arjun lost the bet. So, Chennai is
name of a city, and it has to be C should be in capital. Arjun lost the bet, A should be
capital. India is my country, so I capital; and, all names, names of all country should be
in capital, capitals, cities, great rivers, the river Nile, the river Yamuna all these require a
capital. Now as we have been talking about proper noun is a name use for an individual
person, place or organization the u and o. So, we are not going to write that in lower
caps, , Udot NO dot O that is a proper noun, in an all caps.
Abstract nouns are those there refer to ideas, concepts, emotions and things that you
cannot taste, feel, touch, hear etcetera. That is, let us take honesty is the best policy. Now,
honesty you cannot touch and feel, you feel it of course, but you cannot have a specific
amount of honesty. So, it is a non-tangible emotion. Love is a non-tangible, you cannot
count it. So, therefore these are abstract nouns. So, you cannot see them, taste them,
touch them, smell or hear them. They go beyond those sensations.
Collective noun is a word that refers to a group. So, it can be either singular or plural that
is the, but it usually used in the singular. Our class graduates next year, a school of fish.
So, school is a group we do not say schools of fish. A heard of sheep. The audience loved
36
the performance, the audience loved the movie, it has become a blockbusters blasters.
So, audience is a collective noun, and it is always and very often I mean there are always
exceptions, but let us not consider them as of now, perhaps later. We should always plane
a team; team again is a collective noun. Material noun material nouns are names of
materials or substances out of wish things are made; cotton dress, cotton saree, silk shirt,
Tajmahal is made in marble, so marble and all these material noun, and we need not
consider it as a sub set of common noun, it is a specific noun.
Now look at this slide. Identify the noun and the type of the noun. I will read out the
sentences for you. This is your exercise. I saw a ship in the distance. Did you meet Arun
on your way? He loves music. We eat three meals a day. Tarun usually tells jokes. The
boys are on their way out. She loves to wear silk.
Now I is a pronoun ship is important here. So, I saw ship here and ship is a noun, which
ship I do not know the HSS or the Royal ship or a ship called Mary's Stewart, I mean not
we do not know which ship is talking about, it is just a ship; it is a common noun. Did
you meet Arun on your way? Arun is a proper noun, name of a person. He loves music;
'he' we are using he instead of any one, let us we can also replace it with any proper
noun. So, he is pronoun, music is a noun here, common noun. He loves Michael
37
Jackson's music that becomes a; he loves Karnataka's music that becomes a proper noun.
We eat three meals a day, your meals, we do not say we meal - three meal a day, three
meals, it has to be in plural. The common noun, we are not saying which kind of meals.
Tarun usually tells jokes, so Tarun is your proper noun. The boys are, so the boys are
common noun we are not specifically told which boys. She loves to wear silk; silk is
becomes your material noun. And in Tarun sentence, Tarun usually tells jokes; jokes are
also common noun. Let us consider possessive nouns. Now, I have already told you it
usually takes an apostrophe-s, this is the symbol apostrophe-s and to denote that what
belongs to whom. So, we add an apostrophe to singular nouns and to irregular plurals
that do not end with an s.
Now, irregular plural that do not end in an s. Plural of child is children; when you say
Children’s notebook, Children’s school then there is an apostrophe like this. It plural of
child is children, and then children remain plural, and it does not become children's.
Similarly, I can give you more example Jack's car, the college’s trustees, the boy’s
playground etcetera.
38
Now, here is another exercise; this is your second exercise. Please look at this slide. Tell
me, whether you should have an apostrophe here or you should be able to change the
sentences, I mean I will give you example this is the playground of children. And if you
say this is children’s playground; obviously, the second one sounds more appropriate. I
would like you to take a look at these sentences, and then make changes wherever
necessary using an apostrophe form. Please take a look; she was surprised by the result
of yesterday. I realized I had bought the textbook for the first year. He was shocked by
the words of his sister. The piano playing of Mark has improved over the years. It is the
calendar of the last year. What should you do?
Now, let us try to solve these sentences. She was surprised by the result of yesterday; No,
yesterday's result that is more accurate and appropriate. I realized I had bought the first
year's textbook. He was shocked by his sister's words. Mark’s piano playing has
improved over the year; there not piano playing of mark. And it is last year’s calendar; it
is the last year’s calendar. So, this is the way that you make possessive forms. And again
I would suggest that you go back to your high school, Wren and Martin grammar book,
and you will find lots of basic explanation for these things. Many at time, we find a
student making very serious errors where possessive forms are concerned.
39
Now, I am going to give you this passage and I have also highlighted some reading for
some certain expressions and words for you, we will discuss them. However, before we
start and I will read out the passage and you will read it. I will also show you the passage
this is not for listening, but this is for reading. So, you please look at the questions first.
Before we look at this slide, first look at the questions. The questions are what were the
observations of Doppler radar? This is the passage about the planet Mercury. What are
the strange facts about Mercury’s surface? What is unique about Mercury’s core? And
then I have, I would like you to consult open your dictionary, consult your dictionary and
look up the meaning of the words Bizarre, Zenith, Resonances. So, please pay attention
to these questions, note them down and let us move on to do the reading. Please read the
slides; please look at the slide carefully.
40
We will read together. Until 1962 it was thought that Mercury’s “day” was the same
length as its “year” so as to keep that same face to the Sun much as the Moon does to the
Earth. But this was shown to be false in 1965 by Doppler radar observations. It is now
known that mercury rotates three times in two of its years. Mercury is the only body in
the solar system known to have an orbital, rotational resonance with a ratio other than 1
is to 1 though many have no resonances at all. This fact and the high eccentricity of
Mercury's orbit would produce very strange effects for an observer would on Mercury’s
surface. At some longitudes the observer would see the Sun rise and then gradually
increase in apparent size as it slowly moved toward the zenith. At that point the Sun
would stop, briefly reverse course, and stop again before resuming its path toward the
horizon and decreasing in apparent size. All the while the starts would be moving three
times faster across the sky. Observers at other points on Mercury’s surface would see
different, but equally bizarre motions.
41
Mercury’s interior is dominated by a large iron core whose radius is 1800 to 1900
kilometer. The silicate outer shell analogous to Earth’s mantle and crust is only 500 to
600 kilometer thick. At least some of the core is probably molten. Measurements from
the Messenger spacecraft show Mercury’s magnetic field is approximately three times
stronger in the northern hemisphere than the southern hemisphere and has led to
breakthrough research. Modeling by Hao Cao, a UCLA postdoctoral scholar working in
the lab of Christopher Russell after considering many factors including how fast Mercury
rotates and the chemistry and complex motion of fluid inside the planer show the
magnetic field of Mercury works differently than it does on Earth.
We will go back to the questions. What were the observations of Doppler radar, and here
is your answer. See the answer is little bit complex here. You have to give a write it in
your own words, until 1962 it was thought that Mercury’s “day” look at the way
apostrophe is used here. We are not saying day of mercury, but Mercury’s day was the
same length as it is years so as to keep that same face to the Sun much as the Moon does
to the Earth, but then Doppler radar observations showed this believe to be false that is
the answer.
What are the strange facts about Mercury’s surface, that is your next question and then
42
you have to talk about the high eccentricity of Mercury’s orbit that produces very strange
effects for an observer on Mercury’s surface. So, answer is given somewhere in the
preceding lines. What is unique about Mercury’s cores, this is answer is given here;
Mercury’s interior is dominated by a large iron core whose radius is so much the silicate
outer shell is only 500 to this, at least some of the core is probably molten. So, answer
lies somewhere here, and you have to give answer in your own language, in your own
words. See, you are doing language, so you should be able to not change the facts, but try
to bring some variety to the sentences structure.
Of course, you cannot do much about the vocabulary, the jargon - the scientific jargon
and the facts, but you can always do something about the, you do not have to use the
exact language to express yourself which is given in the text. Meanings of the following,
I hope that you are looking and also try to understand some meanings from the context
also in what context these words occur. This is your exercise, your homework.
We will move on to another topic now, which is now countable nouns; we have been
talking about countable uncountable nouns. So, countable nouns are for things that we
can count using numbers; 2 cameras, 3 computers, 6 chairs, we can count them 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 and an infinite. Countable nouns have a singular and plural form. So, 1 table, 2
tables; the singular form can use the determiner a or an. So, I have a pen and I have an
umbrella. So, this is the way you use a, an. If you want to ask about the quantity of a
countable noun, you ask how many and not how much and they that is combined with
the plural countable noun.
Uncountable nouns, on the other hand of for things that we cannot count with numbers;
so it is a little bit complicated and it is not to be confused with abstract noun, but there
are several things that cannot be that do not use the countable form of at all. So, they
remain uncountable nouns. They may be the names of abstract ideas or qualities are for
physical objects that are two small or two amorphous to be counted, now let us say
water, let us say powder or gas. So, these things cannot be really counted; at the same
time there are not abstract nouns also, they are not feelings. But at the same time, you
can say liquids, but you cannot count them. You cannot say how many liquids how many
gasses, you can give some quantity, but you cannot give the number here, quantity of the
43
further therfore, they remain uncountable. Uncountable nouns are used with the singular
verb; they usually do not have plural form.
I will give you this list look at this list of words and these are the words that remain the
way they are, no matter how much you have of these. So, jewelry, poetry, it never
becomes jewelries and poetries. Accommodation yet another very common word that is
very often mistaken as accommodations in plurals, there is no such thing it remains the
accommodation one or two. Camping is camping, clothing – clothing, equipment,
violence they do not have plural form. Evidence, news, furniture, music, health, they are
all uncountable nouns they do not take any plural forms to them. We continue look at the
slide.
44
Pain, pleasure, snow, rain, noise, success, shopping, sightseeing, we do not say we went
for several sightseeing's in London, we went for shopping's in America, we do not talk
like that. So, shopping and sightseeing no matter how much you do that. Information and
education these are also not countable nouns. Please make a note of this list.
45
Now here is an exercise take a look. I would like you to identify the following nouns as
countable or uncountable nouns. So, Flower, flower can be counted. So, we have
flowers; we also say bouquet of flower, but that is a collective noun that is a different
matter. Magazines, yes magazine, it remains and it is a countable; we can count 1, 2, 3, 4.
Tea, no, we cannot count tea is an uncountable noun. Milk, no, we cannot count milk.
Lemon, lemon can be counted; we can say lemons. We can count eggs, but we cannot
count butter, butter is an uncountable noun. Quantity, yes, quantity of tea, milk, butter
possible, but not we cannot make plurals of them.
Now here is a text sample text I would like you to take a look at this sample text, and we
are looking at the countable and uncountable nouns here. Please read the text along with
me and some of the words are highlighted for your own understanding that there are
certain words that cannot be used in plural, there are uncountable. So, archaeological
evidence suggests that people have been using copper, (copper is a metal, it does not
become coppers) for at least 11,000 years. Relatively easy to mine and refine, people
discovered methods for extracting copper from its ores at least 7,000 years ago. The
Roman Empire obtained most of its copper from the island of Cyprus, which is where
copper’s name originated. Today, copper is primarily obtained from the ores cuprite,
tenorite, malachite, chalcocite, covellite and bornite. Large deposits, now one deposits,
46
several deposits, so countable, uncountable of copper; ore are located in the United
States, Chile, Zambia, Zaire, Peru and Canada.
Used in large amounts by the electrical industry in the form of wire, copper is second
only to silver in electrical conductance. Since it resists corrosion from the air, (we do not
say airs; it is air,) moisture and seawater, copper has been widely used in coins. Although
once made nearly entirely from copper, American pennies are now made from zinc (one
penny; several pennies) are now made from zinc that has been coated with copper.
Copper is also used to make water pipes and jewelry, as well as other items.
47
People first learned about 5,000 years ago that copper can be strengthened if it is mixed
with other metals. The two most familiar alloys, (so one alloy and many alloys) of
copper are bronze and brass. The Romans (they are people, they are the people from
particular nation, so they can be used in plurals; the Indians, the Romans, the Afghans)
were the first to make extensive use of brass, using it to make such things as coins,
kettles and ornamental objects. All these are common nouns they can be and which can
be used in as plurals. Today, brass is also used in some musical instruments, screws and
other hardware that must resist corrosion. We have to look at these words highlighted;
understand which can be used in plural and which cannot, alright.
48
Now, here is an exercise, look at it. My question is what you are suppose to do is that
whatever words are highlighted here, you have to tell me whether they can be used in
plural or not. It is making something glittering and beautiful. It is creating, look at the
use of possessive noun here; it is creating a sparkling necklace or a pair of earrings. It is
designing and manufacturing jewelry to your heart’s content--while making profits at the
same time. Sometimes, jewelry entrepreneurs try to go too big, too fast, says Ann Barber,
director or membership benefits at the National Craft Association, a professional trade
association in Rochester, New York, for the arts and crafts industry. The world of jewelry
design is rife with options. In terms of what’s is hot, be aware of the fashion trends in
your area. Edelstein notes that upcoming jewelry trends include a return to yellow gold -
a rollback from the all-white gold and diamond phenomenon and the addition of lots of
color. Beads, stiletto earrings and layered necklaces are also becoming popular.
So, whatever I have highlighted, please tell me whether they can be turn into singular,
plural form or not.
49
Take a moment. And your answer is, so I had highlighted beautiful, it remains beautiful,
it is an abstract noun, it is an adjective of course, but beauty is an abstract noun. So,
beautiful adjective, and it cannot be beautifuls so let it be. Necklace - one necklace,
several necklaces, so necklaces. Jewelry remains jewelry, not jewelries. Design - one
design, several designs, yes. Gold – gold's; Diamonds – diamonds; gold – gold's, yes,
there are certain words; the metal that can be turn into plural forms.
Before I end, again we are going to do some idioms and expressions that may add some
variety where add IT to your language and keeping in with today's topic all are related to
the word gold. So, I am giving you a list of idioms, and you may use your dictionary
online or actually physical dictionary, and tell me what do these words mean. Try to
enhance your own vocabulary.
So, first word, first expression a part of gold; at the end of the rainbow, apart of gold, at
the end of the rainbow, second word gold digger, next going for the gold, as good as gold
next one as good as gold, next one strike gold, and the last one worth someone’s weight
in gold w e i g h t. So, I will repeat a part of gold, gold digger, going for the gold, as
good as gold, strike gold, and worth someone’s weight in gold. Use your dictionaries try
to understand the meaning of these idiom and expressions.
50
Tags
Reading English, English for Engineers, English words, English Exercise,

Exercises in English, Grammar usage, English Grammar, vocabulary, words
and phrases, spoken communication, written communication, English writing,
English speaking, scientific English, report writing, CV, formal letter, Speech-
Preposition, Noun Phrases, Countable and uncountable nouns, singular, plural
Essay writing, word categories, word formation, formal tone, paragraph

writing, tone in writing, speaking tone, signal words, Letter writing,
understanding essays, Mechanics of Essays, publishable essays, nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, propositions, determiners, linking words, 'be' form, linking
words
51
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 05
Reading (Identifying Main Ideas) and Listening
Good morning. So these are the topics for today Reading and Listening. All of us do a lot
of reading and listening in our day-to-day life. What we are going to look at in today’s
and subsequent lectures is how to pay attention to know answers of reading and listening
specially in classroom and academics setups.
Now, you know that what is reading comprehension; reading comprehension is the level
of understanding a text or a message. It involves two levels of processing that is shallow
level or that is also called low level and deep or rather higher level of processing
information. Now, deep level happens when we as readers, convert the meaning of the
words or the text and relate to similar text or words. We should be able to understand the
context. Shallow level, involves on the other hand understanding the structure of the
passage; somebody understands the structure we have been talking about the structure of
sentences, word pattern etcetera.
So, at this level, it goes without seeing that you are expected to learn or practice higher
or deeper level of reading. Reading different types of text requires the use of different
reading strategies and approaches. Now this is important to understand all of us have
certain strategies and certain approaches to understand a written text. Now it all depends
on us, what strategies we use and how we use. The best way to practice academic reading
is to understand the text and also develop the skill of speed reading, because after all in
academic context also at the level certain competitive exams, we do not have all the time
in the world to read and process the text. So, it is always useful to develop the skill of
speed reading, which comes with certain amount of practice.
Reading an active process can help the reader for better understanding of the text; and if
have to give you some tips about how to do a practices speed reading, you should know
certain terms here that is predicting, connecting, inferring, analyzing and critiquing the
text. So, it is always better to predict what comes next. So, prediction is also kind of a
52
skill that should be practiced and that should be developed. Connecting sentences
understanding the connection between sentences; inferring the meaning of sentence; all
these are important. At the same, we should be able to mentally process analyse critic or
critic rather what is happening here, and at the end be able to summarise, to sum up
whatever we have been reading.
A good reader practices these skills; it does not happen overnight; it is always advisable
to read higher order or advanced level of reading that, here I am not just talking about
reading higher order literature, but it is also advisable to read a good English newspaper
and or good scientific journals and magazines. For example, National Geographic and
Nature magazine as many of you would be interested in. It is always better to practice
your reading and develop your reading skills, and you will soon realize that reading such
kinds of magazines, journals and books, they also help in developing your vocabulary
especially your scientific vocabulary which you would be requiring in your academics as
well as in your profession and career.
Now, one of the key or one of the initial steps rather in practicing reading skills is to
identify the main idea, what is this passage or text all about. At the beginner's level, it is
always advisable to break a text into paragraph. So, here I would like to give you tip that
we as writers, we have not still moved onto developing written skills or writing skills,
but paragraphing is extremely important to understand or to be practitioner of good
writing. So, you have to be able to write good paragraphs. And while writing you have to
break your paragraphs into according to the main ideas, the central idea they contain. So,
each paragraph should have an idea. We will come to that later on, but let us understand
reading and how to identify its main idea, the main ideas in a passage.
53
So, let us look at this particular passage, read on. Facebook, incorporated is a social
networking service and website. It aims to make the world more open and connected.
People use Facebook to stay connected with the friends and family, to discover what is
going on in the world around them, and to share and express what matters to them to the
people they care about. The company offers advertisers a unique combination of reach,
relevance, social context, and engagement to enhance the value of their ads.
Now what is being talked about here, what is the main idea? It tells you, what is
Facebook, it defines Facebook. At the beginning, you just look at the topics sentence;
topic sentence gives you the key to the passage. It Is a social networking service and
websites. And what does it do and then it goes on to give you a list of various things; it
connects people, it helps people in expressing what matter to them, what they care about
and then also it is unique platform to advertise goods.
So, what is Facebook and what does it do for people? So, there is a topic sentence which
tells you about, what is it about, what is it defines Facebook and then what does it do?
What does it aim to do? What are benefits of Facebook? It is not talking about
disadvantages; if at all it is there in this text, it will come at a later stage that you have
look at. I have given you the link and you can look it up, but one passage tells you these
things and that is the central idea and this is the way one needs to develop once writing,
and also reading. So, identify the main idea what is the passage all about. So, ask the
54
question what. So, this is the tip that I want to give you to start practicing reading, what
is the passage ask the question, what is the passage all about.
Now look at this exercise and then we will go onto solve certain questions. Questions are
given at the end of this passage. So, rather lengthy passage, read it carefully. Do children
really need such long summer breaks, was a question posed by some experts recently.
Apparently, such a long break disrupts their development and comes in the way of their
learning process. Let us get them back to their books, is perhaps their expert view, if not
in so many words. One would have thought the children are doing too much during their
vacations and not too little, given the plethora of classes, camps and workshops
involving swimming, art, personality development, music, computers and like that seems
to cram their calendar. Even the trips taken in the name of holidays seem laden with
exotic destinations and customized experience packed into a short period of time. We can
do Europe in 10 days and Australia in a week and come back armed with digital
memories and overflowing suitcase. Holidays are in some ways, no longer a break but an
intensified search for experience not normally encountered in everyday life.
55
It is far cry from summer holidays one experienced while growing up. For holidays every
year meant one thing and one thing alone - you went back to your native place, logged in
with the emotional headquarters of your extended family and spent two months with the
gaggle of uncles, aunts and first and second cousins. The happiest memories of the
childhood of a whole generation seem to be centered around this annual ritual of
homecoming and of affirmation. We tendered tacit apologies for the separateness
entailed in being individuals even as we scurried back into vacation was a time sticky
with oneness, as who were and what we owned oozed out from our individual selves into
a collective pot.
Summer was not really a break, but a joint. It was the bridge used to reaffirm one's
connectedness with one's larger community. One did not travel, one returned. It was not
an attempt to experience the new and the extraordinary but one that emphatically
underlined the power of the old and the ordinary. As time changes, what we seek from
our summer breaks too has changed in fundamental way. Today, we are attached much
more to the work and summer helps us temporarily detach from this new source of
identity. We refuel our individual selves now; and do so with much more material than
we did in the past. But for those who grew up in different times, summer was the best
time of their lives.
56
Now, here are the questions, look at the questions and then go back the passage, it is a
very well written passage, and it has ideas in every paragraph. You can identify the main
ideas as well, but first let us look at the exercises. So, section one, Experts question the
summer breaks given to children because breaks. Students are kept busy during the
summer vacations. The writer's happiest memories of childhood were centered around,
and summer break in the present times are a way of. Look at these questions look, just do
the first section and come back.
Now let us look at the second section. Fill in the blanks using one word only and from
the passage given. The realization that children's summer breaks are dash with a plethora
of activities makes one conclude that they are doing dash. Holidays have now turned into
a dash for new experiences. These are far removed from the times when summer breaks
were a time of blank with the extended family. In the third section, find words or phrases
which mean the same as clearly seen or understood, excess both are or both can be
identified in paragraph one is and third definition or meaning is state as a fact or declare
formally second paragraph; and from the third paragraph, beyond what is usual. So, find
the words and phrases, which have the same meaning as the given expressions.
Let us discuss the answers now. So, what I was trying to do in the first section was to
identify and understand main parts of the passage. So, the answer to the first question is
that according to the experts and we have to complete the sentence. So, what happens
57
during vacations according to these experts? They disrupt children's development and
come in the way of learning process. And then the second statement is students are kept
busy during the summer vacations, they are engaged in a variety of courses, classes,
camps, workshops and in trips taken in the name of holidays. The third statement, the
writer's happiest memories of childhood were centered around the annual ritual of home
coming and affirmation; it is given there in the final paragraphs. And summer break in
the present times are away of detaching from work and refueling ourselves.
Section two, the realization that children’s summer breaks are tagged or crammed that is
the answer with a plethora of activities makes one conclude that they are doing much.
Holidays have now turned into a search for new experiences. These are far removed from
the times when summer breaks were a time of bonding with once family. Now let us look
at the third section find words and phrases, which mean the same. So, in first paragraph
clearly seen or understood is apparently; apparently it can be clearly seen and
understood. Excess, excess of everything that happens in summer vacation, so plethora;
and then is state as a fact the third one declares formally formation, and then beyond
what is usual beyond what is ordinary is extraordinary. So, this is I gave you this lengthy
passage, so that we come or we fall in the habit of reading lengthy passages and the deal
with ideas.
Now, let us move onto do little bit of vocabulary. In the passage that you have just read,
you must have come across word such as affirmation and temporarily, also emphatically,
normally now all these words what are they, these are affirmation is a noun and other
three are adverbs, so that is the part of speech. But how do we construct such words and
what are we now going to look at.
58
So, affirmation and now I am going to give you the root word. So, what is the root word,
root word is a form here and -ation or -tion becomes your suffix. Suffixes are those
words a group of words that follow a root word and change class of the word. So, to
form if affirm to affirm is a verb then by adding t i o n or a t i o n you change the class
it becomes a noun. So, this is something that is very important to understand especially
in good writing and speaking. Now temporarily, again the root word is temporary, and
then you are adding i l y and changing the category; so from adjective, it big turns into an
adverb; same emphatic – emphatically, normal - normally. So, you are changing the class
of a word by using suffixes. There is another category called prefixes which also we are
going to see soon.
59
Now look at this slide and note down some common forms of suffixes. The -ant type
words ending in -ant; -ant does that is or does something. The -ary or -ory type
connected with, the meaning is to connect with, sensory senses and disciplinary
connected with discipline. You have the -ate type, which is such as having the quality of
so bifurcate, explicate, promulgate. Then you have -crat that is a member of something
democrat, plutocrat, aristocrat. You have the -er type a person or thing. So, let us thing of
some examples using -er; a driver you know person or something who does something,
who does a job. So, -er from drive, you get driver.
60
You have -ese type, it is generally used to suggest the nationality or country China-
Chinese, Japan-Japanese. You also have -ish type, again you can use it to suggest the
nationality Swede-Swedish, Dane-Danish. Now, another category -in or –an in which
such do suggest an activity in which many people take part, so sect-sectarian; then you
have the -ist form to suggest a person who practices something. You have the -ure and
-age, so -age again it changes the category of the word or the root words, so from post
you get postage; from parent you get parentage; from short you get short; we are short of
something, in short supply they shortage of something. So, it changes it gives you more
variety, more color to your language.
You also have the -ure type, for example, annex becomes annexure, expose becomes
exposure, so you are using the suffix -ure, architect-architecture. -Ment type, which is an
action or process doing something for example, abridgement, argument. So, all these you
also have the -ion type, discuss-discussion. So, those are some of the very few examples
of suffixes which are extremely important.
Now, let us do some listening. At the begging of this class today, session today I told you
that I will like you to practice some listening also. Here, I am going to read out a couple
of paragraphs. But before I do that, I am going to give you the questions. So, you will be
able to listen to the passage and then I will just take down the questions, and then listen
to me I am not going to show the slides here, I am going to read out the passage you have
to just look at these questions.
61
So, please look at this slide with questions. Question 1 is what are the names of the 3
doctors? Second, how is the machine described as? Third, what did Mitty ask for? Fourth
question he pulled a dash, so there are two words dash, dash out of the machine and
inserted the pen in its place.
I am going to now read out the passage, and you start solving these or writing answers
for these questions. You will not be shown the passage this time; this is a test of listening
and not a test of reading. This passage is taken from a short story called The Secret Life
of Walter Mitty.
So, here it goes. In the operating room, there were whispered introductions, Dr.
Remington, Dr. Mitty, Dr. Pritchard Mitford. Dr. Mitty, I have read your book on
Streptothricosis said Pritchard Mitford shaking hands, a brilliant performance sir. Thank
you said Walter Mitty. Didn’t you know you were in the states Mitty, grumbled
Remington coals to new castle bringing Mitford and me up here for a tertiary; you are
very kind said Mitty. A huge complicated machine connected to the operating tables with
many tubes and wires began at this moment to go pocketa, pocketa, pocketa. The new
anesthetizer is giving away shouted an intern in turn. There is no one in the east who
knows how to fix it; quiet man said Mitty in a low cool voice. He sprang to the machine
which was now going pocketa, pocketa, queep, pocketa, queep. He began fingering
delicately a row of glistening dials.
62
Give me a fountain pen, he pulled, he snapped someone handed him a fountain pen, he
pulled a faulty piston out of the machine and inserted the pen in its place; that will hold
for 10 minutes he said get on with the operation. A nurse hurried over and whispered to
Renshaw and Mitty saw the man turn pale.
Now, write the answers to the questions that I gave you at the beginning begging of the
passage. We will discuss the answers soon. So, first question what are the names of the 3
doctors, Dr. Remington, Dr. Mitty, Dr. Pritchard Mitford. Second question, how is the
machine described, a huge complicated machine. And what does Mitty asked for he,
asked for he says give me fountain pen, he asked for a fountain pen, and the two words
in the blank faulty piston. So, now, that we have been talking about machine especially
in the operating theater or operation theater.
Let us look at or I will give you example or names of certain instruments and I would
like you to take some time and write the definitions of these instruments. So, the first
word durometer, second machine ohmmeter - o h m m e t e r, third machine
sphygmomanometer; is sphygmomanometer - s p h y g m o m a n o m e t e r. Next is
planimeter - p l a n i m e t e r, and the last one is pycnometer - p y c n o m e t e r –
pycnometer. Now what are these machines for? So, durometer, it measures hardness of
materials. Ohmmeter measures electrical resistance. Sphygmomanometer is for
measuring blood pressure. Planimeter measures area, and pycnometer, it measures
density of a liquid.
Now in the story that you have just seen or heard a passage from, the hero Walter Mitty,
he imagines himself as various professionals, that is his imagination, that is his way
surviving his monotonous life. Now here is an exercise and I am giving you list
professionals and you have to tell me what to do these people work as or work for.
63
So, first word cartographer; second word, seismologist; third word speleologist, next
word entomologist, next word antiquary, next word steeplejack, and you have to tell me
what do these people do, and the last word is paleontologist. What do these people do? A
cartographer makes maps, seismologist measures earthquakes, a speleologist studies
caves, and entomologist studies in insects and antiquary is a person who is an expert in
the relics of the past, steeplejack is an expert who repairs tall buildings, and a structures
and a paleontologist is someone who studies rocks.
I would like you to practice these speaking exercises and this is the question, I am giving
you a question and I want you to practice work in pairs, work with some friends and see
how you can develop. I will also give the link to develop this kind of abilities, where you
can get some information. So, it is important that you start talking and discussing topics
which would be of academic interest and use and value to you.
64
So, the question is what do you know about free market environmentalism? Free market
environmentalism, and here is the link, please look at the slide given. This is a link; you
can get more details about this topic. Read it and then develop your own ideas. Before
we end up this class - today's class, I would like to wind up with idioms. Now what are
idioms and how we can use idiom in every day communication? So, what are idioms?
Idioms as you would know are expressions, which have a meaning that is not very
obvious from the individual words. For example, state of the art it is an expression very
commonly use it means something that is built upon latest technology. Why do we use
idioms? Why cannot we just use, our latest technology. We use idioms, because they add
color and variety to our language.
Now I am going to give you a list of idioms, you have a dictionary and I would like you
to practice and use these idioms in your day-to-day communication. It will also help you
in your various academic activities. So, this exercise is purely for self learning, hence
you have to do it yourself. The first idiom is to pin something down p i n pin, to pin
something down; next, to cost and arm and a leg, and arm and a leg; third, to beat around
the bush, to beat around the bush; fourth one devil’s advocate, devil’s advocate; next, to
sit on the fence, to sit on the fence; and the last expression, a phrase is Conspiracy
theory, Conspiracy theory.
65
Look up these words in your dictionary; see how you can use in sentence of your own.
So, thank you very much and with this we end today’s class.
Tags
English, report writing, CV, formal letter, Speech-Preposition, Noun Phrases, Countable
and uncountable nouns, singular, plural
determiners, linking words, 'be' form, linking words, reading, listening
66
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 06
What is a Sentence
Good morning. So, today's class is all about Sentence structure.
We will be looking at what are the parts of a common sentence and we are generally
talking about kind of English you use in your day today life, we are not still talking about
literary kind of language. So, we must bear in remind is that this class is all about
English for a Technical Communication or English for Engineers. We are basically or
essentially talking about that level of English. So, English in our academic life, English
for those who are into technical kind of writing, class room writing, assignments, they
have to follow certain rules in everyday communication and we have to know, what is
sentence and how a sentence is commonly generally structured.
We will also learn something about direct indirect object and we will revise subject work
agreement, I am sure these are the things you already know but we need to revise it for
67
the sake of this course. The various classes of words, we have already seen there are
various classes of words are used to construct or create sentences. We have already seen
what are those classes? Now, sentences have 5 parts: Subject, Verb, Object, Complement
and Adverbial. Please note this is the very commonly misspelt word, we are talking
about complement with an e. When we say, this is a beautiful flower then this is
compliment with an i or this is beautiful dress, this is a compliment we obtain, but here
complement is something that supports something that goes with something else.
There are 5 parts in a sentence subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial. All
English language sentences have a subject and a verb that is the minimum that you need.
Of course, you can even make with a verb like ‘sit’ that is an order, ‘eat’ that is an order,
but generally we say I am writing, I am speaking, I talk, I went, I saw, so minimum
components of a sentence and that is subject and a verb. Now, there are 5 main
structures, which are used to make simple sentences in English. Now, the subject and
object can be a noun, pronoun or a noun phrase. You already are familiar with what are
nouns, pronouns and noun phrases. Verb as you know is an action word and the
complement can be either an adjective or a noun phrase. Adverbial can be a prepositional
phrase or an adverb.
Now let us look at the subject verb construction, is a simple sentence and with just one
subject and a verb I walked, I drove, so here you have one subject ‘I’ and you have a
verb ‘drove’ or ‘walked’. She saw, ‘she’ is a pronoun and ‘saw’ is the verb. She sings;
pronoun and verb. So, this is the simplest form of a sentence subject, verb. Let us look at
a noun phrase also, the tyres came off. Now, ‘the tyres’ noun phrase, ‘came off’ is a verb,
so here we are talking about what subject and verb combination.
Now, let us look at Subject, Verb and Object and then we will move on to what is Direct
Object and what is Indirect Object. These things are important how you place words in a
sentence. Very often students get confused about the order of words in a sentences, they
do not know where to place what word so these things are necessary to understand. Now,
Subject, Verb, Object; SVO is the most common and basic structure, which is used in
every day English. So, I need a break. ‘I’ is a subject, ‘need’ is a verb, object ‘a break’.
68
They are foreigners. ‘They’ subject, ‘are’ verb and ‘foreigners’ who are they, foreigners
so object.
Look at this, ‘The book’ what is it, ‘book’ your subject, ‘is’ what’, is it, is your verb.
Now, you may choose to write whatever you want as an object, the book is what? You
can say, let us begin within instead of saying the book is very interesting or boring or let
us say the book is a gift, for example. So what is the book object, ‘a gift’ becomes your
object. So, the book is a gift. Now, Subject Verb Complement this is another structure
SVC. My house is an old one. 'My house' is subject, 'is' is a verb, 'an old one', so, this is a
complement. It defines it qualifies your house. They are quarrelsome, my neighbours are
quarrelsome. ‘My neighbours’ subject, ‘are’ verb, what kind of neighbours are those
‘quarrelsome’, it is a complement. It tells you something about your qualities of your
neighbours.
Now, let us look at another structure that is Subject Verb Adverbial. The bookshop is
quite far. Now, remember what are adverbs? Here, adverb suggests a sense of place so
this is your verb, ‘The bookshop’ of course is a subject and quite far, a quite near, a quite
close, it becomes your adverbial. Please note the spelling. This suggests the water is
boiling hot. So, you know degree of water and it is heat, it becomes another kind of an
adverbial. We will talk about Direct, Indirect objects. So, consider for example a
sentence such as, my father gifted me a book. ‘My father’, he is the doer right so subject
is always the doer ‘gifted’ of course is verb. Now, what is the object here? Me or the
book, my father gifted me a book.
How do we understand which is direct, which is indirect object? So here is the way we
understand, here is the way we infer which object is direct and which is indirect and how
do you place certain kinds of objects in a sentence. You do not say my father gifted a
book me, it has to become to me. So, these are the things that we have to may keep in
mind. Let us look at another sentence. The boys sent a messenger to the city. Again you
have two objects, messenger and the city, which one is a direct and which one is the
indirect object.
69
Now, this is a definition, "The noun or the noun phrase that receives the action of the
verb is the direct object". In other words, the direct object answers the question of what.
What did my father give me? A book. Therefore, my father gifted me a book, which is
the direct object here, a book. And the indirect object explains the action of the verb by
answering the questions such as to whom or for whom, so who did my father gift the
book to? To me, so, me becomes your indirect object. Direct object response to the
question what, indirect object response to the question.
Again go back to the earlier sentence, the boy sent a messenger to the city. Now here
again ‘the city’ is your direct object and who did he send (Refer Time: 12:18) to the city,
the answer is indirect object ‘the messenger’. This music gives me headache. ‘This
music’ is your subject, ‘gives’ of course is your verb, who? Who does this music give
headache to? Me, so I am the indirect object and what does it gave me? Headache, so
that becomes your direct object.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:52).
Now, look at this slide and try to solve these exercises, these sentences. You are supposed
to put the words in the correct order. Do not take too long it is very simple all you have
to do is place the words in the correct order and underline Subject, Verb, Object, Indirect
object, Direct object also do the Complements, which are the complements? Where the
70
adverbial are placed? Once you take down these sentences you move on to the next one
and look at the answers.
Maria is very nice, it is a complement. I am sure by now you are able to solve this. So,
Maria subject, is very nice. Tarun likes football, subject verb object very simple. Dev had
an accident, subject verb object. We moved the table. Hiranya is a tall woman. Everyone
sat on the floor. Ajmal's friends gave him some help. So, subject verb object and another
object, indirect object and direct object that is the order.
Now, let us look at a sentence like Reena gave Anu a book. So you know 'Reena' is the
subject here, 'gave' is the verb, 'Anu' is the indirect object and a book and what did she
give? A book is the direct object. Likewise, Shekar told his friends a story. 'Shekar'
subject, 'told' verb, 'his friends' they are to whom it (Refer Time: 15:24) it answers the
question to whom did he tell the story, his friends and what did he tell them a story, so
indirect and direct object. Now, look at the sentences here.
71
Look at the slide and identify the direct and indirect objects in the following sentences.
Yes, so now we have to understand that or do you want me to solve it for you. So, he
took the cat to the wet. 'He' is the subject, 'took' is the verb of course, 'the cat', who did he
take and where did he take? So he took 'the cat' is the indirect object, 'to the wet' so it is
the direct object. I offered the old lady a seat. 'I' subject, so it is S V O O, 'old lady' in
directs, 'a seat' direct. Piyush gave the teacher his assignments. Direct object is 'his
assignments', indirect 'the teacher'. It is raining. Yes, it is a nice complicated sentence. I
will lend you my umbrella, so you need not worry too much about raining here.
Although, it is a sentence in you know complete by itself. I will lend you my umbrella,
who I going to lend my umbrella? To you, so that becomes your indirect object and what
my umbrella so that is your direct object.
Subject, Verb, Agreement is another very common area, where students sometimes get
very confused. Now, it means that the verb changes depending on the type of noun the
verb refers to. The verb has to agree with the subject, that is what we mean by the terms
subject verb agreement. A subject as you know is an agent or a doer and verb tells what
someone does. I will give you an example, James Hargreaves, who was he? He was the
inventor of a Spinning Jenny during the Industrial Revolution in England. So, James
Hargreaves was the inventor of this Spinning Jenny. Now, which is the subject here?
72
James Hargreaves of course, and he is the inventor of the spinning jenny, he was this
spinning. You have to use the word 'was'. 'James Hargreaves' singular subject, therefore
you need a singular verb with it.
If there were more than one inventor then you have to say a verb, James Hargreaves and
someone else, they were two men, so those two were the inventors of this spinning jenny.
So, this is what we mean, when we say that the verb has to agree with the subject. I want
you to look at this particular passage.
I will read out to you and let us see how subject verb agreement is happening here. A
group of scientist from Indian Space Research Organization have. So, you see scientist
thoroughly enjoyed Ridley Scott's forthcoming space drama 'The Martian'. The screening
on Tuesday was referring to a screening, also attended by ten members from a National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. The director that is referring to Ridley Scott sent
out a message, so this verb refers to the director a message to the scientist. I am Ridley
Scott. So, subject 'I' and the verb agrees that is 'am' agrees with the subject. In first
person singular 'I', I am Ridley Scott, director of the movie which your about to watch.
73
I guess I have something in common with most of you here, and that is the love for
science and space. A subject which has, so now the agreement is between subject and
verb, 'subject' is subject here and 'has' is the verb, always fascinated me as some of you
would have seen in my earlier films. So, Ridley Scott's earlier films were the blade
runner, aliens so that means he is a director, who is interested in the genre of science
fiction. Many of us are interested in this genre. So, this is the way in our day today
communication we use and we are careful about how verbs have to agree with the
subject. Now, you look at this particular passage and identify the subject and verbs.
This is your exercise for the day, Letter from Albert Einstein to President Roosevelt. I am
writing to introduce Dr. L. Szilard who proposes to submit to you certain consideration
and recommendation. Unusual circumstances which I shall describe further below
introduce me to take this action in spite of the fact that I do not know the substance of the
considerations and recommendations which Dr. Szilard proposes to submit to you.
74
In the summer of 1939 Dr. Szilard put before me his views concerning the potential
importance of uranium for national defence. He was greatly disturbed by the
potentialities involved and anxious that the United States Government be advised of
them as soon as possible. Now, your task is to identify the subject and verbs.
So let us try to solve this exercise. 'I' is the subject and 'am' right writing of course is the
verb here to introduce Dr. Szilard who proposes so again verb has to go with Dr. Szilard
in the third person singular, therefore proposes to submit to you certain consideration and
recommendation. Unusual circumstances, which I shall describe further below introduce
me, so, 'introduce' is a verb and it has to agree with 'unusual circumstances'. To take this
action in spite of the fact that I do not know, so 'do' verb, 'I' is a subject here. And again
you go down a bit and considerations and recommendations, which Dr. Szilard proposes,
so 'proposes' is the verb, which agrees with Dr. Szilard.
In the summer of 1939 Dr. Szilard put before, so 'put' becomes a past tense and it agrees
with 'Dr. Szilard' subject. His views concerning the potential importance of, so you have
to remember the past tense of certain words remain as such. So 'put' the past tense of 'put'
is 'put', therefore we do not change it. He was greatly disturbed, so 'he' is a subject and
75
'was' is the verb and anxious that the United States Government be advised of them as
soon as possible.
There are certain rules of subject verb agreements when the verb is end like 'or'. Let us
think of 'either or' 'neither nor' that is the combination. So, sentence agrees with the noun
or pronoun, which is closest to it. Let me give you an example because we are talking
about certain rules I know that simple sentences are very easy to understand, the kind of
examples that we have been doing so far, but when it gets a little more complex what do
we do. Let us look at this sentence joined by 'neither nor'.
Neither the books nor the television goes on the shelf. Neither, nor. Now, look at the verb
here 'goes' it is a singular, when it becomes 'go' it is a plural. Here you have plural 'books'
here you have singular 'television', so the verb agrees with the noun closest to it. Let us a
assume if 'books' were to be kept here, than it would have become a plural verb 'go', but
because it is 'television' singular it is 'goes' a singular verb. So that is the rule, the verb
agrees in cases of 'either or', 'neither nor' with the noun or pronoun closest to it.
Again if a 1 subject is singular and 1 plural and the words are connected by 'either or',
'neither nor', but also you again you use the verb form of the subject that is nearest to the
76
closest to the verb. Either the teacher or the students have misplaced the equipment.
Now, because the verb is closer to the plural, that is a 'students' not to the singular
'teacher'. Now, come and look at these sentences and correct the following.
It look like it is going to rain. In this institute there is lots of buildings. A basketball and a
tennis court is there in this house. Alwyn as well as his brother is in this course. The
benefits of technology is too many to list here. How do you correct these sentences? 'It
looks like it is going to rain', not it look like because it is a singular subject, so therefore
you have to use 'looks'. 'In this institute there are lots of buildings', it is not just 1
building so it has to be are lots of buildings. 'A basketball and a tennis court are there in
this house', two separate things. 'Alwyn as well as his brother are in this course'. 'The
benefits of technology are too many' benefits are too many to list here.
Now, before I wind up this class for today, I want you to look at some of the words,
which are very commonly misspelt. This is something that you as an engineer should
know and how to correct and what are the rules. We will be looking at rules also, but I
want you to take a quick look at words that are commonly misspelt.
77
Let us take a look which one is correct. I would like you to do this as part of your self
learning. I have already suggested that you start looking of some good dictionaries.
Please check, which is the correct form of these very commonly misspelt words.
Thank you very much and we will meet for the next class.
Tags
determiners, linking words, 'be' form, linking words, reading, listening, sentence,
Subject, Verb, Object
78
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 07
What is a Sentence (Continued)
Hello friends. So, this is one of our introductory classes. Although, I have already due
when we were talking about introduction that, what is meant by a Sentence and that we
are going to do sentence also. Sentence of course, since we are going to write and speak
and read sentence and how a sentence is constructed is extremely important for us to
know.
Now, in introduction I had told you that I am going to cover sentence and also what goes
into the making of a sentence. Perhaps you will find that I am repeating here some of the
things that I have already mentioned but please understand that these things are
necessary for us because I would like to reinforce the importance of, what is a the
sentence? How is a sentence constructed? What are the units of a sentence? So, therefore,
even if you find some repetition, please do not get disturbed. I am not being redundant I
am just trying to reinforce whatever is going on. So, throughout these classes you will
find that what has been discussed once will emerge again but this is something that we
are just going to move from basic to more advanced and more complex.
So, today’s class is all about sentence, what is a sentence? I am going to look at first the
basic of sentence; what is a simple compound and complex sentence is very important
for you to write and speak and read English. So, perhaps some of you are already aware
of it at school level, at secondary school level, you have done it but I am just trying to
repeat and I am trying to cater it to your needs, basically. We will also look at, what is
phrase? And, what is a clause?
Now, what is a sentence? We already know what are parts of speech? You have noun and
you have pronoun and you have verbs and adverbs, you have adjectives, right. So,
prepositions, conjunctions, those are parts of speech. Sentence is a group of words and
phrases. Sentence is not a word, it is a group of words and phrases and all those words,
sentences and all that things that we have already done, and they become a part of
sentence. So, we know what is a noun, we have seen various parts of speech, so this is a
80
group of all those words that are brought together; that is a sentence for extremely
important a sentence should make sense.
Now, we are talking about academic purposes, technical writing and not creative writing.
So, therefore, we have to understand how good sentence is constructed in creative
writing and in more, poetic kind of writing, you can take all sorts of liberties not what we
are doing here. Now, there are three types of sentences as we have already talked about,
so, Simple Sentence.
Let me give you an example, A is taller than B. How many verbs? How many verbs?
Only one, 'is' this is the be-type of verb; is, am, was, were, right; the be -type. We have
done the auxiliaries, we have done models, we know what is be, what is have. So, we are
taking about a sentence and this is, there is only one kind of a one verb here, the be -type
verb and taller is a comparative adjective. Then again it is a degree of comparison, it is a
word and then A and B can be replaced with anything; twin towers is a tall building,
taller than and you can look at xyz building, compare it. These can be replaced. Finally,
Qutub Minar a tall building and you can write anything taller than xyz building,
whatever you want to.
Main thing to remember here is, a simple sentence has just one main verb; just one verb.
Now, if I give you a little more challenging sentence without the be form of it, let say,
'He studies a engineering', you have just one verb in it, studies, so simple sentence. 'He'
81
is your noun, in the noun phrase you use a pronoun, 'studies' becomes your verb, the
main verb 'engineering' is a noun again. So, now, they contain a single clause and a
single verb.
I would like you to read this particular slide, please take a look at the slide and look at
the passage. Look at the passage, I will read it out for you; you have to identify a simple
sentence or if there are more than one, then let us talk about that also. I would like to
understand, if you understand what is basically a good simple sentence? Let me read it
out for you, People in the watch business often say that the "industry is very small." That
is not because the multi-billion dollar or a year watch sales market is in significant, but
rather that a few keys stakeholders more or less control the business. To be a successful
watch company in modern times, a company often needs help. Help with what you ask?
That is a good question. Brands today are faced with a multitude of complex challenges
ranging from getting the right parts from suppliers, to product distribution across many
countries, and expensive advertising initiatives.
Identify the simple sentence, which has one main verb, one main clause, one main verb.
You will come across; you will find only one sentence 'that is a good question', 'that is a
good question', the only one verb in it. You have one noun and a noun phrase 'a good
question' that is a good question. So, that is your simple sentence. So, look at the variety
of the sentences used here, tremendous variety you have complex, you have compound,
82
you have clauses within clauses, so, a wonderfully constructed passage just one simple
sentence.
Now, coming to compound sentences; what are Compound sentences? These contain two
or more coordinate main clauses, but no subordinate clause. Subordinate clause as the
name suggests depends on the main clause. Here you will find, it is stands on it is own, I
will give an example soon. A compound sentence is a balance sentence, the clauses are
carefully arranged to support one another in a structure and meaning.
Attributed to seizure I suppose; I came, I saw, I conquered, 3 verbs; all clauses stand
independently. It is not like the meaning will get affected, with the, even if you remove
any other clauses, and, 3 clauses each with an independent verb and not dependent on
any other part of the sentence. I will give you more day to day kind of a sentence 'Milk
boiled for a while, and it spilled all over the place.' There are two sentences at a work
here, milk boiled for a while comma and spilled all over the place, what is spilled? Milk
spilled; so, just you have to insert one milk and you have another sentence, milk spilled
all over the place, two sentences. 'My brother came back from the play ground and he
was bruised.' 'My brother came back from the play ground, my brother was bruised', two
sentences of equal structure, equally structure.
Look at this slide, please read on I would like you to identify compound sentences, let
me read the passage for you, again the same passage, People in the watch business often
83
say that the "industry is very small." That is not because the multi-billion dollar a year
watch sales market is insignificant, but rather that a few keys stake holders more or less
control the business. To be a successful watch company in modern times, a company
often needs help. Help with what you may ask? That is a good question. Brands today are
faced with a multitude of complex challenges ranging from getting the right parts from
suppliers, to product distribution across many countries, and expensive advertising
initiatives.
Now, look at the last sentence does not it strike you as a very complex complicated
sentence, but if you try to break it into 2 parts 'brands today are faced with a multitude of
a complex challenges ranging from getting the right parts from suppliers to product
distribution across many countries', today countries full stop brands need expensive
advertising initiatives. Now, it gives an impression that it may be a good compound
sentence, but where is the verb here, so we do not have it, alright. Let us move on again,
that is not because first sentence; 'people in the watch business often say that the industry
is very small', can you have a compound sentence here, No.
That is not because the multi-billion dollar a year watch sales market is in significant, but
rather than a few key stakeholders more or less control the business. To be a successful
watch company in modern times a company often needs help. 'To be a successful watch
company in modern times', let us try to break this one, full stop to be successful a
company often needs help, do you think this sentence can pass of as a compound
sentence. Let us look at and break it again; to be a successful watch company in modern
times, now if you break it what happens to the first clause.
So, again we do not have a very convincing compound sentence here. This is the way
you need to break certain kinds of. So, you need to have some basic understanding, what
happens to the other clause? Even if I try to insert the noun phrase somewhere in the
second half or first half would the meaning be clear; we do not find it happening here.
Now, this passage that we have just done is a very good example of having several very
strong complex sentences.
And, what is a complex sentence? Complex sentences contain subordinate clauses, again
I will say for example, same thing that we have already done the previous sentence, "the
milk boiled and spilled over although she was told not to boil it.' Now, although she was
84
told not to boil it, this part does not make sentence or sense on it is own it needs the main
part, main clause; the milk boiled in and spilled over. So, the other half, it may have a
verb of it is own, but does not make much sense without the first part.
Look at the slide here; I am giving you some good examples of complex sentences.
Please take a look. Having said that, a brand like Rolex is totally independent and often
regarded as the most important name in luxury watch making. That is one sentence.
Second sentence a little bit more complicated. Since the 1980s and the "quartz crisis" and
then you have here much discussed, much analyzed parenthesis (that really change the
way traditional watch companies do business), what changed? Quartz crisis, I am just
going to digress a bit.
Parenthesis is a something that we often use, but why do we use? We give extra
information and even if you remove it, it may not give us elaborate explanation of what
preceded it, the material that just preceded it, but the sentence would still make sense.
So, even if you remove this parenthetic material you will find it does not really make
much of a difference. Yes, it does, in a sense in a way that we get more explanation here.
So, it is a good elaboration. However, we use parenthesis to mark off material that we
may not really, we can actually do away with.
So, the wristwatch landscape is increasingly populated by big brands that are often
independent of large multinational groups. Look at it, so many things happening here;
85
varieties of verbs and all depend on the wristwatch landscape. That is the main clause
here that can be one of the main clauses here. And independently owned companies,
which can compete on an international level with the big boys are becoming more and
more rare. Independently owned companies which can, so again you find that the very
structure of the sentence is such that is complex, there is no room for any simplicity here,
so it is not a simple sentence and definitely not a compound sentence. Try to break it, but
it will be very hard.
Now, we will talk more about clauses in detail. In today’s class, I will be talking about a
little about relative clause in particular because that something that you often need, most
of us need in our day to day speech and in our writings, a good understanding of relative
clause. But, before that, let us move on to discuss something else that is phrase. So, after
words that are the basic units of a sentence you get phrase, phrase may not have verb of
it is own, rarely, but phrase does not contain a verb of its own and it is completely
dependent on the main clause in order to make some sense otherwise, it just remains a
group of words. So, what is Phrase? Phrase is generally a group of words that make a
unit, a phrase within a sentence has a specific function.
Now, consider a sentence like, a wire is made of platinum; a wire is made of platinum; a
wire is made of silver also, but let us talk about platinum wire. Now, this is of course,
your auxiliary made. So, you have the verb here. So, you have the verb phrase and this is
86
your noun phrase and this is your preposition phrase. So, these are the way you analyze
phrases, if you look at it, if you look at another sentence. A balloon is filled with gas. 'A
balloon' is your noun phrase, 'is filled' is your verb phrase, two verbs happening and 'with
gas' becomes your prepositional phrase. Why? Because, you have 'with' there and why is
this a prepositional phrase? Because, it has off here; if you break it further, then you get
one preposition and one noun. Let us talk about 2 noun phrases. Let us have a sentence
like, The boy picked pigged the puppy; the boy picked pigged the puppy. So, 'the boy' is
your noun phrase, ‘picked’ 'pigged' is your main verb, 'the puppy' is again your noun
phrase. So, that is a phrase. Independently, they just remained words or a unit.
Now, we have had been talking about clauses and we talked about clauses particularly, in
relation with compound and complex sentences. Now, there are 3 kinds of clauses; one is
and very important clause Relative clause, these usually follow nouns and affects their
meanings in an adjective like way therefore relative. They are introduced by relative
pronouns such as, 'who' or 'which'. That are the main but sometimes we use that also of
course. Adverbial clauses, second clauses are those clauses that like adverbs influence
the verb, they qualify the verb, ‘walk fast’, ‘eat fast’, ‘sleep well’ well is an adverb. So,
they define the quality of the verb.
Work quietly, read quietly, do not make noise most of these ‘ly’ ending are adverbs. So,
again adverbial clauses what are they? They influence the verb; some clauses exist
without full verbs. Now, a sentence like, 'While walking on the road we were startled by
the horn', while walking on the road, so here is the clause, we were startled by the horn.
Now, while walking on the road; 'walking' is a verb, but here it is not a full verb. What is
the full verb? We were startled by the horn.
You have clauses like these also. Let me give another sentence, 'There was the professor
sitting at his desk and arguing over the phone.' So you have verbs 'sitting', 'arguing', but
there was the professor 'was' is the main verb and these verbs are like more non-finite
kind of verbs, which we will talk about later.
87
Let us look at this particular passage here and look at the number of clauses. Look at the
kinds of clauses that are existing. When talking about fans today, we usually refer to the
exquisite folding fan, which is said to be introduced to China from Japan during the late
Song Dynasty. It is rumored that the Japanese invented the folding fan after being
inspired by bat's wings. As this fan could be easily folded and carried, it soon came into
fashion. Compared to other types of fan, the folding fans are more like a piece of
handicrafts. The ribs of folding fans were made from valuable materials, such as hawks-
bill turtle, ox horn, ebony, mottled bamboo, elephant trunk and jadeite, carved into
different shapes, for example a grasshopper's legs. And the different sizes of folding fans
are classified by the numbers of ribs the fan has, usually seven, nine, 12, 14, 16 or 18.
Look at the number of clauses; it has a huge and a wide variety.
Now, coming back to relative clause; a relative clause as we have already talked about, it
functions like an adjective and it gives more information about someone or something
referred to in a main clause. Let me give you an example, 'A disease that is caused by a
virus is difficult to diagnose.' A disease that is caused by a virus is difficult to diagnose; it
gives you a little more information about the disease, disease that is caused by a virus. 'A
wire which is made of platinum is very expensive.' A wire which is made of platinum is
very expensive, little bit more information about the wire. I have done some examples
for you, please read this slide.
88
Look at these sentences here. A plane which is 500 seated is currently not ready for
flight. The theory that there is life on Mars is an interesting one. A balloon that is filled
with gas can rise off the ground. He showed me the pearls which he brought from
Canada, which pearls? Those pearls which he brought from Canada; now, relatives
clauses and I am giving you this exercise, please look at the slide.
Join the two sentences using 'who' and 'which'. A mug is dropped on a floor it breaks into
several pieces. 'A mug which is dropped on a floor breaks into several pieces'. Some
89
inventions define the 1920’s. They are all about entertainment and convenience. 'Some
inventions which defined or that define the 20's are all about entertainment and
convenience', you will have to remove 'they'.
So, good referencing is also a part of good writing. The internet is a network of
computers. It covers the entire planet allowing people to access all that. So, how do we
join? 'The internet which is a network of computer covers the entire planet allowing
people to access any piece of information they desire from all corners of the world'. The
computer and I will solve it for you, which is a complex machine has the ability to store
vast collections of information.
Now, look at these sentences and try to do them on your own. I will read that out. There
are refrigeration trucks. They have changed our eating habits as we now have easy access
to fresh foods even in the hottest and driest summer months. William Shakespeare was
born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564. He is considered to be the greatest writer in the
English language. William Shakespeare who was born in his Stratford-upon-Avon in
1564 is considered to be the greatest writer in the English language.
Last one, Charles Darwin was an English natural scientist. He laid down a frame work
for that the theory of evolution, showing how man evolved from lower life forms. How
do we do it? 'Charles Darwin who was an English natural scientist laid down a frame
work for the theory of evolution, showing how man evolved from lower life forms'.
90
Next line, please look at it. Confucius was a wise sage, who sought to educate his fellow
citizens on the ancient wisdom of moral precepts. Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield's
have invented magnetic resonance imaging, which has transformed almost every area of
surgery allowing doctors to see inside a patient's body without cutting it open first. So,
that is relative clauses for you using 'who' and 'which' and 'that'. Take a look at this
particular passage.
I would like you to identify the relative clause. The event that caused America to take a
91
vow against participating in any war ever. The great depression of the early the twentieth
century was a crunch so bad, a loaf of bread in Germany cost some 12000 Euros at one
point of time. Needless to say, there were many deaths, mostly suicides and many nations
on the verge of bankruptcy. An event which caused families to go without food for many
days, The Great Depression. Look at the last sentence, very good example of higher
order kind of writing. You see the main clause; sorry, the main noun phrase comes at the
fag-end of the sentence. 'An event which cost' and this is your relative clause. Now, from
here let me do some reading, reading passage for you, before we wind up.
So, let us look at this passage and this passage will be followed by some very simple
comprehension exercises. When you identify a salinity problem during the growing
season, it is recommended to flush the field, even if it means risking some crop damage,
rather than allowing further deterioration of the crop due to salinity. Flushing
applications should be carefully planned according to the crop conditions and growth
stage. In light soils, we should drain easily the impact of flushing on the crop is usually
insignificant. Please read the next line.
92
In heavy soils, water infiltration and drainage problems may be encountered resulting in
excess of water and lack of air to the roots. Flushing heavy soil is a prolonged process
and it is final result is difficult to anticipate in advance. Therefore, extra care should be
taken when growing on heavy soils, as to not reach salinity buildup at all, or at least
identify the problem early enough, when salts levels are still relatively easy to flush. If
all else fails and flushing is the chosen course of action, in heavier soils not more than
the maximal water amount that can be absorbed by the soil should be applied and the
longest interval possible should be maintained. In the meantime, fertilization should be
based only on Nitrogen and only the minimum amount should be applied. The water
used for flushing should be the highest quality possible, because the purpose of the
flushing process is to decrease the soil salinity to the levels of the irrigation water.
93
Please look at these questions. First question, what does the writer suggest doing on first
spotting salinity during the growing season? Second, what is the effect of water
infiltration and drainage problems in heavy soils? Third question, why does the writer
say that water used for flushing should be of the highest quality? And also fill in the
blanks, dash applications should be carefully planned according to the crop conditions
and growth stage. Fertilization should be based only on dash. So, please read the passage
and try to solve the exercises given below.
Thank you very much and before winding up let me tell you that, after the end of each
module there will be assignments and you are supposed to and you are expected to
submit the assignments online.
Tags
94
95
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Indian Institutional Technology, Madras
Lecture - 08
Subject -Verb Agreement
Hi, so one important aspect of a sentence construction, sentence formation is adherence

to subject-verb agreement. We are going to see certain rules where certain subjects take a
certain kind of verb. A verb as you know must agree which its subject in number and
person. What is number, so singular plural, and person - first person, second person, third
person. First person – I, we; second person - you, so, you never say you is going where,
you are going where, right. So, there are certain rules in English language where, which,
that have to be adhere to perfectly and subject-verb agreement is one of the most
frequently confused area of the written spoken English.
Now, let us consider a sentence such as is the quality of her journal paper. Let us say, the
quality of a paper, the quality of writing, the quality of the journal are not good. Now
here very; obviously, the subject the quality is singular, no matter how many qualities are
implicit, but the quality is here used as the singular. Therefore, the quality of papers is
96
not good. So, we do not say let because we say the quality of a papers are not good
again; this is not correct, it is a fallacy, it is called error in agreement, where we assume
that just because the verb is closer or nearer to the subject, it has to adhere to that subject.
Just because it says papers, it does not mean that the verb will be in plural form. The
quality is the one that determines what verb, which verb is going to go. So, error is that
the verb agrees with the noun closer to it here.
Another sentence, let us take down a sentence call a like his knowledge of econometrics
is far beyond the best; his knowledge of econometrics is far beyond the best. So, what
kind of verb would you need here or would you use here ‘is’ or ‘are’ or ‘were’;
obviously, you are going to say use a singular verb, the his knowledge is the subject here.
So, singular verb is knowledge of econometrics is far beyond. So, this is the sentence; it
is correct his knowledge of econometrics is. So, knowledge is an uncountable noun. You
have sentences that begin with none or either, either or kind of construction neither,
neither nor kind of construction many a, many a, everyone eat. All these constructions,
must be followed by a singular verb, this is a rule.
I repeat sentences that begin with each, everyone, either, neither, many a, all these are
followed by a singular verb. If a sentence has a singular subject, it is followed by a
97
singular verb and if it has a plural subject, it is followed by a plural verb this is the
simplest form of subject-verb agreement, but things may get a little more complicated
here. He is the subject; he studies at JJ College of Arts. He studies singular noun; they
study at JJ College of Arts. More people prefer this college than any other colleges an
India. More people prefer, ‘people’ is a collective noun. So, there may be a bunch of
people, but we are not using it is a plural, but therefore the verb is again in plural, it is
not peoples. So, more people prefer, but she prefers this college than any other college
singular; singular will take a singular verb; many people plural will take a plural verb
that is ‘prefer’.
Next rule is when the subject of the sentence is complex the verb that follows should
agree with the main noun in the subject. We will be doing several sentences like that. So,
take down a sentence for example, as many prominent scientists in the field of Applied in
Mechanics were seen at the conference. Now, many prominent scientists is the subject
here and therefore, the verb agrees with the main noun in the subject, main noun is
scientists, this is a complex variety, you find several subjects, but the main noun is
scientists. So, the verb agrees with the main noun and therefore, it is plural scientists will
take a plural form. Let us take another example, the only excuse that she gave was that
she was unaware of the rules; the only excuse that she gave was that she was unaware of
the rules. So, ‘was’ this is important; the only excuse; ‘excuse’ is a singular, therefore
‘was’ is a singular verb.
Another rule is if the noun suggests one idea or refers to the same person or thing then
verb becomes singular. If the noun suggests one idea or refers to same person or thing
like for example, time and tide waits for none; bread and butter is his main breakfast. We
do not say bread and butter are although all sentences which are joined by and that are
we consider. Ram and Shyam are good students, but here it is single unit - bread and
butter. So, it is his main breakfast, therefore, singular verb. She is my friend, philosopher
and guide. Remember, she - the girl is given three attributes friend, philosopher and
guide, but she that does not make her, make the verb as a plural. Remember the rule
none, either, many a, each, everyone, neither, so all these when sentence begins with
these they it is followed by a singular verb.
98
Here is a list of words for you; take a look at this. Now, these please consider the list of
words. Take a good look at the slide here. These are nouns with singular form of verb
association, although all of these may appear as plural, but they take a singular kind of a
verb is or are. We do not say the association are go in the association is going to me
today. The audience is excited, not audience are excited. When we use it is a collective,
so the verb is always singular, that is just a rule. So, Committee; a subject like physics,
department, orchestra; subject like economics, press, statistics, public, politics, the BBC,
athletics, linguistics, mathematics, all these nouns take singular form of verb. Please
make a good note of these.
Take down a sentence like, the committee dash important decisions to make, has or
have? We have already seen the committee is a group of people; however, the verb is
always going to take a singular form of verb, so committee has important decisions to
make. Politics is a popular or an important topic of discussion in this family. The
statistics is her favorite subject. Economics is a very important subject, everybody should
have some understanding of this subject; economics is an important subject, an
interesting subject. Diabetes is a disease that can be controlled; diabetes is a disease that
can be inherited. So, in spite of the seemingly plural form of these nouns, they take a
singular verb.
99
Here is an exercise for you, please look at the slide. I am going to read out and then you
have to fill in the blanks using was or were or has or have. The crowd dash getting
violent after the result of the match. The police dash announced a reward for the
criminal. The institute dash is spent over this much of rupees on this equipment. The
only people interested in this book dash microbiologists. Statistics dash compulsory
subject for the students of engineering sciences. Let us take a moment. So, let us solve it.
The crowd was getting violent - singular form. The police has announced. The institute
has spent. The only people interested in this book are microbiologists. A statistics is a
compulsory. In the fourth sentence, it is a plural because the verb will agree with the
main noun here, microbiologists.
100
Here is a sample text for you; please look at the slide. Some of the major verbs are
highlighted for you. I will read out the passage for you, and get a custom to the way
subject-verb agree. In 1889 the wealthy industrialist, Henry Tate, offered his collection to
the nation. After lengthy negotiations, a site was selected a mile away from Trafalgar
Square, at Millbank, and the gallery opened in 1897. The new gallery was officially
known the National Gallery of British Art, changing its name to the National Gallery,
Millbank in 1917. However, it soon became known as the Tate gallery. The majority of
the British pictures were transferred to the Tate gallery, and only a selection of works
remained at Trafalgar Square. At first, the Tate gallery was under the administration of
the National Gallery. In 1955 the Tate was formally established as an independent
institution.
101
‘The Four Times of Day’, this is the title of a painting, read on. In around 1858, Jean
Baptiste Camille Corot was commissioned by his friend and fellow artist Alexandre
Gabriel Decamps to paint the panels for the studio of his house in the Rue de France in
Fontainebleau. The panels, depicting four different landscapes, framed on either side by
tall graceful trees, trace now here is a plural verb for you, which is agreeing with the
main noun the panels. So, trace the day’s progress from glowing dawn to starry night.
They are without narrative; the figures that appear in each panel illustrate, the figures
that appear in each figure illustrate. So, illustrate again is a verb that agrees with a plural
subject figures, man's place in nature in what are meditative evocations of the beauty of
the landscape. So, here the verb agrees with the other is a complex sentence, so
meditative evocations may noun evocations. So, therefore, verb is plural are. They are
composed from memories or sketches of real landscapes, including, as in much of
Corot’s late work, the landscape and light of Italy.
In ‘Morning’ the sky fades from the intense orange glow of the rising sun to a pale blue.
A figure on the right in a red hat holds a stick in one hand, and raises the other two to the
tree trunk in an attitude a typical of so many of the artist’s figures, perhaps intended as an
echo of reaching branches. He is conjured up out of a few fluid strokes and his features
are not delineated. At the centre are two goats, barely visible against the undergrowth.
102
Next slide, please read on. In ‘Noon’, a figure in a red hat in the foreground rests his foot
on a rock to adjust his laces, and further back, a couple walks along the path. In
‘Evening’, two women in the boat, one sitting, the other standing, and carrying what is
probably a mandolin evoke an 18th century ‘fete champetre’. On the bank, a mysterious
monk like figure turns away from the boat.
In ‘Night’, a figure in a red cap, his dog at his side, makes his way homeward down the
path, his head bowed. The dark blue sky is dotted with white, and the moon shines out
over the topmost house of the Italianate village which clings to the hillside. So, many
singular nouns and so many singular verbs, here is another exercise for you. So, right
now I gave you a sample text.
103
Now, here I have given you an exercise you have to correct the subject-verb agreement in
the highlighted verbs. Please look at the slide I will read on. If there is such a thing as a
rock-star scientist, Stephen Hawking embody it. His forays into popular culture has
included guest appearances on The Simpsons, Start Trek: The Next Generation, a
comedy spoof, and even a recorded voice-over on the Pink Floyd song “Keep Talking”.
104
Read on the next slide. Hawking were back in the headlines in the summer of 2015. In
July, he held a news conference in London to announce the launch of a project called
Breakthrough Listen. Funded by Russian entrepreneur Yuri Milner, Breakthrough Listen
were created to devote more resources to the discovery of extraterrestrial life. The Grand
Design were Hawking's first major publication in almost a decade.
In 2012, it was revealed that he had participated in a 2011 trial of a new headband-styled
device called the iBrain. The device is designed to “read” the wearer’s thoughts by
picking up “waves of electrical brain signals,” which is then interpreted by a special
algorithm. Here is a source and the answers are first is embodies rock-star kind of a
scientist; second have; third is ‘was’, and then it is followed by was and was again, the
last one which is then interpreted by a special algorithm.
What should be the correct answer, the device is designed to read the wearer’s thoughts
by picking up “waves of electrical signals”, which is then interpreted by a special
algorithm. What should be the answer, the device is designed and what is it picking up,
“waves of electrical brain signals”, and which is then interpreted. So, it should it be ‘is’
or should it be ‘are’. Please look at the slide, and we be very careful about it, which noun
105
should this particular verb agree with picking up “waves of electrical brain signals”.
Therefore, the answer is ‘are’, it does not agree with the device.
Now, here is another exercise for you; please look at it and fill in the blanks with the
most appropriate form of verb you can think of. There dash fewer students than expected.
Use the ‘be’ form here. The results of his experiment dash to be seen. Should it be
‘remain’ or ‘remains’? Hiroshima, a city that dash virtually destroyed during the Second
World War, flourishes again, Should it be ‘was’ or ‘were’? The cabinet dash taken the
oath. Should it be ‘is’ or ‘are’? The president of the company, along with his executives,
should it be ‘has’ or ‘have’ accepted the plan. Take a moment and let us solve it.
The first one fewer sentences it is a giveaway it has to be plural. So, there were fewer
students than expected. The results of his experiments; it is not, if you say are to be seen,
it is not very complete, it does not give a sense of completion though, you can use that
also remain to be seen is more appropriate that is the way we use certain expression it
remains to be seen. So, that is generally does the way remains to be seen in they go
together.
106
Hiroshima. It is like a collocation; soon we will do something called collocation also,
because it is results, so it will be now plural, so remain to be seen. Hiroshima, a city that
was virtually says it is a city. The cabinet has taken not have taken; again the rule
collective nouns. The president of the company, now here is a main nouns and then you
have something additional, it is separated with a pair of commas along with his
executives. So, it will, the verb will agree with the singular main subject, main noun
president has accepted the plan.
Read on and here are more sentences for you; look at the slide. My expenses dash
reduced due to that heavy loss. The committee dash released the report. Three-fourths of
the film dash boring. The news dash yet to be confirmed. Neither of us dash willing to go
to the party. Now my expenses have reduced; due to the expenses plural. The committee
has released the report, remember. Three-fourths of the film is boring or the three-fourths
look like a plural, but it is a unit is boring; two-fourth, one-fourth of the salary goes into
this. The news is yet to be confirmed; news is always in singular, we know there is no
such thing as a plural of news, news remains news, this one of those words. Neither of us
is willing to go. Remember the rule, neither, either, none, they take a singular.
107
Now, here is another list of sentences for you; take a look at the slide and underline the
correct word, which should be used. The childs, children are playing in the park; what is
the correct form, the children are playing in the park. The number of students studying
science has decreased, have decreased; so has decreased it will go with the number. How
many class, classes do we have today? Classes, because it is the plural verb already given
have. Mathematics is an interesting subject, not ‘are’. Many a charity organization,
organizations came forward with help. Many a charity organization not so many a will
also take a singular form of verb as well as the noun that follows. The garbage is always
in singular; the garbage is collected every Saturday, not ‘are’.
108
Let us move on. Let us look at another slide. Advertising in this magazine dash is or are a
waste of money is a waste of money, it goes with the main noun advertising. My brother
gave me lots of good advices or advice; there is no such thing at advices, advice is the
right form, whether it is in singular or plural. There are a lot of similarities in the two
quotations. So, similarities, because it is already given very clearly, this is a plural. Is
breakfast included in the tariff? Is a question mark so we do not say are, but here is. Dash
a lot of furniture in this house, is there a lot of furniture, we do not say, are there a lot of
furniture, it is just the way it goes. Furniture again can never be used in plural are
furniture's, so is there a lot of furniture in this house?
So, thank you very much, and we will meet again for our next class.
Tags
109
110
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 09
Articles
So, in our day-to-day life, we keep using various parts of speech and you have already
seen, what are these different types of parts of speech; noun, pronouns, verb, adverbs,
adjectives, prepositions. We have been and we will be talking about these elements of
words and sentences very frequently in this course. Now, a major area of grammar and in
an English grammar is articles. There are three major articles are that only three known
articles in the English language ‘a’ and ‘the’; ‘a’ and ‘an’ are called indefinite articles,
whereas ‘the’ is definite article. Now, what does an article do? An article has a very
important place in written and in spoken English. We do not realize it, but very often
especially those whose mother tongue is not English or whose first language is not
English, they often make mistakes in the use of articles and tenses. Articles are a major
area of frequently making mistakes.
So, what is an article, article is a word which is almost like an adjective; it defines or
modifies a noun it is placed before a noun always, so that is one key feature of an article.
However, we have to always like in any other part of grammar, in any other feature of
111
language, we have to be very careful about every rule. Now, usually adjectives as we
know modify nouns through description, but articles are used instead to point out or refer
to nouns. Now, this is not to be confused with the demonstrative this or that, they are also
pointers or they too refers to these books, this table, that microphone, that is also used,
but those are demonstratives. Here we are taking about articles which are use to point out
or refer to nouns.
Now definite articles, first let us talk about ‘the’, which is a definite article and it refers
directly to a specific noun or group of nouns. For example, the alligator in the lake, we
are talking about a specific alligator in a specific lake here. Let us say there are many
alligators in that lake. So, here we are not pointing towards one definite alligator, but
here for some reason, we might be very specific about this particular alligator, therefore,
it becomes the alligator see pronunciation matter. So, whenever we use the article ‘the’
before any word that start with the vowels; a, e, i, o, u. So, the pronunciation becomes
‘the’ or it is otherwise, there is a stronger emphasis ‘the’ these are certain know answers
which will serve you well, if you keep make a note of these.
Let us say the president of the United State of America, so, the president of the United
State of America. So, again we are talking about a specific person. The captain of the
ship, we are talking about ‘the’ a very specific person, captain a hub, the captain of the
ship pea coat. So, we are talking about a very specific person. Now each noun, a group of
noun being refer to is direct and is specific. Therefore, what qualifies them a specific or a
definite article ‘the’. Definite article is used with singular or plural nouns when you
expect the person who is listening to know which person or thing is talked about, this is
important. The person should know which person or the listener should know which
person or thing or the reader should know which person or thing is specifically being
talked about.
This is the girl, I told you about; this is the girl; I am not taking about any girls. So, this
is the girl I talk. This is the element, which when mixed with some other element results
in this product. This is the film I told you about; this is the film I told you about. So, we
are talking about something in specific let us go to a movie tonight, but this is the movie,
I wanted to watch for a longtime. So, there is a difference, any. Let us go to a movie, any
112
movie would do I will make I look at the newspaper and I will see what is running in
town and I will go for it. But this is the movie I want to watch. So, this is important.
This is the book, I told you about. I told you about this book ‘The Advance Learners
Dictionary’. So, this is the book I told you about, so a specific. Read a dictionary, any
dictionary would do, read did you get the dictionary today, so you know that I am talking
about a specific dictionary. So, therefore, it is important that the listener or reader should
know which person or think is being is specifically talked about. This is the experiment,
which went wrong.
Now, definite article is generally used with certain proper nouns also for example, the
names of rivers, oceans, mountain ranges, deserts, islands, so the Andaman and Nicobar,
the Indian ocean, the Pacific, the Gobi desert. So, this is the way the United States of
America - group of states coming together, the United Kingdom, but we do not say I
went to the England, but we say I am going to the UK that is we do not say I am going to
the India, but the Indian ocean, because traditionally they are specific. The definite
article is used before the names of ocean, rivers, the Ganges, the Jamuna river, so this is
the way we use.
Now indefinite articles are the words ‘a’ and ‘an’, we have already seen here, and each of
this articles is use to refer to a noun which is not so specific, so not as specific as the
definite article ‘the’. An angry man, a war hero - my father was a war hero; an idea can
change the world, an idea; my friend is an engineer. So, we are talking about, so these are
articles are use to refer to a noun which is not specific in each case the noun is not is
specific other people do not know who you are referring too. An angry man, a war hero
by themselves is are not very specific when we use the indefinite articles.
If the noun as I have already told you about if comes after the article with begins with the
vowel sound a, e, i, o, u, the appropriate indefinite article ‘an’ not ‘a’. A vowel sound is a
sound that is created by any vowel in the English language. So, remember a, e, i, ,o u and
you have to, but we do not say there is an exception, we do not say an university
although it begins with the let say vowel u, but the pronunciation is we say an umbrella,
so ‘a’ sound. But when it is a ‘u’ sound, we do not use; although there may be a vowel.
113
So, therefore, it is always a university, and not an university. If the noun that comes after
the article begins with the consonant sounds, see all those alphabets those sounds which
are not vowels, they are consonants. So, they are appropriate indefinite article is ‘a’. In
definite article is used when talking about a type or class of people or things. He is a
doctor, so we are mentioning a class or a profession. She is a student; he is a technician,
but she is the student of the year in case, so then becomes very specific.
Now, look at this slide and this exercise. Identify and name the type of the article(s) in
the sentences that are given below. Now, go through these sentences and then we will
work them out. I am going to the hospital to visit a friend who is undergoing operation.
She took a book out of the shelf and started reading. An honest man is needed to
complete this task. Man is a social being. Now see last sentence, man is a social being is
a universal truth. So, therefore, we do not say man is the social being. So, ‘a’ is required
here. An honest man is needed any a man, but an honest man we are not talking about
someone very is specific, he is the honest man I am talking about if we were talking in
that context then it changes, so an honest man. And remember, we do not, because honest
at a silent therefore, an honest man, we do not pronounce the alphabet or sound h here.
So, it is an honest.
114
Therefore, the article ‘an’ although the word begins with a consonant and not a vowel.
She took a book, now any book is book ok; she took a book, we do not know which book
we are here is being talked about, but she took out the book that I was telling you about
then it become a specific. I am going to the hospital and visit a friend who is undergoing
operation. The implication is that the listener does not know which friend I am going to
the hospital. The hospital is quite a specific, because the friend who is going to be
operated is in a definite hospital, specific hospital.
Now, look at this second slide, exercise to two fill in the blanks with the suitable article.
First sentence, he won dash gold medal dash international debate competition. We lost
dash bet. I am going to open dash café. Can you pass me dash book? Is that dash new
song you are listening to? Now, what do we fill in here? Let us solve it together; he won
a gold medal in the international debate competition. Here we are talking about a specific
debate competition. We lost the bet; it cannot be we lost a bet, there was a specific bet
which these people lost. I am going to open a café, what kind of café, we do not know,
but a café. Can you pass me the book? Now, he is taking about a very specific book or
thing right the book? So, therefore, now can you pass we a book, I will give you any
book you ask can you pass me the book, I will have to give you one specific book that
115
you are particularly referring to. Is that the new song you are listening to or everyone is
listening to? So, it becomes a song which is in the, in song that everyone is listening to.
Another rule, which concerns articles, is the no article rule. Now we do not use an article
with uncountable nouns. Let say let us take for example, oil, water, salt, sugar we cannot
really count the one, two, three, four. So, we do not use articles with these words. We
also do not use articles with countable nouns in the plural when talking in general terms.
So, when I say I love maths, maths as a subject. So, I do not say a maths, or the maths.
Doctors well paid in that company. So, we do not say ‘a’, ‘the’ doctors, we are talking
about doctors in general; doctors well paid in that hospital or that country, we are talking
about doctors in general, not a specific doctor. Sugar is sweet, so salt is salty; we do not
say the sugar or the salt.
Look at this particular slide and some of you would be interested in the topic that I am
going to give you in this particular exercise. I have highlighted all the articles for your
reference. Let us look at this and I read it aloud for you.
In 1971 a competition for this new cultural center attracted 650 entries. Now The central
idea of this passage, lengthy passages is the centre Pompidou, it is an important building
116
in Paris. Let us go back to our slide. In 1971 a competition for this new cultural center
attracted 650 entries. The winning project, submitted by the architects Richard Rogers,
Renzo Piano, and Gianfranco Franchini broke with architectural conventions by moving
functional elements such as escalators, water pipes and air conditioning to the outside of
the building, freeing interior space for the display of art works.
So, the construction of the glass and metal building in the centrally located Beaubourg
neighborhood ran to a lot of opposition, I have not highlighted ‘a’, but please highlight
it, ‘a’ is also an article here, opposition from people who disliked the idea of an again
not highlighted, but please do it an ‘oil refinery’ in a historic district. But when the
museum opened in December 1977, it became an instant success: originally designed to
accommodate some 5,000 visitors per day, the centre Pompidou has been welcoming
over 25,000 visitors per day.
117
Now, you go on to the next slide and what do we find. The Centre Pompidou is home to
one of the world’s most important museums of modern art, the MNAM, important
abbreviation therefore, and very specific therefore, definite article ‘the’, but it also
contains a very popular library, a bookshop, a movie theater and a panoramic terrace.
The public information library or BPI boasts a collection of so many books 2,600
magazines and a large number of new media items. Now, very interesting piece of art,
work of art and very interesting passage. So, you just follow the kind of articles, which
are used here, and in what connection. And you do some of your own self-reading, you
look at the advance learners dictionary book, you will come across how these articles are
used in various places. For more explanation, for more details, you can also look at that
and of course; there is also certain standard grammar books that you can always refer to.
118
We will continue with the slide, and look at it. The library occupies the first three floors
of the building, while the museum’s permanent collection is located on floors 4th and
5th. The first and top floor are used for large expositions. We never say a first and top
floor, it is always the top floor, the first. The museum has one of the most important
collections of modern art. Its more than 59,000 works cover a broad spectrum of
twentieth-century arts.
119
Now, here is an exercise, I would like you to take a good look at it and work it out. I will
read out for you, and then this is something that you have to fill in the blanks yourself.
We will solve the exercise once you finish it. This is about Sydney opera house.
Sydney opera house is dash masterpiece of late modern architecture. It is admired

internationally and proudly treasured by dash people of Australia. It was created by dash
young architect who understood and recognized dash potential provided by the site
against dash stunning backdrop of Sydney Harbour. Danish architect Jorn Utzon gave
Australia challenging, graceful piece of urban sculpture in patterned tiles, glistening in
dash sunlight and invitingly aglow at night. In its short lifetime, Sydney Opera House
has earned dash reputation as dash world-class performing arts centre and become dash
symbol of both Sydney and dash Australian nation.
120
And dash distinctive roof comprises sets of interlocking vaulted ‘shells’ set upon dash
vast terraced platform and surrounded by terrace areas that function as pedestrian
concourses dash two main halls are arranged side by side, with their long axes, slightly
inclined from each other. Dash auditoria face south, away from dash harbour with the
stages located between dash audience and dash city. Now, look at the exercise and solve
it.
121
So, let me read out the exercise, and the paragraph has solved. Now, Sydney Opera
House is a masterpiece of late modern architecture. It is admired internationally and
proudly treasured by the people of Australia. It was created by a young architect who
understood and recognized the potential provided by the site against the stunning
backdrop of Sydney Harbour. See wherever it is very specific and definite, you are using
the definite article ‘the’. Danish architect Jorn Utzon gave Australia a challenging,
graceful piece of urban sculpture in patterned tiles, glistening in the sunlight and
invitingly aglow at night. Please look at the slide. In its short lifetime, Sydney Opera
House has earned a reputation as a world-class performing arts centre and become a
symbol of both Sydney and the Australian nation. It cannot be an Australian nation. The
distinctive roof comprises sets of interlocking vaulted ‘shells’ set upon a vast terraced
platform and surrounded by terrace areas that function as pedestrian concourses. The two
main halls are arranged side by side, with their long axes, slightly inclined from each
other, generally running north to south. The auditoria face south, away from the harbour
with the stages located between the audience and the city.
So, this is the way you have to solve the articles and I hope that you are going to go
home today, and you are going to learn more about the articles. Even if you look up the
122
internet, the plenty of sites, which talk in detail about the use of articles a very common
area where many students make mistakes.
So, thank you very much, and we will meet for our next class.
Tags
Subject, Verb, Object, Articles
123
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 10
Verbs
We continue with our discussion of how we make words, how and what are words.
(Refer slide Time: 00:29)
So, we are talking about how we make words and categories of words that we use in our
day-to-day language, in our English language. So, specifically today we are going to talk
about verbs. Verbs mean verbs as well as supporting verbs and we are going to see what
they are. Then, we will see some idioms comparatives. Comparatives as in adjectives,
what are adjectival will comparatives and then, we will also do some listening with lots
of exercises. So, we are going to talk about verbs.
Now, look at the sentences. The dacoits robbed the village, I dislike television soaps. So,
I have underlined the verbs here. She travelled across the country. So, travel, so these are
verbs. Now, what do verbs suggest? Verbs suggest action. They indicate action. So, what
did the dacoits do? They robbed. What do television soaps mean to me? I dislike. So, that
is a feeling, but here it is used as a verb. I like television soaps. So, again it is like I mean
you are using a prefix here. “Dis” you can also use like in a, send that meaning may
124
change from dislike to like, but still the verb would not. So, dislike or like or love or
hate; all these are verbs. They suggest action.
Now, she travels across the country. She travels. Travelling is an action. Now, all these
are single words, single verbs, single words but you can also use something like I should
have been, I should have been doing anything. I should have been in Europe right now,
but I am not. You see, but still your word Your verb is should have been. in a It is a
different category. So, all these are, all the underlined words are verbs here.
Now, there are verbs that can stand on their own. Robbed, dislike, travelled; they are
called full verbs. They can stand on their own without depending or referring to other
verb. So, again let us think of examples. Let us collect our things. Verb is collect. She
made a machine, she made a doll and she made a dress. So, made is a full verb. They
conducted an experiment. Conduct is a verb. These are all full verbs. They do not need
other verbs to support them or the words to support them; however these are another
category called auxiliary verbs.
You have full verbs that do not need any support, you have auxiliary verbs. Now, what
are auxiliary verbs? These are also called helping verbs. Now, let us look at the examples
of auxiliary words or verbs i.e. shall, should, can, could, may, might, will, would.
Additionally, you also have may, sorry, must. In certain cases you have need also. I need
a book, I must have a book, and you must do this. So, these are auxiliaries. Now, let us
125
think of a sentence like I can do this, I can drive. Now, drive is the main verb, but can is
an auxiliary for helping verb. However, there is an. We have to be careful. We do not say
can able to drive. So, can does not go. I am able to drive, I can drive, but we do not use
the two verbs together like I can able to drive. This is wrong. So, please keep these points
in mind.
There are also some other auxiliary verbs. Now, one is be-type. Be-type as in, is, are,
was, were, and also am, be, it, can,be, been, the, but we use generally use for is, are, was,
as. When we use the present tense, then am first person is singular. I am teaching, I am
student, I am studying. So, I am, is an auxiliary. It is very important. Be is a very
important auxiliary and it has all these forms. We also have form has, had, have and then,
we have the do form like do, does, and when it becomes past tense, we have did I, do not
like it, I did not watch it and she does not like it, she did not do it. So, these are the
auxiliaries.
Sometimes these words, these verbs can also act as full verbs and also as auxiliaries. So,
let us say I am good. Now, I am good. It doesn’t matter I am good at what? I am good at
whatever, I am good at studying, I am good at writing, I am good at painting, but here let
us remember you have only one main verb that is am and it’s a be form of here. So, it can
also function as a full verb. So, always keep these distinctions in mind, where to use
them as full and where to use them as auxiliaries; however we do not been mixing them
as can able to do it.
Now, some examples I am going to give you some examples. Let us look at the slide.
126
Water boils at 100 degree. Oxygen is a gas. This metal is a good conductor of electricity.
Wood floats on water. Some kinds of wood sink in water. Action and reaction are
opposite and equal and this acid is dangerous. So, where are the verbs and what are the
kinds? So, let us go through these sentences again. Let us look at them again. Water boils
at 100 degree. Main verb is boils. Oxygen is a gas. Main verb is, it is a be form of
auxiliary. So, here it acts as a full verb. This metal is a good conductor of electricity.
Now, conductor is not a verb. Here ‘is’ is the verb. Wood floats on water. Float is the
main verb. Some kinds of wood sink in water. Now which is the main verb? Here sink
that denotes action. Action and reaction are opposite and equal. Only one main verb that
are this acid is dangerous and is again is a main verb. These chemicals are dangerous are
again becomes your main verb. So, these are the examples where auxiliaries do not need
any other verb.
Now, let us look at this exercise.
127
Let's look at the passage here and I will read it out for you. I have already highlighted the
verbs here. You should be able to identify what verbs are those and where are the
auxiliaries?
The EPA on Friday accused VW; that is Volkswagen of installing illegal “defeat device”
software that dramatically reduces nitrogen oxide emissions, but only when the cars are
undergoing strict emission test. Now, how many verbs do you find in the first sentence
itself? Let us go through it again. What did EPA do? It accused. So, accused is a main
verb here and installing is another verb here. Illegal defect that dramatically reduces,
reduces also is your verb here. It is a complex sentence in which we have multiple verbs,
but only when the cars are undergoing. So, you have are undergoing here. The be form
‘are’ is an auxiliary strict emission test. Now, I have done second part of the passage for
you and in all the verbs are highlighted.
The EPA accused Volkswagen of using, again using is a verb. The device has this much
four-cylinder Volkswagen and the diesel cars in the US since 2008. Volkswagen must
recall and must recall is another verb. Recall and must is an auxiliary here. At the cars
remove the defeat device and improve the cars nitrogen oxide emissions, which create
smog and have been linked to increased asthma attacks and other respiratory illnesses.
So, so many verbs are used in a variety of ways with or without auxiliaries.
Let us look at this.
128
The EPA said, again said is a main verb here. Volkswagen could face other action and
fines for the alleged breach of the Clean Air Act. So, could is an auxiliary. The maximum
fine for violations of the act is this much US dollars per vehicle, which works out is a
phrasal verb to a maximum possible fine as high as 18 billion dollars. So, here you are
just seen a very good example of a complex piece of writing. This is not an easy
composition; this requires an advanced level understanding of how to use auxiliaries?
How to mix auxiliaries? How to use main verbs and how to combine auxiliaries with
main verbs? I am giving you this exercise and here I want you to rewrite the following
using ‘is’ or ‘are’ in the main verb form. So, please look at this sentences I will read them
out for you.
129
These complicated experiments. I want you to write be form of the verb here, whatever
place you think appropriate; Oxygen necessary for living. Angles measuring 90 degrees
right angles. Sea water salty and one revolution of the earth completed in 365 and one-
quarter days. Where do we insert the, is, or, are? The ‘be’ form of main verbs here, let us
solve it. These are complicated experiments. Oxygen is necessary for living. Angles
measuring 90 degrees are right angles. Sea water is salty. And one revolution of the earth
is completed in 365 and one-quarter days. So, here we have just seen how is and are used
as main verbs.
Let us move on to do another exercise. Please take a look here.
130
At this exercise I want to you use has, have, or, is, wherever appropriate. Let us solve it.
Water, it wont be is a boiling point temperature. Water has a boiling point temperature of
100 degrees, steel is a metal alloy. What is steel? It is a metal alloy. The car or this car
has a speed of 150 kilometer per hour. A triangle has three cone comprises, consists of
three lines. The highway has a length. Not is a length has a length. We are talking about a
particular highway and what are the qualities? It has a length of several hundred
kilometers. So, how we use is, has, have, or, is.
Now, let us move on to do another exercise. This is a fairly complex one. I will read it
out for you. Look at the text.
131
With its brands the BMW group dash one of the world’s most successful premium
manufactures of automobiles and motorcycles as well as a provider of premium services
for individual mobility. Long-term thinking and responsible action dash the basis of the
company’s economic success. It dash, a company that dash firmly anchored in its
strategy ecological and social sustainability along the entire value chain, comprehensive
product responsibility and a clear commitment to the preservation of resources. So, how
do we solve it?
With its brands, the BMW group is one of the most, one of the world’s most successful
premium manufacturer’s. Next Para is long-term thinking and responsible action is the
basis of the company’s economic success. It is a company that has firmly anchored in its
strategy ecological and social sustainability along the entire value chain. So, with its
brands the BMW group is one of the second answer long-term thinking and responsible
action is the basis. It is a company that has firmly anchored in its strategy ecological and
social sustainability along the entire value chain.
132
Let us move on to another passage, the next passage.
Rolls-Royce Motor Cars dash the pinnacle luxury automobile manufacturer in the world.
Based in Goodwood, West Sussex, Rolls-Royce Motor Cars supplies customers with cars
that dash renowned for their supreme quality, exquisite hand craftsmanship and attention
to the finest detail. This reputation dash built up over the company’s long-lasting, richly
traditional history. Today the company’s Phantom and Ghost models continue the finest
traditions of the past, delivering the promise of effortless power, silence and a ride that
dash likened to wafting along on a magic carpet.
So, let us solve it. Rolls-Royce Motor Cars is the pinnacle luxury automobile
manufacturer in the world. Based in Goodwood, West Sussex, Rolls-Royce Motor Cars
supplies customers with cars that are renowned for their supreme quality, exquisite hand
craftsmanship and attention to the finest detail. This reputation is built up over the
company’s or we can even use was built up over the company’s long-lasting, richly
traditional history. Today the company’s Phantom and Ghost models continue the finest
traditions of the past, delivering the promise of effortless power, silence and a ride that is
likened to wafting along on a magic carpet. So, this is the way we have to solve.
Let us look at why Rolls-Royce car, motorcars is the pinnacle luxury automobile because
here, we are talking about manufacturer. So, it has to be ‘is’, just because we are not
talking about multiple cars here. So, therefore the verb would not be are, now, a, here, is,
133
an. I would like to give you an exercise. You please do it yourself and I would like you to
write a description of any vehicle you like or prefer or would you want to use and make
sure that you use a plenty of main verbs and auxiliaries verbs and use is and have forms.
So, is and has forms here. So, that is your, do it yourself exercise.
Now, let us move on to doing another exercise. What I want you to do? I would like you
to use the correct form of the verbs given in the bracket. So, let us look at the exercise
here.
Harley-Davidson dash and you have to use the, be form of the verb here. Probably the
most famous motorcycle manufacturer in the world and dash again use the, be form,
based in the United States, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Even though they consider 1903 as
their starting year, they could just as well consider 1901 because it dash, then when Bill
Harley completed the first blueprint of a Harley engine. In 1903 the same Bill Harley and
Arthur Davidson revealed their first motorized effort calling it the first Harley
motorcycle. It dash the, be form, a racing bike, built in a wood shed that had Harley-
Davidson motor company scrawled on it. That same year Arthur’s brother Walter
Davidson joined the company. In a very short time, the first Harley-Davidson dealer
opens shop in 1904 and dash to sell three Harley bikes. In true American style, a Harley
model wins a 15 mile race in Chicago in 1905 and the same year Harley motor company
134
dash hired its first employee. A year later, they opened up a bigger factory and hired 5
more people. The same year in 1906, they dash the first motorcycle catalog in the world.
Let us solve the exercise. Let us look at it again.
Harley-Davidson is probably the most famous motorcycle manufacturer in the world and
is based in the United States, Milwaukee because it was because now we are suddenly
talking about the past, so 1903. So, they could just as well consider 1901 because it was
then, when Bill Harley completed the first blueprint. Next line, it was a racing bike. So,
now from present we are talking about Harley-Davidson. What is it? It is the most
famous motorcycle in the world and then, we are talking about it is to therefore, verb
from is present to was, as, an. a past the first Harley motorcycle. It was a racing bike
built in a wood shed that had Harley-Davidson motor company scrawled on it.
That same year Arthur’s brother joined the company. In a very short time, the first
Harley-Davidson dealer opens shop and managed to sell three Harley bikes. Into true
American style, a Harley model wins a 15 mile race in Chicago in 1905 and the same
year Harley motor company hired its first employee. A year later they opened bigger
factory and they hired five more people. The same year they produced the first
motorcycle catalog in a the world.
Now, here this is an interesting example. Why? It is because it begins with is now, but
the tone of the passage is such, that you can also replace many of the past tense with this
because he is just talking about as if it just happened yesterday, as if it just happened
recently. So, therefore year later they open up and the last sentence a bigger factory and
hire five more people. Now, here again you need not worry about hired or hire, but you
have to be very careful. It was a racing bike built in a yard. That is definitely past tense.
The same year Walter Davidson joined the company, but it could also be he joins the
company. Why? It is because well it is you know more creative to use the verb in this
way. In a very short time, the Harley-Davidson dealer opens shop, not opened a shop. So,
he is almost using in a very literary way. So, let us not get confused about these things.
Now, I am going to give you another exercise and here the verbs are extremely clear. You
have to use fill in the blanks using these verbs travelled, claimed, learnt, raced. Please
look at the slide.
135
These are the words verbs that you should be using here and fill in the blanks. Travelled,
claimed, learnt, raced goes, became, arrive.
So, this is the passage here. Motor racing in Argentina has a long history that dash back
to the opening decades of the 20th century, when wealthy enthusiasts took to the
country’s open roads and dash each other in cars often imported from Europe, but fitted
with American V8 motors. By 1940, these races had grown longer and more organized.
One such race dash almost 6000 miles from its starting point in Buenos Aires, north
136
across the Andes and finished in Lima, Peru, 13 days later. It was these races that
Argentina’s most famous racer dash his craft ‘El Maestro’, Juan Manuel Fangio was born
in the Buenos Aires province of Balcarce. He started his career in the 1930s, but true
fame and success would dash later in life. He travelled to Europe to complete in Grand
Prix machinery in 1948 and dash the star of the first decade of the Formula-1 World
Championship. In 1950, Fangio narrowly lost the inaugural F1 title to Alfa Romeo team
mate Giuseppe Farina, but dash the crown for the first time for the following season.
Work it out and I will give you some time.
So, the answers are first blank is goes, second is raced, third travelled, fourth learnt, fifth
arrive, sixth became and last one is claimed. I will read it out.
In 1950, Fangio narrowly lost the inaugural F1 title to Alfa Romeo teammate Giuseppe
Farina, but claimed the crown for the first time the following season. Now, look at these
examples. These are all main verbs. We are not now dealing with auxiliaries here, but we
have looked at main verbs throughout. However, in a Harley-Davidson passage we have
looked at a mix of auxiliaries and also, a mix main verbs and the idea was that how
sometimes main verbs can be used in present and past depending on the style of the
writer.
Now, in the Harley-Davidson passage, we have seen it is, he uses a style where past
almost merges into present. So, therefore, throughout he uses a sense, a tone, which is
137
more related to the present tense or the present time is like nothing ever changed for
Harley-Davidson. That is the context. Therefore, he consistently uses the main verb in
present tense form. I am now going to give you a list of verbs. Look at this list.
I would like you to make sentences of your own. These are the words that you may come
across in your day to day studies or writings; Freezes, equals, weighs, measures, consists,
melts, boils and pulls. Use them in sentences of your own. Let us move on to do now
idioms and phrases.
Idioms and phrases are those words or those expressions that add more variety, more
color, more novelty to your expression and the way you use English language. So, here
are a couple of idioms. The meanings are given at the bottom; however you need to
match the idioms with their meanings. Let us look at the first one.
138
Get into gear. Put the brakes on. Be on the same wavelength. Blew a fuse. Let off steam.
Please look at the answers given below; however, you have to match the answers. So, I
would suggest that now that you have a dictionary, you please use your dictionary and
see which meaning fits, which idiom.
So, thank you very much.
Tags
Subject, Verb, Object, Articles
139
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 11
Comparatives
So, welcome to today's class and this is on comparatives. What are comparatives? When
we compare one degree, now these are basically adjectives and when we compare one
degree to another with another.
Someone is very good, but someone else can be better and there could only be one best.
So, this is the degrees, all these are adjectives. So, you can think of n number of
examples bad, worse, worst. So, these are comparatives and why do engineers need
comparatives, because you need to compare degrees. This thing is longer than that thing,
you know the highway when you are building or drawing a map for a bridge or for a
highway, this is more or less, shorter or longer, heavier or lighter. So, these are things
that you need in your day-to-day language. Therefore, we may need to look at what are
comparatives.
140
Now, look at these examples.
Here are some examples done for you. Line A is longer than line B, so, longer than, this
is a comparative. Plywood is cheaper than, we will look at, think of any other kind of
wood, maybe rosewood or teak or pine, plywood is cheaper. So, cheep becomes an
adjective and a comparative. Sulphuric is more dangerous. So, again more is your
comparative, you do not say dangerouser. See, this also we have to keep in mind.
There are some adjectives, which can be used with an ‘e r’ or ‘e s t’ in order to denote or
suggest comparison and superlatives. However, there are some adjectives, which require
only more; they do not take the ‘e r’ form. So, I will give you the rules also, first let us go
on and look at the other examples. Sea-water contains more salt than ordinary water. So,
more is your comparative, we say more or most and then, filter water is safer to drink
than regular water.
Some of the point that you should remember, when you are doing comparatives are that
short adjectives usually take the ‘e r’ and the ‘e s t’, it is the thus comparative and the
superlative form, as in big, bigger, biggest, short, shorter, shortest. The hot, hotter,
hottest; long, thin, look at all the variations and you will get ‘e r’ and ‘e s t’ forms.
141
However, long adjectives take more and most with them. The words such as beautiful,
we do not say beautifulest. Famous you do not say famousest, but more famous, most
famous; expensive, more expensive, most expensive; intelligent, more intelligent, most
intelligent. So, it depends on the word. So, one rule does not apply to all the words. Also,
remember that the comparatives such as more or less they used with singular nouns and
the comparative ‘fewer’ is used with plural nouns. For example, fewer machines were
bought this year. A diesel engine, which is the singular noun is more efficient than a
gasoline engine, this is the way we use comparatives.
Now, I am going to draw out two figures for you. You know what these figures are I do
not have to explain. You know one is a square and one is a triangle. Now, what I want
you to do, is take a movement and compare the two figures, using the words and I am
giving you words for comparison the points to be compared A - area, B - number of
sides, C -length of the sides and 4 - comparison of the size of the angles. Area, number of
sides, length of the sides and comparison of the size of the angles, how would you do
that? This is something that I would like you to do on your own.
Now, here another thing that I want you to do is take two bikes. Bike A and bike B and
write a composition, comparing the two bikes on the basis of price. That is a cost, how
142
much here each one cost, engine efficiency, fuel consumption, the length and height and
the color of the bikes, their speed and their advertisement strategies. I will repeat I want
you to take 2 bikes and write a composition, a short paragraph comparing the price that 2
bikes on the basis of their price, engine efficiency, fuel consumption, the look or the
looks of the 2 bikes by way of their height, weight, length, color, their speed, and also the
way the manufacturers have used various advertisement strategies for each bike.
Some of the rules, that one must remember is that, when adjectives and in a consonant
plus y. So, let us say, you know what are consonants? We have vowels a, e, i, o, u and the
rest of the words or sounds are consonants. So, when an adjective ends in consonant plus
y they take 'i e r' as comparative and 'i e s t' as the superlative, for example, look at the
word lovely, lovely, l o v e l y, it ends with the consonant and y. Then you have heavy, h
e a v y and then you will see how this rule applies lovelier, loveliest; heavy, heavier,
heaviest. I would like you to now look at this particular slide and identify the
comparative form, which is wrong, which is not accurate bigger, shorttest, windyer,
windier, fater, fattest.
Let us look at the first one big, bigger, biggest. So, this is right short, shorter, shortest,
but the spelling is wrong, we do not need double t here in some cases we may, in this
143
case, we do not. Windyer Which one is correct? Third or the fourth, the fourth one
windier, y is converted into i, when we compare it to when we use the comparative
degree fater, f a t t e r not this. So, we need to use a double t here in order to make it into
comparative and fattest is correct.
Now, I am going to give you a listening passage and I first before we start, I would like
you to look at the questions, and then I will read out the passage. You would not be able
to see the passage. I am going to just read out the passage for you.
First look at this slide and read the questions. Take down these questions and then I will
be reading out the passage for you, you would not be shown the passage. So, I will read
out the questions, for you. Look at the slide; what does a comparison between a typical
12 liter four-stroke engine and a 7 liter, two-stroke engine having the speed same speed
range would show? Almost dash the power can be developed with the two-stroke engine
compared with a four-stroke engine.
144
Third question: In a dash engine, the same parts generate power and empty and fill the
cylinder. With fourth question, with a two-stroke engine, dash more air consumption is
necessary for the same power output. Fifth, the time available for dash and filling a
cylinder is considerably less in a two- stroke-cycle engine. So, these are your questions
and now I would not be showing you the slide. I will be just reading out the passage for
you and then I will be we will be discussing the answers later.
So, here is a brief description of two and four stroke diesel engine in made below, I hope
you are listening to me carefully. Almost twice the power can be developed with a two-
stroke engine compared with a four-stroke engine. A comparison between a typical 12
liter four-stroke engine and the 7 liters two-stroke engine having the same speed range
would show that they would develop similar talk and power ratings. In a four-stroke
engine the same powers generate power and empty and fill the cylinders. With the two-
stroke engine, the emptying and filling can be carried out by light rotary components.
With a two-stroke engine, 40 to 50 percent more air consumption is necessary for the
same power output. Therefore, the air pumping worked done will be proportionally
greater.
145
About 10 to 20 percent of the upward stroke of a two-stroke engine must be sacrificed to
emptying and filling the cylinder. The time available for emptying and filling a cylinder
is considerably less in a two-stroke cycle engine something like, 33 percent of the
completed cycle as compared to 50 percent in a four-stroke engine. Therefore, more
power will be needed to force a greater mass of air into the cylinder in a shorter time.
Compared with the two-stroke engine more power is needed by the piston for emptying
and filling the cylinder in four-stroke engine due to come pumping and friction losses at
lowest speeds.
At higher engines speeds the situation is reversed and the two-stroke roots blower will
consume proportionally more engine power. This could be up to 15 percent of the
develop power at maximum speed with reduce engine load for a given speed, a two-
stroke engine blower will consume proportionally more of the power developed by the
engine. A two-stroke engine runs smoother and relatively quietly due to the absence of
reversals of loading on bearings as compared with a four-stroke engine and here are your
answers.
The first answer a comparison between a typical 12 liter, 4 is stroke engine and a 7 liter
two-stroke engine having the same speed range would show that they would develop
146
similar torque and power ratings. Second answer: twice. Third, blank in a dash engine
the same parts generate power and empty and fill the cylinder answer is four-stroke
engine.
Next is 40 to 45 percent more and the last one thus the time available for dash and filling
a cylinder is. So, answer is emptying.
So, thank you very much and we will be ready with our next topic in our next class.
Tags
147
Subject, Verb, Object, Articles, comparatives
148
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 12
Modals and Voice
We will continue with our discussion of verbs. So, we have already seen, what are
auxiliaries.
Now, there is another word that you, or term you should be familiar with, that is modals;
not, pronounced not as models, but modals. Some of the major modals are almost like
auxiliaries, can-could, may-might, will-would, shall-should, must-have to, must and have
to. Now, modals are used with, what do they do, they are used with verbs, base form of
verbs, basic verbs, to give an additional meaning to the sentence. Very certainly nuanced
form and you are engineers, and you will be writing reports, or assignments, publish
papers. So, you should know all these things that, how one modal can slightly alter the
meaning of the sentence.
149
Now, let us look at, and we are also going to do modals and passive verbs. So, coming to
the modals, let us look at this sentence, ‘the glass beaker’, then, I will write once, and
then, I will keep changing the modals and just tell me how the meaning changes. So, ‘the
glass beaker breaks, when dropped’, simple meaning. The glass beaker breaks, when
dropped; the meaning is, it will definitely break. It is almost like a universal truth.
But, if I change this, see, we do not have a modal here; we just have a main verb. By
now, you know what are main verbs and what are modals and what are auxiliaries. But, if
I change the sentence slightly, by inserting a modal, ‘the glass beaker can break when
dropped’, then, the probability of breaking comes down. So, when I say, it breaks, the
first sentence, the glass beaker breaks, that is, almost like 99 to 100 percent it will break.
If you are lucky, it will not break, but it is a universal truth; it is, it is a given, it is glass,
when it is dropped, it will break. However, when I say can break, that means, it reduces
the possibility of the beaker, the breaking of the beaker.
If I say, the glass beaker may break, there is lesser possibility; maybe, you know, in can,
there is a greater degree of possibility; now, it reduces; may break; it may not break
either. So, let us say possibility, probability is decreasing. And then, if I say, the glass
beaker cannot break; it is made of a particular brand of glass, make of glass; it is a
quality that is resistant to fall. So, the glass beaker cannot break, even if it is dropped;
that is, 0 to 1 probability of breaking. So, you see how one modal changes, may, can,
shall; all these things change the meaning of a sentence.
Now, if I give you a sentence like, let us say, ‘the new library will open within two
years’; will open, but you can also say, ‘the new library’ and let us say, ‘should open
within a year’, can, may open within a year. Then, you perhaps, you know, within 2 years
it will definitely open, will open within 2 years. So, definitely; but it may open within a
year, there is a possibility; there is a probability. The new library cannot open within 3
months. Now, you, if you are reducing, and if you are giving us, the builders, or the
architects, only 3 months, there is a definite no; cannot. So, this is the way modals act.
Now, we are, we have been talking about variety of verbs, and, there is another category
of grammar, that is, active and passive verbs, Active sentences and passive sentences.
150
Now, let us look at some passive sentences, and, in scientific English, it has been noted,
and it is also desirable to use more passive sentences, rather than active form of the verb.
So, for example, the gas is heated. It is being heated by any experimenter, or by any
scientist, but it is heated; you do not have to say by whom; is heated. He is heating the
gas, no; it is still the same meaning, but, we use passive in scientific writing, to make it
more objective, and to make it clearer.
Again, another sentence, ‘the bridge is constructed’, is being constructed, or is

constructed, by a group of engineers, yes, it is, by someone, but it is being considered as
a passive. So, these are the sentences; I am just giving you examples. ’The survey will be
collected this week’; ‘Hot water should be handled with care’. So, you see, a consistent
use of the verb form be, we have been doing, be; what is be, b e, be. So, is, am, are, was,
were, those are the forms of the ‘be’ form of the verb. So, hot, sorry; and we then also
have modals. So, modals are also very useful in construction of passive sentences.
Now, ‘Hot water should be handled with great care’. So, should, hot water should be
handled with great care; this is again, if I want to make it passive, oh sorry, active, I can
say, ‘Please handle the hot water with great care’. But, in scientific English, when in,
when you are writing a report or something, or paper, it has to be in passive form. ‘Her
research cannot be published’; cannot; again, it is a one word, cannot; not is can and not,
but one word, cannot be published. ‘Is tea grown in Tamil Nadu?’
151
Is tea, we are using, Look at the sentence, Is tea grown in, and whatever state you want
to fill in, is tea grown in. So, is tea grown in, Do they grow tea, that is active; is tea
grown in by the people of so and so state, by this state, it becomes a passive. You will
find that, most parts of your text books, as I have been talking about scientific English,
and you will find that, most of your texts and published papers that you read, they
contain passive forms of verb. They are used in a present simple, or with modals. So,
therefore, we have to understand what are modals. Again, make a note, will and would,
can and could, may and might, shall and should, so, these are the modals. And, of course,
have and be form is always there. So, scientific English prefers using the passive form.
Now, here is the list of verbs; the first one is done for you. Please look at it; look at the
slide.
152
And, you are supposed to change active to passive. Please take down these words, and
then, or verbs and complete the exercise. So, first one has been done for you; break and
the passive form is broken. Then, you have choose, loose, lose; you see two different
words and two very different meanings, although pronunciation maybe similar; write,
draw, cut. How do you change these words into passive? We will come back to it.
In case, you have not able, not been able to figure it out, so, let me give you the answers.
So, first one is break; then, choose becomes chosen; loose is loosen, and l o s e, lose, is
lost. So, there is a change in pronunciation and change of words. They may be similar in
pronunciation in the active form, but when they are changed into passive form, they,
loose becomes loosen, and, this lose becomes lost, second one. Write, written, draw is
drew and cut remains cut; there is no change in it. There are some words in English
language, which always remain the same, whether they are in past or present; broadcast,
‘the news is being broadcast’. So, it is not broadcasted, in its passive, or in past tense; it
is always broadcast; put. So, you do not say I cutted it, or I putted it; I put it there, and
yesterday also, you put it on the table. So, there is no change of, in the structure, in the
construction of the verb.
153
Now, look at this sample text now, which has a, some interesting in construction of
passive sentences. Let us, let me read them out for you; let me read this out for you.
Please look at the slide.
‘The existing surface is’, they are talking about the construction of roads here, ‘is
prepared by’. So, look at the word ‘prepared by’, ‘is prepared by’, be form of the verb,
‘removing the pot holes or rust if any. The irregularities are filled in’. So, again, this is
another example of passive sentence; ‘with premix chippings, at least a week before
laying surface course. If the existing pavement is extremely way, a bituminous leveling
course of adequate thickness is provided to lay a bituminous concrete surface course on a
binder course, instead of directly laying it on a WBM’. So, look at it; no one is saying
here that, you see, is provided is also your passive sentence; is prepared by, irregularities
are filled in, thickness is provided to lay. So, all these are examples of passive sentences.
154
Let us read on the next slide. ‘The premix is prepared’. So, no one is saying, he prepared
the premix. ‘The premix is prepared’, again, passive, ‘in a hot mix plant of a required
capacity with the desired quality control. The bitumen may be heated’. So, again, look at
the modal auxiliary, and the modal verb and the auxiliary. So, ‘combine may be heated’
with the base verb; ‘upto this much degree and the aggregate temperature should not
differ by over 14 degree Celsius from that binder temperature. The hot mixed material is
collected from’; you know, no one is saying he collected the mixture, or she collected the
mixture; ‘is collected from, the mixture, by the transporters, carried to the’. So, again,
example of passive, ‘is collected from the mixture by’. So, this is again, yet another
example of passive; ‘carried to the location’, again passive; ‘is spread by’ again passive.
So, look at the number of passive sentences in such a simple passage. And, ‘spread by a
mechanical paver at a temperature of 121 to 163 degree Celsius the camber and the
thickness of the layer are accurately verified’, again, this is passive; ‘the control of the
temperature during the mixing and the compaction are of great significance in the
strength of the resulting pavement structure’. So, many examples of passive sentences.
Now, look at this exercise again, and same, something similar to what we just did, please
change the given verbs into their passive forms.
155
Bend, take, know, feed, lead, wear, bring. Your dictionary would be of great help to you.
So, let me do them, do these for you. Bend is bent, with a ‘t’, ending with a ‘t’. There are
certain kinds of verbs, which change the forms; when we start doing, when we start
revising tenses, then, we are going to look at this also, in much detail, in greater detail.
Take is taken; know is knew, k n e w; feed is fed; lead is led; wear is worn, yes, and
brought, bring is brought. Now, I would like you to take this, a look at this exercise, and I
have highlighted some of the passive verbs for you.
156
Look at this. And, I am going to read it aloud, and the passive verbs are highlighted in
bold. ‘In order for the tablet press to produce quality tablets, it is imperative that, the
blend of ingredients sent to’. So, see, send is present; sent becomes your past, and is also
passive, here; ‘press be dry and of uniform particle size. In addition, it is important that,
the API be evenly distributed’; these are all pharmaceutical terms; ‘within each tablet
that is produced’; again, this is also, is produced is also a passive construction; ‘if this
cannot be done, simply through adequate blending, the ingredients must be sent
through an additional granulation step, prior to the compression step of the press, in
order to ensure an even distribution’. So, this is the way we construct passive.
157
Here, I am going to give you, I am giving you a couple of exercises, fill in the blanks;
please solve them. look at the task here. ’Coperion K-tron pharmaceutical screw feeders
dash’, you have to supply the right, appropriate form of the verb given in the bracket; ‘in
either volumetric or gravimetric designs. However, due to the high accuracy
requirements of feeding of continuous pharmaceutical processes, the gravimetric feeding
principle via loss in weight feeding is mandatory. It’, again the right form of word note,
‘that all of the above advantages improve overall profitability, a goal of significant
importance to the pharmaceutical industry’.
Take a minute; look at it, and then, we will sort it; we will solve it. So, the answer for the
first one is, can be supplied; Coperion K-tron pharmaceutical screw feeders can be
supplied in, because can be supplied in, one, or this, or that; can is the best, a most
appropriate form of the verb here. And then, second one, it must be noted. Now, you
have to remember that, in many a scientific writing, you will find this construction, it
must be noted; let me inform you; let us state this. So, all these are passive way
constructions. Let us move on, and before we move on to doing another exercise, or
before we move on to do another exercise, let us look at this, look at these examples.
158
Fresh water can be distilled from rain water. This can be expressed as a triangle,
whatever, you know, area that the person has in mind. So, this can be expressed as a
triangle. So, we are, all these are examples for passive voice using modals. A lens can be
used for reflection, or else for refraction, whatever we want it, and this is known as
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. These are examples and now, let me show you some of
the exercises that you are supposed to do. Look at this.
159
So, what I want you to do, complete the following, using passive forms of the verbs and
always use be. Dash extracted from ore; you know what is extracted from ore, but you, I
want you to write the correct sentence. Dash obtained from crude oil. Dash e equal to m
c e=mc square. Dash obtained at 0 degree centigrade, and dash taken as 22 by 7 or 3.14.
So, how would you solve this? So, I will, show you one example. Iron can be extracted
from ore. Iron can be, that is example. And, e equal to m c square, this is expressed as e
equal to m c square. So, these are the common types of sentence constructions. Ice can
be obtained at zero degree centigrade. And, this is expressed, or this is taken as, the value
of pi is taken as 3.14 or 22 by 7. And, of course, the second one, whatever mineral, it can
be obtained from crude oil. So, you can write the name of the substance that is obtained
from crude oil; it can, the name of the substance can be obtained from. So, these are the,
this is the way that, you have to construct passive forms.
Now, look at this exercise.
160
A longer passage; Source is given at the top. Again, you have to do the same; fill in the
blanks using the appropriate form of the verbs given in the bracket.
‘Diamonds dash first discovered at this location in 1906, when John Huddlestone found
two strange crystals in the soil of his farm. He didn’t not realize that his farm was right
above a volcanic pipe filled with lamproite, (a volcanic rock formed from with 2209
partially melted mantle materials, which sometimes contains diamond-bearing rock
known as xenoliths, that dash transported up from the mantle)’.
161
‘John Huddlestone sold his farm for this much, and it was later dash, and sold multiple
times. It was temporarily as a commercial diamond mine; it was not extremely
productive and was not after a fire destroyed the plant in 1919. Properties adjacent to the
Huddlestone farm were also heavily’, I have done it for you. So, you have to just ignore
it; ‘prospected, with some attempts at diamond production, none of which dash
sustained’. So, please look at the exercise and then, really, come back in a moment and
solved them. And, this is the next slide.
Alright. So, let us look at, Let us do the answers. So, diamonds were first discovered at
this location, whatever, and then, we move on to the next bracket.
162
That have been transported up from the mantle. So, this, this is the, this is the way you
have to solve. First one is were; second is that have been. And then, John Huddlestone
sold his farm for this many dollar, and it was later bought and sold multiple times. It was
temporarily worked as a commercial diamond mine. It was not extremely productive and
was not reopened, the past form of this, and the last one is, none of which could be
sustained.
I am going to give you a listening exercise, as we have been doing this. We are going to
mix our IQ iota of learning a skill for this course. So, while we are doing comprehension
and grammar, and writing, we will also be doing some listening thrown in. So, here are
the, and, as usual, I am not going to give you or show you the passage, when I am
reading out the listening part to you, or passage for you but, you have, you will be shown
the questions here. So, first look at questions that you are supposed to write answers for.
163
I have given you the source for the text also, but please do not look at it while solving the
exercise. So, first question, what are the two major species of coffee? Second question,
what are coffee beans? Third question, how are coffee beans processed? And, fourth,
identify at least five passive verbs when I, as I read this passage for you. And, please pay
attention, and listen to it carefully. This slide is not going to be shown to the students
here.
So, I start now, and I hope you have taken down the questions. There are several
botanical species of coffee plants. However, coffee consumers are interested in only two
of them, Arabica or Arabian coffee that is valued for its bright flavor and mild taste and
Robusta, or Congolese coffee that has a strong rich taste. Coffee beans are the seeds of
coffee tree. They develop inside coffee berries and there are usually two beans in each
berry. Coffee berries are harvested when they become red in color. Coffee is harvested
mainly manually. Coffee harvesting season is different in each country, and usually takes
several months. Coffee beans are processed by two major methods, wet and dry. Wet
method is used for high quality grades and the dry method is applied to the beans with
less flavor as it is simpler, and does not require expensive equipment.
164
Large beans of fine quality, Arabica may be referred to by a combination of letters, for
example, Kenya A A. Grades may also be defined by the name of the territory, province,
district area, where the coffee was grown; for example, Ethiopia - Sidamo, Sumatra -
Mandheling. Grades may be determined depending on the location of plantations,
relative to the sea level. The higher above the sea level, the plantation, the greater is the
coffee value. The most expensive varieties grow at altitude over 1200 meters, and are
often termed SHB; for example, Guatemala SHB, Costa Rica SHB.
So, you remember your questions? What are the two major species of coffee? The
answer was given to you, Arabica and Robusta. What are coffee beans? The answer is
coffee beans are the seeds of coffee tree. How are coffee beans processed? Coffee beans
are processed by two major methods, wet and dry. And, the last question was, identify
five passive constructions. So, I take you back to the passage, please look at it; look the,
look at the passage again and I have highlighted them for you.
Is valued, are harvested, is harvested, are processed; and then, in the next slide you have
more.
165
May be referred to, may also be defined by, maybe determined. So, I hope you have been
able to come up with the right answers for all these.
Now, before we wind up, this is another activity for you and this is going to be a do it
yourself, or do at home. This is your home work. You will need your dictionary. I hope
you are reading and consulting your dictionaries now, more frequently than ever before.
So, these are the definitions that I want you to find out and write the meanings of.
166
First one; excavating, so, excavating is; please look at the slide. This is the exercise and
you have to find scientific definitions. Excavating is, mining is, third, grading is, fourth,
extracting is, and the last one, deducing is. All these verbs, which you use in your day to
day speaking, and writing, and in your, also in your reading. So, please do this exercise
on yourself. I am sure that you are doing exercises on yourself also, as we are moving in
to this course. It is very important; some amount of self learning is extremely, absolutely
necessary, in order to benefit from this course, in a much better way.
So, thank you very much, and we will continue with our next class.
Tags
and uncountable nouns, singular, plural, Modals and Voice
167
Subject, Verb, Object, Articles, comparatives
168
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 13
Passive Voice (Continued)
Good morning friends. So, we are continuing with our discussion of passive
construction, and we were talking about, why passive, why do we need passives at all?
So, as I told you earlier, that passive verbs are necessary in technical English. We do not
use this degree of formality in our, let us say, friendly letters or friendly conversations or
more formal, sorry, informal and semi formal kind of writings. So, we would not say
football was played by so and so; we will say the great football player Messi, he hit a
goal; but, we will not say, he, a goal was scored by so and so. So, that is not the way. In
more formal writing, we use passive construction, and technical writing, the kind of
writing you people would need, is definitely the kind of expressions you need to, you
people need to use, it definitely asks for demands passive construction.
Now, look at these two sentences, or rather, three sentences that I have done here for you.
169
Expansion is caused by heat. Aeroplanes are powered by engines. Cargo was lifted by
crane. Crane lifted the cargo; grammatically correct; engines power aeroplanes and heat
causes expansion. I mean, all these are grammatically, absolutely correct, but in our
scientific writing, in our scientific communication, technical communication, we need to
be more focused on the passive construction of sentence, which is, which has a degree of
impersonality. They are not subjective; they are, they have the air of being objective and
impersonal. And therefore, for making scientific statements, we need this kind of
grammar. I will give you these sentences.
Please look at the slides; this is an exercise for you. Answers are all, all jumbled up,
given at the bottom. Fire fighting in industries is, and I would like you to write
something like, caused by or done by. Rescue and fire fighting in high buildings are done
by. Rescue on the highway in accidents of trucks, and lifting debris in the event of
landslides are done by. So, you have to use these words, these expressions, and then, use
the form, use the most appropriate form. Rescue during landslides and floods the
disposing of the flowing water during rainy season is, and then, complete the sentence.
Your answers are, your choices are, industrial fire car, snorkel, graf and crane; alright
So, the first answer is industrial fire car; fire fighting in industries, this is done by
170
industrial fire car. Second one, rescue and fire fighting in high buildings are done by
snorkels. Third one is, rescue on the highway in accidents, etcetera, the answer is crane
and rescue during landslides and floods, the answer is graf. So, all these are done by,
using industrial fire cars, using snorkels, done by crane, and done by using graf. So, this
is the way you write and speak.
Now, look at the sample text, and I have highlighted some of the passive markers here.
In type zero, I have given you the reference also, and this is just a sample text. Please
listen to it, and please take down notes. And, pay rather close attention to the kinds of
verbs, those are highlighted and those are considered as passive constructions. All these
will be of great help to you, when you actually get down to writing a publishable paper
or an assignment.
‘In type 0, the replica, the intention must be to provide the researcher with a secondary
source, which is the equal, (or at least equivalent) to the original source, in as many
respects as possible. Indeed, a replica might be preferred and, at least, imagined’. So, is
there, the, what is being talked about, we are talking about recording speeches, keeping
recorded speeches as part of our archives. You know, during the, archives and recording
171
speeches of important personalities is very, very necessary part of the government and
the government generally appoints, designates certain kinds of bodies and organizations,
who are in the business of, or whose job is to record, maintain and preserve the recorded
voices and conversations of, that relate to certain significant events in history. For
example, a broadcast made during one of the wars, a broadcast made by the Prime
Minister or the Chief Minister of a state, in the, or in a state, or in an event of great
consequence.
So, all these speeches, even conversations between two important dignitaries, foreign
dignitaries and our own, people representing our own country, all these are recorded and
they are preserved and archived, for referencing, for future generations. So, that is being
talked about here, in this passage. It is a very interesting passage for those of you, who
might be interested in Sound Engineering. So, what he is, the passage talks about the
type O, which is called replica, and then, I go on. ‘The intention must be to provide the
researcher with a secondary source, which is the equal, or at least equivalent to the
original source, in as many respects as possible. Indeed, a replica might be preferred, and
at least, imagined’.
I continue, and Please keep looking at the slides. ‘A type 1 re-recording is defined’. So,
172
it is not, he is not saying we define it as. This is, ‘is defined as the perpetuation of the
sound of an original recording, as it was originally reproduced and heard by the
people of the era. A type one recording, re-recording is meant to give listeners a literal
historic perspective on the recording and reproduction of sound. This implies the use of
the same type of recording machine and medium, as used for the original recording’.
We continue, ‘Electronic equipment: All equipment should be calibrated to ensure

linearity of the signal path, that is, what goes in, should come out unaltered. There
should be little or no coloration of the original sound, because of equipment
deficiencies’. How many passives have we seen? Please, let us have another look. Must
be to provide, might be preferred, imagined. So, the idea is not, I am imagining;
something has to be imagined by me, that is the idea. So, therefore, even if you do not
see the, the preposition by, must be done, all these expressions, you do. The idea is very
clear that, imagined happens to be a passive construction.
And again, Look at the second slide; is defined, was originally reproduced and heard,
here, of course, you have by; is meant to give, this implies. Now, this is another tricky
word; this implies, let it be told; all these are quite passive in construction. They are not,
definitely not active; as used. And then, you have, should be calibrated and should be
173
little or no coloration. So, this is the way we use. I am just refreshing what we have been
doing so far, and this is something that needs some attention.
Now, there are two important words, both prepositions, which are very important in the
construction of passive sentences. One, of course, is by; there is no getting away from by.
Then, you have with. So, in passive sentences, it is the ‘what’ agents? What. Expansion
is caused by heat; agent is expansion; what is caused by heat. So, that is mainly used
with the present and modals; you all, of course, you remember your modals; can-could,
may-might, shall-should.
For example, let us look at the sentence, sulphuric acid is produced by the action of so
and so. Sulphuric acid is produced by the action of this and this elements. So, you have
to think, or, what are those chemicals that cause the production of sulphuric acid. Again,
some car engines are cooled by water, and some by air. So, agents are car engines; water,
cooled by water and air. So, some are cooled by water, some by air. There are some cars
whose engines are cooled by air; most of the cars require water though, but the, there are
some cars that require air. So, this is, by is necessary here.
Now, I have, this is another exercise; take a look at this particular slide. Do not get
174
confused; use ‘by’ and ‘with’, in the appropriate places.
Engine is cooled dash water. Highly qualified, I am sorry about the spelling, h i g h l y,
qualified professionals are required dash industry. The gas flame is produced dash a
Bunsen burner. Short sightedness can be corrected dash a minor surgery. Light is
reflected dash the glass surface. Engine is cooled by water. Highly qualified
professionals are required, not with the industry, but by industry. The gas flame is
produced by a Bunsen burner. Short sightedness can be corrected by a minor surgery.
Light is reflected by the glass surface. So, every, all these sentences here require ‘by’.
Now, look at this another slide, the next slide and more examples. The cabinet can be
fixed dash drilling a hole in the wall. He painted the wagon dash a brush. Bad carpenter,
a bad carpenter fights dash his tools. This is a proverb also; people who do not know, or
who are not experts in anything, they just end up ruining the things. These carpets are
dash, artisans from; these carpets are hand woven dash artisans from Iran. The doctor
examined his heart rate, and not hear rate; heart rate dash a stethoscope. Now, cabinet
can be fixed by drilling; we do not have say with drilling a hole. He painted the wagon
with a brush; by, by brush is not too appropriate; with a brush. A carpenter, a bad
carpenter fights with his tools; not by his tools; by his tools will give you another sort of
175
a meaning. These carpets are handwoven by artisans from Iran. The doctor examined his
heart rate with a stethoscope.
Must and should are other auxiliaries and modals, which are very necessary while
construction, while constructing passive. So, you must use, you must keep in mind, when
to use must, should; this must be done. So, be, plus ‘ed’ form; done is an ‘ed’ form; past
participle. I should have returned the book by now. This book should have been returned
to the library by now. So, been, plus ‘ed’; returned, ‘ed’ forms of return; ‘ed’ form of the
verb. So, must and should are other important auxiliaries.
I have also, if in case, I have not yet recommended, then, I do recommend a book called
Advanced English Grammar and this book is by Martin Hewings. This is a very
important book and all of you should be able to consult this, whenever there is any kind
of confusion between passive construction and use of by and with and various kinds of
modals and auxiliaries. I will write the name of the author here, Martin Hewings,
Advanced English Grammar. This is the name of the author. One of these days, I will
also bring this book to the class and I will show you the book. Right now, you just take a
look and if possible, please get this book for yourself.
176
Now, let us look at this exercise. The idea is, to turn active to passive, and I have
highlighted the verbs, which are done in active here; and I would ask you to turn them
into passive. I will read it out for you, and Please try to transform, change the sentences
into passive forms, wherever highlighted, wherever indicated. ’The preferred’, please
look at the slide; ‘The preferred water temperature for washing wool is 140 degrees
Fahrenheit. Workers try soaps of various natures, with much success. The key is to keep
the water temperature, and the workers use the volume of soap as low as possible, while
sting, still being able to wash out the grease and dirt. In the scouring process, the wool
undergoes several soaks and rinses, until the wash water remains clean. They let wool,
sorry, they let wool soak. Each subsequent wash is a weaker solution of soap, or alkaline,
until the final wash is only by water. Between each wash, the workers press and squeeze
the wool, to remove excess water. At each wash step, they retain the wash water for
subsequent batches of wool, until the first wash becomes too dirty’. It is not to, t o, but t
double o; ‘dirty for further use.
At this point, workers can use the second wash as the first, by bringing it up to
temperature, and adding soap to bring it up to start point’.
Next slide; please read on, please look at it. ‘Spinning is the wool processing step where
177
workers turn the wool rovings produced during carding into yarns. On a commercial
wool processing scale, the rovings pass through a spinning machine. On an individual
scale, workers use, a spinning wheel, or a hand spindle. During spinning, workers gently
stretch again the wool rovings. Through a series of twisting and spinning, and twisting
again, the workers spin the wool into batches of similar quality and strength. Workers
form the spun’, not he spun; ‘Workers form the spun wool into and stored as skeins of
yarn’; skeins, you know, as it is like a thread of yarn, what are spools of yarn; ‘what you
see and buy in the store. These are small bundles of yarn that workers can now dye, if
warranted. During the spinning process, workers may blend other fiber types with the
wool, to create various and more unique yarns.
Once workers produce yarn, (or customers purchase), it can be used for weaving or
knitting. Workers do the weaving by taking strings of yarn, setting them at right angles to
each other, and interlacing them over, and then, beneath each other, thus forming a
woven mat. They do knitting is’, I am sorry, this one is done for you. So, we will here, 19
48 ‘They do knitting, by forming loops of yarn and interlocking rows’. I will repeat,
‘They do knitting, by forming loops of yarn and interlocking rows. Take your time, not
more than 5 minutes, and then, we will come back and solve the exercise.
178
So, here is the answer. Please look at the slides. There may be some typos here, which I
will rectify as we look at the solved passage. So, the preferred water, water, preferred
water temperature for washing wool is 140 degrees Fahrenheit. Soaps of various natures
have been tried. So, instead of workers tried, we are using have been tried, with much
success. The key is to keep the water temperature and the volume of soap used as low as
possible while still being able to wash out the grease and dirt. In the scouring process,
the wall, sorry, the wool changes, the wool undergoes several soaks and rinses, until the
wash water remains clean. It is preferable to let wool soak. Each subsequent wash is a
weaker solution of soap or alkaline, until the final wash is only by wool, sorry, only
water. Between each wash the wool is pressed or squeezed to remove excess water. At
each wash step, the wash water can be retained for subsequent batches of wool, until the
first wash becomes too dirty, t double o, too dirty for further use.
At this point the second wash can be used as the first by bringing it up to temperature
and adding soap to bring it up to start point.
Next slide; Spinning is the wool processing step, where the wool ravings, or, sorry,
rovings, produced during carding, are turned into yarns. On a commercial wool
processing scale the rovings pass through a spinning machine. On an individual scale, a
179
spinning wheel, or a hand spindle is used. So, not workers used. Remember, and pay
attention to the fact that, if we are not using the passive construction, how many times
we have to use the subject, as the workers do, the workers try, the workers process. So,
we are just trying to avoid that repetition of that subject, which is understood, and which
is implicit, and therefore this construction is more elegant, more refined, in a more
formal kind of a sentence.
During spinning, the wool rovings are gently stretched again. Through a series of
twistings and spinnings, and twisting again, the wool is spun into batches of similar
quality and strength. The spun wool is formed into and stored as skeins of yarn, and
what you see and buy in the store. These are small bundles of yarn that can now be dyed,
if warranted.
During the spinning process, other fiber types may be blended with the wool, to create
various and more unique yarns.
Once yarn is produced (or purchased) it can be used for weaving or knitting. What’s is
the difference between the two? Weaving is done by taking strings of yarn, setting them
at right angles to each other and interlacing them over and then beneath each other, thus
forming a woven mat. Knitting is done by forming loops of yarn and interlocking rows.
You are continually forming new loops and passing a string of yarn through it. So, this is
the way we have done passive.
What has passive done to active now, can anyone tell me that? What we get here is, more
impersonal use of language; and this is what is required in, which is, in writing, which is
more formal, as you are supposed to do. So, more objective, more formal, more elegant,
so that is what passive does, but if you use it in, again, I am warning you; if you use,
over-use passive constructions in your day to day writing, your speech, it looks very odd.
Passive construction is used at a particular place, at a particular time; not anywhere,
where we want to; alright.
Now, from here, We will move on to do some listening. As usual, I am going to show
you the questions, before I read out the passage for you. You have to listen to the
180
passage; you will not be shown the passage. So, you will not be shown the passage, as
you have been seeing it so far. You know how we are doing listening practice in this
course. I am going to just show you the questions.
So, please look at the slide here. Listening questions; what is felting? Why does finer
wool feel better? How is wool felted? Identify three passive forms. These are the
questions, and now, I will read out the passage for you. You will not be able to see it.
Please listen to the passage carefully.
‘In the wool processing stages, felting can occur after carding and instead of spinning.
Felting is a feature of wool that enables it to form mats of fabric because of the, because
the fibers can interlock with each other. How much it can felt, is dependent on the
fineness or coarseness of the fibers. The finer wools felt better due to the finer crimp,
which results in more ridges and a tighter lock or joining.
In the process of felting, the wool is subjected to moisture, pressure and gentle beating
action. Layers of wool are laid at right angles to one another to establish fibers and run
lengthwise and then crosswise, and then lengthwise again. The felting machines applies,
sorry, the felting machine applies steam moistures and pressures along with the back and
181
forth action to felt the wool. As the fibers shrink, they become entangled together and
form a strong, durable, felted mat of material. Wool can be felted to the point, where it is
impossible to distinguish the fibers in the material or to pull it apart as the fibers have
become so entangled, and tightly meshed’.
So, this was your passage. Go back to the questions. What is felting? Why does finer
wool feel better? How is wool felted? Identify three passive forms. I will now, again, I
will show you the passage now and you can tell your answers here. Some of the passives
have been highlighted for you. So, please tell me your answers with the passage.
In the wool processing stages, felting can occur after carding, and instead of spinning.
Felting is a feature of wool that enables it to form mats of fabric because the fibers can
interlock with each other. How much it can felt is dependent on the fineness or
coarseness of the fibers. The finer wools felt better due to the finer crimp, which results
in more ridges and a tighter lock or joining.
In the process of felting, the wool is subjected to moisture, pressure and gentle beating
action. Layers of wool are laid at right angles to one another, to establish fibers that run
lengthwise and then crosswise, and then lengthwise again. The felting machine applies
182
steam moisture and pressure along with the back and forth action, to felt the wool. As the
fibers shrink, they become entangled together, and form a strong, durable, felted mat of
material.
Wool can be felted to the point, where it is impossible to distinguish the fibers in the
material or to pull it apart as the fibers have become so entangled and tightly meshed.
So, I hope, you got your answers here. And, again, Let us have some fun and games with
the language. I am giving you these idioms. I am writing these idioms on the board and
what I want you to do is to find the meanings of these idioms from the dictionaries. And,
consult the dictionaries and find the meanings of these idioms, . Let me erase the board,
just give me a minute and I will give you your idioms, that you may not necessarily use
in your scientific language, but they may help you in some other reaspects of your, may
be more elegant writing or your speech.
So, wolf in sheep’s clothing, idiom. Remember, sheep in plural is sheep; children in
plural remain children; child plural is children, not childrens; sheep is sheep; deers is,
deer is deer, and not deers. So, it is always the same; deer plural and deer in singular; no
change in spelling. Dyed in wool, dyed in wool; pull the wool over someone’s eyes, over
183
someone’s eyes; all wool and the yard wide; wrap up in cotton wool. I will write it here,
wrap up in cotton wool. These are idioms. These are your idioms. I thought it, it would
be a good idea to add some variety to all the technical English that we have been doing
so far. We You have just did an exercise or passage, listening and grammar based on a
wool processing in a, related to something wool and processing and felting and making
wool. So, I thought, this is a good idea to give you some kind of expressions that will add
more color to your language.
So, please, look these expressions up and thank you very much. We will be meeting soon
for our next class.
Tags
and uncountable nouns, singular, plural, Modals and Voice
Subject, Verb, Object, Articles, comparatives, passive voice
184
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 14
Tenses
So, let us start with Tenses today. We have been doing verbs and also subject verb
agreement. So, tenses are nothing new for us, I am very sure even in your school or at
some level, at your university or college you have done something about tenses. In this
class today, I am just going to refresh some of your, I think already existing information
about tenses. I am particularly interested in this simple past, which is so common; like
simple present tense.
So, we have past simple and we have present simple. It thundered loudly. The gas burnt
brightly. The beaker dropped suddenly. What are we talking about? Actions that are
already completed; loudly, brightly, suddenly, what are those? Now, look at the main
verbs. You must have noticed, there are no auxiliaries here, main verbs thundered,
burned, dropped. Also look at the difference between the two main verbs in sentence one
and three; thundered 'ed' form past tense, dropped 'ed' form past tense, but burnt we are
not saying burned we are saying burnt.
Now loudly, brightly, suddenly they are qualifiers; it thundered not silently, but loudly.
So, we learn something more about the verb in a sentence that word or that phrase is
your adverb; it qualifies, it add something to that. So loudly, brightly, suddenly of course,
there are exceptions we do not always use the -ly suffix to suggest adverbs. There are
several adverbs that do not take the -ly form and some common mistakes, where some
students I have often found making mistakes are using a word such as oftenly, morely;
now these are wrong.
185
Also a very common mistake, I work hardly; I work hardly means I do not work at all.
When I say, I work hard, that is an adjective, quality of work. If I say, work hardly; that
means, I do not work at all. So, remember these are the exceptions not all adverbs take
the -ly form, most adverbs take the -ly form. So, this is your past tense. Now, the end,
again remember, what is a past tense? It is a tense we suggest that the action does caught
over or action is over, not necessarily just got over but it is finished and completed for
ever. The teacher wrote on the blackboard, is done.
Now, what do we do if you passivize these sentences? You remember your voice, active
and passive. So, I will give you some sentences look at this slide, here and then I will ask
you.
186
These are simple past tenses and I will ask you to passivize them. Look at the slide
please, and read these sentences. The storm caused plenty of destruction last night. They
tested the new car today. The minister inaugurated the techno-park last week. Did you
finish the survey yesterday? This project cost us a lot of money.
Now, can look at the verbs here and look at the tenses. The storm caused, so 'caused' is
your verb. They tested, so 'tested' becomes your main verb as well as simple past.
Inaugurated last week, it is over; I inaugurate; the president will inaugurate; the chief
minister will inaugurate something today; a new building today or the library today, but
it has already been done last week, so it is over. Did you finish, and remember with
simple past 'did' the immediate verb that follows has to have the appearance of a present
tense because 'did' you do not use 'again'; for example, you will not say, did you finished
the survey yesterday? That is wrong use. So, did you ate your lunch today? Did you ate
your breakfast today? Did you eat your breakfast? Did you eat your lunch? Did you have
your lunch? Did you finish the survey? Did you finish your homework? Did you gift a
pen append to your brother? Not, did you gifted; those are rules.
This project cost us a lot of money. 'Cost' is a simple past. What is present? It is cost
again. What is its past perfect? It is cost again, it is one of those verbs that does not
187
change, whatever its category becomes it just remains the same. Put is another such
word; broadcast is yet another set word; kept is also one of these words. So, you do not
say putted, you do not say costed, you do not broadcasted, you do not say costed, you do
not say cutted, these are erroneous use of these verbs and remember all these sentences
are simple past. Only I am giving you very simple sentences with simple past tense.
Now, let us move on and try to passivize these sentences. Here is an exercise for you,
please look at the slide.
Now, let us solve it together. Plenty of destruction was caused by rains or thunder or
storm yesterday. A new car was tested last week or yesterday. The techno-park was
inaugurated by the minister last week. Did the survey finished yesterday? Now, you see,
in this sentence; did the survey finished yesterday? By you, maybe redundant; you may
you may not use it I. We were cost a lot of money by this project. So, this is the way you
passivize it.
188
Now, here is another exercise for you please look at it. The sun blank set at 7pm today.
Heavy rains dash record in the city this month. The first flight dash take place in 1869.
The complexity rose because each customer had unique requirements. Wipro Biomed
debut in 1989. Use simple past tense forms of these verbs.
How do you do? Let us solve it. The sunset at 7pm today, no difference set - set is
another one of those verbs. Heavy rains were recorded. The first flight took place. The
complexity it is rose, present rise - rose; I just did that to confuse you, I used the present
past form. Wipro Biomed debuted 'ed'. So, it is not like debut past tense, it is like certain
cut and put curtain put 1022 and it remains debuted in 1989. You know what is debut?
Making was first launched and reach your vocabulary. When we a consult our dictionary
we should not just focus on looking or observing just the head word and get the meaning
always pay attention to its different kinds of meanings the way those different words are
used and the way those words are pronounced and what are the categories are; parts of
speech and what are the slang formal technical? Remember, it goes along way if you
enrich your vocabulary.
Now, here is another exercise for you I want you to change the sentences, all the
sentences, please look at the slide.
189
And, I want you to convert these sentences, which are given in the present into past
tense. My school insists that all of us wear uniforms. I have done the first one for you,
now your exercise. My brother is good at arts but terrible at science. She is worried about
her results. He is disappointed with his student. Raj is interested in robotics. You are not
the first person to solve this equation. And, what are the past tense forms?
My brother, now remember there is only one main verb in the first sentence is and that is
an auxiliary remember that, and there it is be form; you remember be form is, was, were,
am. So, those are be forms; we have also done has and had and have. So remember, 'my
brother' in this first sentence you have only one main verb my brother was good at arts,
but terrible at science. She is worried about her results; she was worried. He is
disappointed with his student; he was disappointed but not anymore. Raj is interested;
Raj was interested. You are not the first person to solve this equation; you were not the
first person to solve. So, are changes into verb.
190
Here is a list for you please take a look, these are Irregular Verbs.
They will take you very, far if you just pay attention to this list. It is not a very
exhaustive list, I had given at the end of this list a very useful link you can go and do a
little bit of self study. So, let us take a look at this list, please look at the slide. 'Be' form,
then it becomes ‘was’ and ‘been’, that is the past participle past perfect, simple past
perfect. The root word or simple word is 'bear' it becomes ‘bore’ and past perfect is
‘borne’. Become - became - become; had become, he became very studious; he become,
he had become very studious. Begin - began - begun, look at this spellings. Bend - bent -
bent, no change. Bind - bound - bound. Break - broke - broken, so the main verb is break,
simple past I broke the glass mug; the glass mug was broken by me, it becomes a past
perfect also your passive. Look at the slide we continue burn - burnt - burnt.
191
We can move on to the next slide, please look at it. Hang - hung - hung, I hung the coat
on the hanger; the coat was hung by me, no change. When you use the word, a verb such
as hanged it changes the entire meaning; The man was hanged for his crimes, whatever
he has done, so hanged; but here you hung a thing, you hang a thing and it past tense
becomes you hung it. Let us carry on, have - had - had; hit - hit, again hit; hold - held -
held; keep - kept - kept; leave - left - left; lie - lay – lain, this is interesting and important
and please take a look and observe the change in spellings throughout. Light - lit -
lighted in all the cases; you simple light, simple present, simple past lit was lighted past
perfect.
192
And here is the link I was telling you about, irregular verbs. Please note, irregular verbs
do not have the 'ed' form as their past tense. Now, look at this slide and match.
You know, what you are supposed to do? You have to match, what is given the invention
with the inventors. So, the name is all jumbled up you have to match them and you have
193
to construct full sentences and look at the way we use the passive forms. YouTube,
initially, Facebook, WhatsApp inc., Microsoft. As you would know, YouTube founder.
So, YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steven Chen and Jawed Karim. Initially,
Facebook was invented by Mark Zuckerberg. WhatsApp, who are the people associated?
Was founded by Brian Acton and Jan Koum, and the last one Microsoft of course, it was
founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates.
Now, look at the choice of verbs here. Founded, found it, founded, invented. We have not
use induced discovered here, because there is no discovery made here. So, most of these
are inventions and of course, what is the certain difference between invention and
discovery? Please find out, on your own. Remember, one mistake another, mistake that
many students make 'founded' here is something a gadget; I lost it and I found it. I did
not, I did not what? So, you are not going to say I founded it, it is only found; you do not
say founded this, you lose something you find something in the past tenses found
something.
So, find - found - found, but when you are found the when you say, this was founded
then it is always in the sense of discovery, inventions and dynasties. Please keep that in
mind or great buildings this was founded by so and so. The Tudor dynasty was founded
by the great Henry so and so, alright. That is the way we use it. These things are founded,
but we do not use it in the sense of lost and found, then it does not become found. So,
now, having done them so much of it, how do you understand past simple? Past simple is
generally used to describe actions, which happened in the past and are now finished.
However, the use may get a little complicated you do not confuse it with past perfect,
which we will do soon. Also, you have to bear in mind those irregular verbs and words
also in order to suggest or in order to understand past simple and past perfect tenses more
clearly. When you say, the first man landed on the moon in 1969. India won freedom in
1947. Columbus discovered America in 1497. Early ships were very small. What are you
doing? We are talking about actions that happened in the past and are now finished.
Simple past also can be used to suggest past habits, I used to swim regularly, 'used to' is
another auxiliary or helping verb, which is often abused quite badly. So when you say, I
194
used to walk every morning for one hour that means this action is over and complete and
you are not doing it anymore. But if you say, do you walk every morning? You cannot
say, yes, I used to walk every morning, which means now you do not. Used to is a simple
past, it is over. I used to go, I used to go many students do that they use this expression
very often, it is wrong. I used to suggest an action that is over completed and you are not
doing any more. So, past habits we were talking about, I used to swim regularly. I used to
walk; that means I do not do that anymore. He practice guitar for several hours every
day; that means, he does not do that anymore. She wrote beautiful poetry, it is over; she
wrote, she does not write anymore.
I want you to look at this sample text, where I have used simple past and highlighted it
please look at the slide. This is how we use in paragraphs and passages.
In Europe, for a long time, boats were small, had one mast seldom left sight of land.
What part of speech could be seldom? Seldom is another word for rarely; rarely is your
adverb, seldom is also your adverb, but we do not say seldomly the seldom is an adverb.
Ships like the Mediterranean galleys, galleys is not I have not highlighted it please note
it, but I would like you to look at these words related with the sailing industry the
shipping industry; and the nordic drakkar relied mainly on oars for propulsion aided by
195
square sails when there was a following wind. They would be steered with a "side oar",
now, steered is also a simple past; that would hang off the back of the boat, in hang off
his is a phrasal verb. That is another very complicated category; many students get
terribly confused while using phrasal verbs. In the 1300s, larger loads for war and
commerce were handled by Cogs. In the north, the rudder had replaced the side oar for
his steering. In the Mediterranean, lateen sails working as wind-foils allowed, allowed is
another past; sailing upwind. Building techniques improved to allow the construction of
larger crafts with multiple masts.
Now, here is an exercise for you please look at the slide. I want you to choose the right
word for simple past and the word is the verb and the word is given in the bracket, you
use it to make your simple past fast.
196
Alright, I will now give you the answer to it; here is the answer key.
Opinion was divided amongst early scientists regarding the speed of light. Some like
Aristotle thought, 'So, think is 'thought', that light traveled instantaneously, while others
like Al-Haytham thought 'again think is thought', it was fast, but finite. Galileo tried to
measure how fast the light from a lantern traveled. So, simple word or present is travel;
traveled is past. From one hilltop to another and back again but failed because light was
too fast, and human reaction time too slow. All Galileo could report was the ‘be’ form of
a simple past', was that light was faster than sound. The speed of light was first measured
by noticing that the moons of Jupiter took longer to appear in their predicted places when
Jupiter was far from the Earth than they did when Jupiter was close. Olaf Roemer
suggested this was because light took extra time to reach Earth when Jupiter was further
away. Another astronomical measurement, called steller aberration, confirmed the finite
speed of light. The speed of light was not measured on earth and until Armand Fizeau
and Leon Foucault developed their experiment, essentially a refinement of Galileo's, in
the early nineteenth century. So, this is your answer please tally it.
Now, I will move on and I am giving you something more complicated now. Here is a
list of jumbled sentences and jumbled sentences I am jumbling words within sentences.
197
So, you have to make proper and appropriate complete sentences using these words and
make an entire passage. I can give you a hint. Now, you may recall those lectures where
we had discussed the subject verb agreement and also sentence construction and the
various parts of a sentence for example, subject verb complement, subject verb object,
subject verb object and object, direct and indirect object. Remember, the questions that
are answered by a direct object, remember the questions that answered by an indirect
object. Look at this passage here.
I am reading it, it is already jumbled do not get hazel by it, but you will find it extremely
interesting to solve this exercise. Born Bologna Italy 1874 was Marconi in. Was wealthy
father in landowner his full stop. Mother distillers was a of member family Ireland's
Jameson his full stop. Educated University of bologna by Livorno Technical Institute
tutors and full stop. Electromagnetic interactions 1894 Marconi generated fascinated in
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz is one single name discovery by of German physicist "invisible
waves".
198
This continuous, Was wave-generating estate Marconi his sending built away own soon
family's and signals mile locations equipment a full stop; here it ends. And, please look at
the answer here. This is solved for you and how simple it is.
Guglielmo Marconi was born in 1874 in Bologna, Italy. His father was a wealthy
199
landowner. His mother was a member of Ireland's Jameson family of distillers. Marconi
was educated by tutors and at the Livorno Technical Institute, full stop. In 1894 Marconi
became fascinated with the discovery by German physicist Hertz of "invisible waves"
generated by electromagnetic interactions. Last sentence, Marconi built his own wave-
generating equipment at his family's estate and was soon sending signals to locations a
mile away.
So, far we have been doing simple past and there has to be some kind of review that,
what are the basic components of a simple past or past tense when you talk about past
tense? What is exactly happening? And we say, you know immediately it is suggesting
past time, time that is over, action that is over and when we suggest time, statements of
time some of the useful expressions you know that make a very handy for you think of
that and in the passages that we have been doing so many exercises, what are the
recurring features? What do we talk about? How do we qualify time? So, we talk about
the early 20th century, right? The late 19th century, the middle of the 18th century, at the
beginning of the 21st century, at the end of so and such and such things or at the end of
such and such era. In conclusion, so all these are markers of time. We are coming to and
in the later half, in the earlier decades. This the way you qualify.
So, let say 1920, do not say repeat it over and again, I am talking now basically about
how to improve the quality of your writing. So, when you say 1910 or 1920 do not say
repeatedly 1920 1910 1920, what could you say? In the second decade of the 19th
century or you can always say in the first decade of the 20th century. So, in the first day
when you say 1907 you want to write 19th century, yes, 1910 you can always say in the
first decade of the 20th century. So, that is the way. So, try to bring in some variety of
expressions and of course, you are aware of the abbreviations BC and AD that also
suggest time, they are qualifiers and statements of time.
Now, here is a list of very useful verbs for you; please take a look.
200
Make sentences of your own; please take a look at the slide. Why I am giving you this
exercise is that while writing and also while making formal presentations you need to use
certain kind of vocabulary, you cannot repeatedly say - I say this, I state this, I found this,
I found this, I found this. So, you have to use a variety of words and expressions. Here is
a list that may help you in your endure. Discovered - determined, invented - introduced,
built - referred, made, organized, analyzed, claimed, published these are the words that
you may use, that you do use in your every day's speech and writing. Try to make
sentences that are more related to your area, your domain of study, alright. So, with this
note we end and we will soon meet and we will talk about present perfect tense.
Tags
201
and uncountable nouns, singular, plural, Modals and Voice, Tenses
202
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 15
Tenses (Continued)
Hello. So, we have been talking about tenses and we have already talked about simple
past. I wrote on the board simple past. We have also talked about other tenses.
Now, let me, I am going to talk about present perfect tense, simple present today. I now
look at me, watch me. I am writing on the board. I am writing on the board, this is not
your simple present. I am writing, now. T the action is over. So, I will say I wrote on the
board. I am writing when I was writing, it was a present continuous tense. It was a
present continuous tense which you as technical people as a scientist and engineers, you
would not need. So, much of you need, you need not to use this particular tense to a very
large extent, to a very great extent, but what you definitely use and you need to have a
complete control over if present, simple present, simple past, present perfect is those are
and then, you should be able to make the sentences into passive voices.
203
I mean I am doing so much of grammar, you may wonder why. So, much of grammar
and perhaps you have had already a substantial amount of grammar in your background.
I am very sure that you have had all this kind of exposure, but many a time we sub-
consciously choose to ignore or maybe we forget whatever we have learnt at school
level.
So, these are the things we have to keep ourselves reminding that how the sentences are
written accurately and appropriately. This is very important and therefore, so much of
emphasis on this. I am moving all of you towards more complex level of reading and
writing. That is the major thought behind whatever we are doing. Now, coming to
present simple or simple present tense, we use it to express thoughts and feelings.
I feel bad about the whole thing, I feel very happy. These are abstract nouns, right.
Happiness, bitterness, synergism, these are abstract nouns. These cannot be seen and
touched with hands. These are non-tangible emotions. So, the present simple expressive
expression 03 29 is a state. I like music, I like singing, she loves reading, he believes in
honesty, they believe in hard work. So, all these are like see, loves, like, hate, dislikes,
believes, these are abstract nouns and these are thoughts and feelings.
Present simple tense is also used to suggest repeated actions. The doctor does the rounds
at 1 pm. You know in hospital we call a doctor, the doctor doing his rounds when he goes
to look at the admitted patients. So, he does the rounds. So, here is only one main verb
that is ‘does’, we come here every day; we walk in this campus every day. This is a
repeated habitual action. Simple tense is also present simple is also use to denote
universal facts and the his 04 42 state of things. That is the way they are.
A table has four legs or a chair has four legs. It has to be that way. A chair has to be. Of
course, nowadays we have all kinds of fancy furniture, but the way we understand as a
table is an object that has four legs like he said, but I will give you more something that
will never change and that is the sun rises in the east. It will never change. The earth
revolves round the sun. It will never change. So, universal fact is state of things, just the
way it is I like it or not, chalk and cheese are different. Like it or not, you cannot
substitute one for the other.
204
English is an international language. It is a state of affairs state of things, you like it or
not. Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system. That is the way it is, or the hottest
world if you call Venus and another world. So, it is hottest planet, hottest world in the
solar system. So, that is the way it is. So, you cannot change the tense. You cannot
substitute that tense here at all. Now, remember present tense verbs have a‘s’ or ‘es’.
When we make verbs, so develop and it becomes, you add s and it becomes develops.
So, when the subject especially you have to remember that present tense verbs have a‘s’
or ‘es’ at the end, when the subject is he or she. Let say a person or a singular
uncountable noun, we cannot say I likes flowers. It is he likes flowers, she likes flowers,
she likes poetry, not I likes poetry. So, he, or she, it, is a person or a singular or
uncountable noun. So, then we have the present tense verb within s or e s. For example,
let say a yard measures 0.19104, meter measures gold sells. Gold you know the act of
selling. So, gold sells shines0718 always diamond sparkles. What we are you doing? You
are changing the verb into simple present tense by adding an s at the end.
Now, I would like you to look at this sample text in present tense. Please look at the text.
Many celebrities use an app called Dubsmash, an app that lets you record. Please note let
us is, let is a verb. Let me do it, let me open the door for, you let me start the experiment
205
and you can follow later, let it be told, let the truth be told, but it something, let us you do
something, this is something that enables you. So, therefore, let us please observe these
subtle new answers of the English language, where you are supposed to add an extra s
and where you do not have to do it at all. So, record videos of yourself, lip syncing to
sound clippings ranging from pop songs, to famous movie lines, to viral Youtube videos.
On Dubsmash, you can choose, again choose is simple present tense and audio recording
of a well known quote from a list and record a video of themselves in which they dub the
quote. The app founders are, so again simple present. These are the names. When we talk
about, now from simple tense which we move on to talk about present perfect tense.
When we talk about something that has happened in the past, but we do not is
specifically or where we do not specify precisely when it happened, we use the present
perfect.
Let say for example, Floyd new weather has broken all records in boxing. I have found
the file you wanted. So, this is the way you use your present perfect. Look at these
sentences, look at this slide and I have given you certain examples of present perfect.
Just look at the style, look at the way these things are done.
206
The instruments have already boiled; have already boiled for 5 minutes. The new phone
has arrived, perhaps your, Iphone 6 or 7. So, the new phone has arrived, it is big news.
Has the examination begun? Please look at begun. It is present perfect. We have already
done a list of irregular verbs. The problem has been solved. Please do not mind. There is
a typo error here. It is h a s, the problem has been solved. The refrigerator has broken
down twice this week. The refrigerator broke down is simple past, but it has broken
down means what are we trying to suggest that is action that is almost completed. So,
more than 3 million posts have been uploaded to Instagram using the hash tag
Dubsmash, some of these coming from celebrities.
Now, the present perfect is used in certain historical and news statements. Present perfect
describes those activities that are carried out a little while before now or just before now.
We remember it has been completed a little while before now or just before now. The
researchers have just completed their survey of their area facing placing severe water
shortage not to be confused with simple past that will slightly change the meaning of it.
Now, here I am going to give an exercise, make present perfect forms. We have to use
this word verb and complete it making present perfect forms. We life on mars,
pharmacists develop many tablets for pain relief. The results of her medical tests just
207
come out, government, other government supply assistance to many students, scientists
find a new planet. So, please take a look at this and make present perfect forms. So, let
us solve it.
We have not yet discovered life on Mars, pharmacists have developed, pharmacists will
develop many tablets for pain relief, the results of her medical tests have just come out,
government has supplied the assistance to many students, and scientists have found a
new planet. So, why use present perfect? So, present perfect is also used to suggest
activities carried out at some unstated or unspecified time before.
Now, noun you do not have to really give time. I have been to Calcutta or Kolkata. I have
been to Hyderabad. So, it is not like I have never gone there. I have been there. Governor
has signed the bill, the cabinet has approved the budget, and scientists have created the
equivalent of a rechargeable lithium ion battery, the size of a Nano wire. So, all these
have been done this, has created this, have created, have developed all this. All these
things, they constitute present perfect. So important, such an important tense for you
people to use especially in your written communication.
So, please remember we are soon going to embark on plenty of writing and plenty of
again reading and various kinds of activities and exercises, especially writing. Therefore,
all that we are doing right now is leading us towards that when we come to good writing,
there is no scope for making errors especially in terms of word formation, especially in
terms of referencing and then grammar of course. You cannot mix up tenses especially
subject verb agreement.
208
Now, here is a slide. Please do this exercise. Use these words in your own language.
Look at the slide, make sentences using a present perfect tense and you have to use the
following words. I have done the first sentence for you. This company has been
independent of let say management. So, I have done the first word for you. Also look at
certain words since, just, recently, operational, in existence, in use, in operation, out of
operation, under consideration, under discussion. Please look at these expressions.
They are extremely important in your field, in your domain of studies and try to use them
and discuss it. Perhaps some of you are who are doing this course, of course is a self
study, but if you have a friend who has also taken up this course, kindly sit with your
friend and discuss the sentences, work together. Now, this is another exercise and I
would like you to again do the same thing, do present perfect tense.
209
Look at the first three sentences and then, look at these three sentences. Now, let us solve
this exercise. For the first time, a human heart has been created using stem cells. Our
country has regularly undertaken space missions. A project to build India’s largest
underground laboratory for advanced research on the smallest particle known to man has
been cleared.
210
National Council of Science Museums has received, next is special effects mixture of
mechanical effects and optical effects; initially the visual effects were considered. It is
the e-age and the special effects have been developed to such an extent. So, now I would
like you to start with some writing. So, now we are into more gravitating towards writing
and using all the structures, using the grammar that you have been doing. So far, I would
like you to write a short passage on any one of the topics that I am going to give now.
Just choose a topic of your comfort level and your topics are the development in
robotics, the recent developments in robotics. The second topic is public transport in
India and third one, the development or the recent development in information
technology in India.
Please look at the slide and this is the way you have to do. I am just giving you some
hints. Now, I am not going to give you any answer. I think we have read enough; we
have done enough practice in grammar vocabulary, although I will be focusing a little on
word formation and vocabulary, little more on vocabulary also. However, I think that by
now you should be very comfortable making flawless sentences, which are you know up
to the mark, up to the standard and the reason why you opt it for this course in order to
enhance your language.
211
So, these are the words and it structures that should be used in for this particular exercise
that we have done with the three topics that I have given to you. When you are writing
the passage, please use these words in structures and here is a list, not an exhaustive.
however unless you can use. Electricity, Has been, have been, have developed, Has or
have explored, has been restricted, revolutionary, human mind, earlier, electric lamps,
invention, discovery, once thought, believed, development, evolved, growth, trains,
trucks, buses, metros, inaugurated, used to, observed, noted, demonstrated, shown,
proved. These are the words or structures that you can use.
Now, here is another exercise for you. Please look at the slide. I would like you to all
read. These sentences have errors. Please look at these sentences and correct the errors.
Correct the following sentences. He thought how is it made. She choosed a book. He
made a goal. Columbus founded America. He found this company. He gave a speech. He
said me to go. Please look at the sentences and here are the answers.
212
Please look at the slide. Now, He wondered how it was made and not he thought how it
is made. She chose a book and not she choosed a book. He scored a goal. You scored a
goal and you do not make a goal. Columbus discovered America and he did not find
America. He founded this company. Remember, we have been taking about this when
you establish something, establish a dynasty or company; you are the founding father of
it. Then, past tense becomes founded. He made a speech. It is very important we do not
say he gave a speech. It is very common error to use this sentence or this structure that he
gave a speech, but we say correct form is he made a speech and he told me to go. Here is
another exercise for you to do.
213
Please look at this slide and user your dictionaries, right. Write complete and flawless
sentences with definition and then, try to work in pairs with your friends or your
teachers and check your answers. An opisometer, A pipette, A burette, A vernier, A
compass, An electroscope, A beehive shelf, A caliper.
So, thank you very much and have a good day.
Tags
and uncountable nouns, singular, plural, Modals and Voice, Tenses
214
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 16
Effective Speaking
Good morning. So, today's topic is Effective Speaking.
All of us need to speak in various situations. I will be talking to you about how to make
effective presentations that maybe in your classroom situations or when you take part or
participate in some of your extra curricular activities like debating, elocution. You will
realize the more you speak, at least competitively comparatively, the better you get in
time because after all practice makes a man perfect. If you want to practice your English,
you have to communicate in English that is the basic rule of it.
So, Effective Speaking is all about how to project yourself. Of course, many people will
give you tips on non-verbal communication. We will also talk about those things, but
today I am talking about some of the strategies and basically related to your speech and
not your body language that maybe of immense help to you while making academic
216
presentations and making public speeches, that could be of any kind. No one can deny
the importance of ability to speak in public and today I am going to focus on some of
these aspects, clarity of speaking, how to rhythm and pause at appropriate places. This is
also something that we need to look at in more detail. Basically, we are talking about
making presentations, alright.
I will also focus from today onwards on some key aspects of pronunciation and here is a
book that I would heavily recommend perhaps you can look at it 'Better English
Pronunciation' by someone called J.D Corner. However, it is important that you watch
these lectures continuously and you watch these lectures regularly in order to follow this
book. Otherwise without these interaction, the kinds of interaction we are having it
would be little more difficult for you to follow the rhythm of this book.
Why Speech? I mean we know great speeches down the ages they have changed the
History of Civilization. How many of you remember great speeches? Of course, we all
know Mark Antony's famous speech 'Friends Roman Countrymen'. And you should also
read some of the great plays by Shakespeare in for example, in the 'Tempest, Julius
Caesar' he makes very good use of speeches and how people can swear the mind of the
multitude through their language, through their enunciation, through their words. So, all
those things matter.
Of course, we also know that Socrates is famous speech, when the great Greek
philosopher when he was a condemned off and the charges were that his teachings for
corrupting the youth and he was condemned to death by the Greek Governing Bodies
and he was asked to a drink poison. So, before that he made a great public speech. What
I am trying to say? That the practice of speaking in public is nothing new, it has always
been there. I would like you to take a look at one of the greatest speeches ever and this
was made by Sir Winston Churchill, the then Prime Minister of England at the time of
the Second World War. Please read and take a look at this speech.
217
I have just taken excerpts. We shall defend our Island, whatever the cost maybe, we shall
fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields
and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if, which
I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part of it was subjugated and
starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet,
would carry on the struggle, until, in God's good time, the New World, with all it is
power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old.
This is one of the momentous periods in Modern History. We also have great speeches by
people like John F. Kennedy, by our late Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Martin Luther
King and so on, so greats of politics and greats of literature and also some very good
speeches from films. If you care about films then perhaps is a good idea to watch a
couple of films that contain excellent motivational speeches.
Now, speaking well as we all know can have a tremendous effect on our professional
life. All of us depend on how well we speak, of course we are students, some of us may
also take to the life of research but then all of us need to speak in public situations every
now and then and then we should not be speech less that is the idea. While speaking in
academic situations it is important to pay attention to a tone, tone should be the way; I
218
mean suddenly I started screaming and shouting and adapt a very rough tone that will be
putting of people. Sometimes even very harsh things can be said but if and they will be
taken while well if the tone is appropriate and polite. We also look at our pitch, how
much you want to raise up and down and then again volume or loudness, how we control
our speech?
Now, pace and rhythms are the other 2 important features of our speech. We need to
pause and breathe and not every now and then, I mean not after every word, but at the
right places. Therefore, we have something like commas. Commas are extremely
essential for us to understand where to take a break. So, in writing we have commas, in
speech we have pauses and it is important to remember when to make these pauses. Let
me tell you when you speak at a break neck next speed and you get breathless, perhaps in
certain situations it makes for it fits a situation or maybe it makes for a very good comic
situation but in public speaking you need to have pauses you need to have some control
on the rhythm of your conversation, your speech.
To practice, I would suggest pace and pause. Read aloud from a newspaper or book, take
a pause before you run out of breath, the rhythm is also connected to our breathing
habits. When you start reading books and newspapers are allowed, you will find that
good writers use comma and that is the way you should, I mean do not over do anything,
these are just tips that I am giving you. Do not take every word so literally that you are
end up doing exactly the opposite of what I am telling you to do. The important point is
that we cannot speak in a breathless fashion, while making a public presentation, while
making an academic presentation. So, in public speaking you cannot be talking, you have
to have some control over your pace pays, rhythm and therefore you need to have some
control over pauses.
You should remember it is breathing that controls how much energy is available for the
flow of speech and where the break comes from. Remember that clear speech is the key
to a successful public speaking. Pay attention to your articulation and this book if you
follow it properly and assiduously you will find that it says or it makes a lot of important
points about the importance of articulation, where you should pause, where you should
stress. See, I did not say where is you should 'stress', I said where you should 'stress'.
219
There has there has to be certain kind of awareness about where to take a pause and
which words to emphasize.
You must remember always that your audience is looking at you. They also observe your
facial expressions, always keep your facial expression I mean it is very important not to
look extremely grim, so that you put people off but at the same time do not giggle, when
we are not talking about an informal situation. People start smiling and laughing and
cracking jokes, but that has to come only once you are a very proficient speaker. When
you are still at learning stage, do not spoil your speech, do not is spoil the entire set up by
giggling, laughing, covering your mouth. See, how bad it looks I am talking to you and I
am covering my mouth, so my voice would be all muffled up and it should not come
across in such a way. Remember the sound of the voice is very important; you have to
bring in enough amount of variation in your voice.
Monotonous voices are one of the biggest put off for the audience. You need to have a
variety of pace pays and volume. Eye contact, after all eye contact is more a body
language type of feature or element, but it is very important to make an eye contact with
people, otherwise they would think you are being a furtive, you have something to hide
and you are also disinterested. Some people also take it as you are being disrespectful to
the audience. It is very important and this is again habit or practice that has to be
cultivated. So, the key is that you look at a person in the eye while speaking for few
seconds, do not just out stare people but look at them for a few seconds and then look
away and look at someone else. With this you are going to involve everyone in the
audience. So the audience will be more interested in what you have to say.
Nowadays, I mean we are no longer talking about the times of Socrates and Julius
Caesar, we are talking about contemporary era, and making a public presentation and all
of us use visual aids. Blackboard is a kind of visual aid, we use projectors to show
something of importance, we use maps and charts and graphs to show to our audience in
order to make a point. Remember, while making a public presentation always use visual
aids that will capture the audience’s attention, ask will this aid suit the occasion. So make
sure your pitching it right. Do not bring visual aids which may not be of the appropriate
level of the audience. Always have respect for your audience, do not underestimate them.
220
At the same time do not think that they know everything and all that you have to do is
give some very scientific jargon to them.
Understand and do some research some background study on the kinds of audience you
are going to address. You have to also remember and this I have noticed when a students
make power point presentations, there is a tendency to over stuff the number of visual
aids. So, we want to use a film clipping, we want to use blackboard, we want to use
projector, I mean a variety of things charts, maps, books whatever, we want people to
know how much we know. Remember it is a talk, so talk, you have to speak. So you
have to rely more on yourself and then you can never over estimate technology, there is
always a tendency, if there is always a possibility that there might be a power cut or
something may not work. Do not rely too heavily on visual aids; always I have a plan 'B'.
Do not cram if you are using power point presentations and if you have too many slides,
do not cram yourself or some people write all over the board.
Please understand that the human mind can take in only this much, do not cram your
visual aids with too much of information and written material. Do not try to be too
artistic, if it is in not an artistic moment or situation. The best kinds of a power point
presentations is specially in academic situations are those, which are extremely clear,
sometimes people use black font on dark blue background. You see it blurs the clarity or
yellow somewhere, I mean all these things may be good when you are doing your
individual presentation and you are making your notes on your system, but in public
situation always think of the person sitting right at the back and it is important to be very
careful about these things. You should always rehearse your visual aids with your friends
and if you do not have then do it aloud, practice aloud at home all by yourself.
Make sure also that your you are comfortable using projectors and they are in working
order, so do not get caught off guard. When making visual aids always remember to face
the audience do not talk with your back towards the audience. Again, it is the same logic
the same rule when you cover your mouth and we are talking with the back towards the
audience, it muffles your voice, people do not get actually what you are saying. If visual
aids are important then do not block the visual aids. Stand to one side and use a pointer,
we have pointers these days to draw attention to items on the maps, on the board, on the
221
slides, whatever you are using make sure and do not be vague, do not me unclear always
be clear about what you are trying to say because you should not make a weak point,
otherwise people would not understand what you are trying to say, so it is always good to
point towards something.
And having said all this I would like you, we will be discussing more such elements of
speaking and also how to do job interviews, what are the tips for job interviews, we will
be talking about lot of writing for a job like you are preparing a CV or at a later stage
your reports, perhaps even your SOP’s and you we will be talking about that. And we
will talk a lot more about how to make professional communication, how to do how to
make, project yourself at job interviews and all.
I would like you to draw your attention today I have already told you about this book and
you are watching me and I would like you to, please pay attention to the enunciation of
some of the words. I am looking at and I am dealing with today the so called fricatives in
English language, these are F and V. F and V and words that have that contain F and V's.
How do we pronounce? And I will pronounce some of the words for you from words we
will move on to sentence also, how to emphasize. So, first word 'fast', if you want to you
can repeat after me. 'Few', 'view', 'fear', 'wear', 'file', 'while', 'fat', 'rat', 'fail', 'whale' and
then we will talk about F and V, these are the words that begin with that. Now we will
talk about these sounds in the middle of a word.
So, 'suffer' and then let us look at 'cover'. 'Deafer', 'never', we are talking about fricatives
in the sound the in the middle of a word. 'Sniffing', 'giving' be very clear about the way
you enunciate. 'Proofing', 'proving', 'sofa', 'over' s o f a is sofa, o v e r over. 'Safer' and
'savour', s a v o u r. 'Offer', 'hover' h o v e r. 'Defied', 'divide'. 'Refuse' and 'reviews'. So,
all these words you can practice on your own, this book comes with an audio CD as well,
you can sit at your own convenience and practice. I have a read you out some words
contained on page 26 of Connor's 'Better English Pronunciation'.
Thank you very much will meet for our next class soon.
222
Tags
and uncountable nouns, singular, plural, Modals and Voice, Tenses, Effective Speaking
223
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 17
Formal Presentation & Dictionary Skills
We have been talking about speaking in public and especially in formal situations,
especially in academic situations. In your case, it is more important because you have to
make constant presentations to your fellow students and also to your professors. So, let
us talk about how to prepare, I mean I know in the last class also we have talked about
these things but I am just emphasizing on certain key points that you need to remember
while making formal presentations.
Remember, we prepare differently for different audience not all audiences are alike, if
this group A expect something else, group B may of people may expect something else
from you. You may make presentations at undergraduate or graduate, even higher levels,
you may make presentations for your professors, college professors, university
professors, administrators and when you apply for certain kinds of fellowships, you need
to have to make presentations. Sometimes also to people in the industry, when you seek
jobs and you are supposed to make presentations.
Have an idea of the knowledge level of the expected audience and prepare your talk
accordingly. What do your audiences know? Pitch your talk to that level. Remember the
tone of the presentation should be and also the matter should be adjusted along according
to the audience. Always prepare a presentation that is closest to the expectation of your
audience. Now, you should remember the W's. Who, what, when, where and why.
224
Your presentation should cover these questions who, what, when, where, why and also
how. Your presentation should answer or explain these and most of these answers should
be given in the introduction also. Your title card should never be vague. The title slide or
card or whatever you want to write on an, if you are using any other kind of visual aid, it
should never be vague, it should be always be very clear about who, what and where,
what are you trying to do? What are you trying to say? That should not be between any
there should not be any ambiguity between what you are saying and what you actually
want to convey.
So, the audience should not be in confusion that is what is going on and what is this
person talking about. Communicate it very well in the opening statement itself that what
are you going to do, so set the tone. I am especially talking out those of you, who are in
technical side of academic, so if your talk or if your research on which you have based
your talk, if it has been is sponsored then always mention any source of funding in the
introduction itself, it is important to do that. The middle and the conclusion they should
contain how of your argument, how it was done? How this research was done?
And a formal presentation should ideally focus on a single key argument. There has to be
an argument, there has to be a question which has to be responded too. Use all other
225
arguments to supplement and support the argument and remember you have to provide
only the necessary details when you present a statistics and other kinds of data, make
sure that it is very well organized and it is comprehensible and readable. Sometimes,
especially those in the area of technical, they pack or the cram their slides with too much
of data, organize it well. Always include the most persuasive visual data to support your
arguments rather than cramming it up with too many things. The key data the one which
determines, determines of finding highlight that.
Conclusion of course, there has to be a conclusion, do not ever abruptly and your
presentation, it should be short and should quickly reiterate your key arguments. So what
you started with. At the end you should always try to align your conclusion with your
introduction and your key argument. Talking about the argument introduction should
explain why your work is important? Why am I doing this at all? What is the relevance
significance of this? Include the context of your work. It is always good to have some
knowledge of the background of your study and in what context, in what circumstances
did you undertake that work.
Presentations remember should be brief and attire to the time limit, if you have been told
to make a presentation for 20 minutes practice and design it for 20 minutes, always leave
some room for question and answers. While designing the slides there are certain key
elements to remember, slide should support your message. Remember that, they are there
to support they are not managing you; they are not substituting for you. Slides are just
there so that you can use them do not get overwhelmed by this slides. In the slide many a
time people cut and paste material from the report, they have done a huge study and they
start cutting and pasting in order to save time. Sometimes we are lazy we do not want to
work on a slides.
Remember, we have to enhance the effectiveness of your presentation not stuff it with
too much of information. Therefore, cutting and pasting word from the report would give
a very poor impression, try to use bullet points and make it clean and neat. Always
remember that you have your slides should be as simple as possible, you have to do the
talking and not your slide should not be cluttered with material. Always remember that
the audience is there to listen to you, therefore your credibility is important. We establish
226
our credibility by demonstrating our expertise. Now, if you have some kind of a control
over the matter or material it shows that you have done work and that is what is going to
be evaluated.
You should sound knowledgeable and talk fluently without stammering and groping
around for words, you should emphasize your interest also it is very important,
remember that in show some interest in the audience. We have been talking the other day
about making eye contact; here I am going a little beyond that. Make eye contact, as I
have told you already, you should look 5 seconds at one person and for another 5 seconds
at some, I mean do not over stare a person, do not out stare a person, do not gaze at a
person and it is also very important to appear enthusiastic in your presentation.
The certain kinds of non-verbal elements that also creep in your presentations, many a
time we find, as discussed earlier talking with your mouth covered that is a big no.
Talking to the audience with a back towards them, absolutely not done and then many a
time we find people crossing their arms across the body. Now, this is a very negative sort
of a gesture especially when it comes to let us say face to face interviews, formal
presentations and also talking to your people who are in authority. Unless and until you
are very close to them, very comfortable with people, pays attention to your body
language, do not appear overtly stiff, at the same time do not appear brash and over
confident. Crossing your arms give the impression that you are ready for a combat. You
know what is a combat? A confrontation, you are facing an enemies it is always better let
you smile to have a pleasant face and a pleasant tone and try to manage your arms.
It is always good to practice your presentation a once or twice at home and preferably
before people who know the subject. Always create note cards, effective slides, if
possible visit the venue of presentation before hand and make sure that your slides will
be visible to all members of the audience. Be prepared with the backup when things go
wrong. You remember Murphy's Law, 'anything can go wrong, it will go wrong'. So
remember that it is technology we are talking about. Perhaps, it is a good idea to take
some xerox copies of what you want to show, it will take effort, it will take some time
but it is always good to be prepared for any kind of eventuality. Let us assume something
goes wrong with the OHP, with the projection system at the nth hour then what are you
227
doing to do? So always be prepared for that kind of situation.
Remember you are making a presentation is for enhancing knowledge. Anticipate

questions and challenges, be prepared to elaborate and repeat your arguments you have
to do that. You will be questioned and you have to be prepared to cover all tracks, cover
all angles. Apart from the knowledge that you are going to impart and exhibiting your
expertise in chosen area, it is also important to speak appropriately. Now, what is
appropriate language? Of course good grammar, good choice of words, impressive body
language all those things matter, but speaking appropriately also means choosing
language that is adapted to the needs, interest and knowledge of the listeners.
Through appropriate language we communicate our respect and acceptance of those who
are listening to us. Remember language should be appropriately formal for the situation.
Appropriate language should be chosen so that the jargon that is a technical terminology,
you know what is a jargon? Every field of expertise has it is own jargon, a specific kind
of a language. In linguistics, for instance you have a set of words; in computer sciences
you have another set of jargon is specific to that domain. In literature you have terms
such as imagery, metaphor, metonym, alliteration these are jargons is specific to
literature, a figures of speech. That is technical jargon.
Your language should be so that it has the appropriate technical terminology, but at the
same time it should not interfere with understanding, so therefore, it is a very important
that you pitch your presentation to the level of the audience. Do not cram it with such
jargon that people who are not experts but, anyway educated people but not expert in
your specific area, they fail to understand what you are trying to say. And also slang, now
remember many a time the way we write it and the way we speak they creep into each
other and vice versa, right. So, the way we speak shows reflects in our writing and vice
versa.
Now, slang is something that is a very informal way of talking and communication.
Avoid that, informal presentations you do not use slang that is what I mean by
appropriacy of language. Language should also be sensitive, what is sensitivity in
language? We talk about sensitivity in language when others do not perceive it as
228
offensive. Some of the offensive language result from expressions that can be seen as
sexist, racist, communal, offensive to a particular region or a country or group of people
and show some kinds of biases and prejudice against someone or a group of people. Any
language that is demeaning, belittling to any person or group of people on the basis of
their gender, religion, nationality, race, language, etcetera, should be avoided. Please take
a look at these references here.
Look at the slide, these are for you to look up and some of these websites will give you
information about how to be more sensitive and more unbiased when you use language.
Now, so much about making presentation, now let us move on to talk about another area
that I have plan to discuss today, that is dictionary skills, how to use a dictionary? I have
already referred one dictionary to so you know that, you should also know that we all
choose dictionaries according to our needs. A middle school level child would pick a
simpler kind of dictionary, people whose language needs and use are more challenging,
more complex; they use more complex kind of dictionaries.
The world is full of dictionaries. Do you know that the biggest dictionary of English is
the New Oxford English Dictionary, it has 20 volumes and tells us when, where and by
229
whom a particular word was used with of specific meaning. However, not all of us need
the New Oxford English Dictionary and it is 20 volumes, right? At the same time
remember, you cannot expect one or a single dictionary to cater to all your needs. There
may be times when you would need or when you may require more than one dictionary.
What do dictionaries do?
Let us take a word such as, how do you pronounce it? Paradigm; 'g' silent. Now, this is a
technical word which is also used in philosophy and psychology in the domains of these
disciplines, also in grammar. So it is pronounced as paradigm, it is what part of speech?
It is a noun. Remember, it is formal and technical. It is a very formal word, we do not
throw around words like paradigm, let us say very informal situation. So, these are
formal words they require formal occasions of use, what does it mean? It means typical
example of pattern, for example a paradigm for a students to copy the template. From
paradigm, we also get the word paradigmatic and which is an adjective.
230
'Paradigm', 'paradigmatic' and we have changed the class of the word; from noun we
have changed it into an adjective. If you look up the dictionary, you will find all these
things, you will find the head word paradigm, you will find the pronunciation, the
classification that is the part of speech, you will be told whether it is formal or slang or
technical whatever, you will be given its meanings, if there are more than one meaning
then will you will have those meanings also. As well as using those words in sentences
and then you will be given the various word forms. So, you can make an adjective here,
and then the pronunciation of that word form.
Generally speaking you will find a word like ‘paradigm’; this is a very grand word.
Sometimes people use it as in his actions are a paradigm for all other leaders, it is like a
model, a copy, so this is rather pretentious use. One must note that paradigm cannot be
applied to people, only to things or attributes. Remember, a model person is not his
actions are paradigm; we have to say a model person is another paragon, so he is a
paragon of virtue. That is the way we use it, you can look up the word paragon it has all
kinds of positive attributes to it.
Another word like let us look at parameters. So, a parameter is a technical term and also
in maths, it is used in maths. This has a come into general use like budgetary parameters,
231
parameters of democracy and in such general context we do not need to use a grand duos
word like parameter, the word is scope would be better.
Let us look at the slide. I have given a word reduce, I could have given any word but let
us see what we can do with the word reduce, the references Oxford Advanced English
Learner's Dictionary. It tells us that reduce and it is given as the head word. They give a
key symbol to mean that this is the key word here and the pronunciation of it 'reduce',
and the category verb. Please take a look at the slide. Then you have given the first use,
how it can be used as a verb and noun phrase VN, which means make something less or
smaller in size, quantity, price, etcetera. For example, reduce speed on a sign. So reduce
speed now, that is given on a sign, let us say you are driving on a road in it is you see a
sign.
Costs have been reduced by 20 percent over the past year. Giving up smoking reduces
the risk of heart diseases. Second (Refer Time: 23:52) keep looking at the slide. Second
use verb and noun phrase and also has a noun for example; if you reduce a liquid or a
liquid reduces you boil it so that it becomes less in quantity. Third use is a verb, an
NAme, North American and informal the use, the meaning to lose weight by limiting the
mountain type of food you eat, so it is a reducing plan. It becomes a little informal and
232
more American kind of (Refer Time: 24:23). In chemistry that is the 4th kind of use, to
remove oxygen from a substance. Let us keep looking at the slides.
Idiomatic, IDM the dictionary also gives you the idiomatic use of this word, reduce
circumstances they will give the meaning and example. Phrasal verb, PHR V phrasal
verb reduces something from something and it is of passive construction. She was
reduced tears. So, one small word and so much of information that is what a dictionary
does. A good dictionary will also help you locating idioms. Now, what do you do when
you want to have idioms and you have a word like let us say reduce or tall. All very
common kinds of some words, deep, shallow, these are just words but they loaded with
multiple meanings.
A good dictionary should not only give you the meaning of certain words but also enrich
your language with plenty of idioms. The question is where to look the idioms? And
answer is many dictionaries include the idioms under the main or head word. Good
dictionary should also contain the technical sides of the language. Let us what say for
example, you know words that come with pseudo or micro or macro and all and so on
those things should also be there. Look at this slide.
233
See how very a common word like 'thing' and look at the number of idioms related to
'thing'. Let us look at these idioms. All other things being equal. Do your own thing. First
thing first. It is my thing. Have a thing about. To know the first thing about. One of those
things. Too much of a good thing. Now, I want you to do this exercise, please look at the
slide.
234
Increasing your word power, look up a dictionary see what it says about these words,
Ambiguous, Consensus. Cyclotron, Differential, Equity, Infinite, Inflammatory,
Momentous, Precipitate, Practitioner, Prescribe. Remember that your dictionary should
give you some certain other uses also, for example other forms of words and usage like,
tenses, past participles, etcetera. It should tell you if a word or expression is American
English or British English. It should tell you if a word is technical, slang, literary,
absolute, old fashion, etcetera.
While using a dictionary ask yourself does it look clear and easy to use. Look for those
dictionaries, where different meanings are separated into numbered items starting with
the more common and then become more complex. Also check, if the dictionary gives
you the pronunciation, nowadays online dictionaries are also give you the pronunciation
and click on the word and hear the pronunciation of the word. Likewise, most standard
hard copies of dictionaries they are accompanied with the CD, and they are also you
have this facility that you can hear the pronunciation that it contains the audio of
pronunciation of words.
Now here is another exercise for you, look at these 5 words, find the meanings. Viscous,
Fragile, Chemistry, Techniques, Molten, look up the meanings of these words and look at
235
the slide.
Now using these words fill in the blanks that are given here. Glass bottles have no effect
on the flavor, smell or the dash of the contents. Glass is dash, it should be handled
carefully. See remember all these words we have already looked at, the previous slide. So
please use those words to fill in the blanks. Liquid glass is dash one part will not separate
easily from the other parts. It is possible to draw dash glass in order to mass-produce
sheets of glass. The actual dash of making glass are different from the way ancient
Egyptians made it. So, what is the first one?
Glass bottles have no effect on the flavors smell or the chemistry yes of the contents.
Second, glass is fragile, it should be handled carefully. Liquid glass is viscous one part
will not separate easily from the other parts. It is possible to draw molten glass in order
to mass produce sheets of glass. And the last one, the actual technique of making glass
are different from the way ancient Egyptians made it.
236
Now, here is another exercise please look at the slide and look up the highlighted words.
I have highlighted certain words for you, look at these words and this is your homework,
do it yourself at home and reach your vocabulary, and look up these words in the
dictionary. So, making glass requires the correct recipe for a perfect result. Glass starts it
is life as a range of raw materials combine in a very specific ratio. The recipe calls for:
sand, soda, ash, limestone and other ingredients, such as iron and carbon which provide
color. So, what are the words highlighted 'recipes', 'specific', 'color'.
We move on, another important ingredient in the glass manufacturing process is cullet or
recovered glass, obtain from recycling, so, 'recycling' is the highlighted word here,
centers and bottle banks. Cullet usage can vary quite considerably with as much as 40
percent utilization per batch. Is inclusion in production is most important, as it means
that less virgin raw materials are used. It also melts at a lower temperature, enabling us to
reduce emissions and save energy. Raw materials are stored in large silos from where
they are measured and delivered to batch mixers, according to pre-programmed recipes.
Here is the link given to the passage.
So please do it at home, do it yourself and find the meanings and the various kinds of
uses these words can be put to. You find this exercise enormous beneficial.
237
Tags
Subject, Verb, Object, Articles, comparatives, passive voice, Dictionary skills,
Presentation
238
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 18
Punctuation
Good morning friends. So, today we are going to do punctuation. This will be the first
part of this lecture, punctuation and soon I will have another part of punctuation also.
But, let us see what is punctuation and why we need it, when we speak we pause at
certain places and that is a sort of verbal punctuation. When we listen and the speaker is
speaking something then we also again there are certain invisible punctuations there that
may change the meaning of what the speaker is saying. So, punctuations are important;
in written language punctuations are of extreme important.
Today, we are going to look at full stop, comma, colon, hyphen and dash. In particular,
soon in my next lecture, I will be dealing with brackets and other kinds of punctuations
marks that may be of use to you. See, I know that as engineers, as technical writers, you
need not have much use for certain marks such as let us say question mark or
exclamation mark; question mark you will be needing only when you write or read a
straight forward question.
239
I am now catering more to what you would need and require. So, these are the highlights
for today. Apart from that, I will also do a little bit of listening very interesting passage
for you and then we look what are dimensions and properties which are extremely
important for people in your field. We will also look at approximation the way we
express numbers. All these I am sure you would find of great relevance to your speaking,
writing and reading.
So, as I was saying before, the main purpose of punctuation is to make the meaning of a
written passage clear, when we read and when we write meaning comes across better and
more clearly when there is punctuation. Punctuation marks are essential for the exact and
accurate communication between the reader and the writer. Punctuations also serve to
add a style to your writing. There are great writers, who have made extremely innovative
use of punctuations and that adds to their style, but not all of us are creative writers and
therefore, we need to follow a set of rules, so in your case, in particular, you need not use
too much or too little of punctuation, but in moderation, and wherever required. Today’s
class is all about how people in your situation can have sufficient understanding of
punctuation and how to use them judiciously.
Let us look at this slide. I am going to read it out for you. I want you to look at the
240
number of punctuation marks, please look at the slide. Let us read on. This passage is
taken from a very influential book, The Ascent of Man by Jacob Bronowski. If some of
you have not read it, I suggest that you please take a look at it, please do read it. It is a
very interesting book, especially for those who are interested in technology and also in
history. “It’s important or It is important that students bring a certain ragamuffin,
barefoot irreverence to their studies; they are not here to worship what is known, but to
question it”.
“This is the concentration camp and crematorium at Auschwitz. This is where people
were turned into numbers. Into this pond were flushed the ashes of some four million
people. And that was not done by gas. It was done by arrogance. It was done by dogma.
It was done by ignorance. When people believe that they have absolute knowledge, with
no test in reality, this is how they behave”.
“Many theories of the ancient world seem terribly childish today, a hodge-podge of
fables and false comparisons. But our theories will seem childish five-hundred years
from now. Every theory is based on some analogy, and sooner or later the theory fails
because the analogy turns out to be false. A theory in its day helps to solve the problems
of the day.”
Now, look at the punctuation marks you have quotation marks open and close these are
quotations taken from The Ascent of Man. So, you have a quotation mark, where you are
quoting someone, so here the writer is quoting Bronowski. Then you have a comma by
certain ragamuffin, barefoot irreverence, and then you have a semi colon. A use of
comma here would have been inaappropriate not really desirable, because here the writer
is trying to separate two ideas therefore semi colon is more relevant rather than a comma.
See when he says ragamuffin and barefoot irreverence they both mean almost the same
things. And then of course, you have a full stop and there is a comma and a full stop and
close quotation marks, quotation marks are closing.
Now again, next this is the concentration and there is a full stop. In fact, the entire
paragraph is full of full stops; this is stylistic writing of a very high order. Advance
learners people or is scholars or writers are entitled to write this way to begin a sentence
241
with and; and that was not done by gas full stop, all this simple shorts sentences, but how
effective. This does not mean that the writer does not know how to write compound and
complex sentences; he is using simple sentences. It was done by dogma. It was done by
arrogance. It was done by ignorance. He is using so many full stops to emphasize a
point; emphasize what? That how arrogance and ignorance go hand in hand together and
Auschwitz that is the place where holocaust happen where millions were killed in gas
guest chambers during the Nadzira in Germany, so that is the famous concentration
camp.
Now, let us look at the last one. There is a comma childish today, and then hodge-podge
of fables and false comparisons full stop, and then you have again full stop and that is it.
So, number of punctuation marks and also look at the hyphenated number five-hundred
years, it is not five and hundred separate words joint by a hyphen. So, generally we use
hyphen to denote numbers. So, as I was talking to about why do we use the full stop, the
main use of the full stop is to end a statement.
Medicine has made great progress in the last fifty years. There are many factories in
Chennai today. These are bare statements. This means a declarative statement or
assertion that is not a question or an exclamation. An exclamation is expression of deep
emotions, what have you done! It is not a question, I mean oh, my god, what have you
done! This is an exclamation. In technical writing, we you do not need exclamation
mark. It would be a rare kind of writing, where you would be needing that unless you are
reading the passage by someone like Bronowski. You will hardly ever come across these
passages these examples of exclamations.
So, again remember full stop suggest end of a sentence a declarative a statement. The
generator broke down twice to ice this month to ice. In your particular cases, full stop is
an extremely important punctuation mark. Sometimes there are a special users of full
stop that is it is used in abbreviations mister - Mr., doctor - Dr., professor - Prof., p h d -
PhD., and the full stop, so that is how it is used. Sometimes, it is also used in cases of
indirect question, where there is no question mark, now this is again higher order
speaking and writing. I was wondering, if then he would joined us today for dinner. I was
wondering if I mean it has a sense of a question, but then it is also a statement. I want to
242
know if there is any truth about life on mars, I want to know if there is any truth about all
these rumors, stated these are indirect questions, someone has to answer me, but it is not
they do not end in a question mark, they end in a full stop.
Going back to the comma; this is the point, and this is the colon - two dots, this is the
hyphen, dash is a little longer bigger. So, the comma within sentences, the comma is
easily the most important punctuation mark as you have already seen in that Bronowski
passage. It is most typical use is to separate main clause linked by conjunctions such as,
but, and, or, for, nor, so comma is used there; comma is used to separate a number of
words. She is hard working comma clever comma persistent as well as and then you can
have any other attribute. So, you need a comma, all suggesting qualities. If you want to
say she is hardworking, yet cunning; so hardworking comma yet cunning.
Commas are also used to separate less essential materials from the rest of a sentence.
This is the job of a dash also. You gave some additional extra information that is also one
way of using comma. The comma is often used between clauses when the clauses are
long contrasted and complete. Let us assume she is hardworking, yet very cunning to a
human comma to forgive divines here you express contrasts. When we use commas
between main clauses not linked by conjunctions like and, but, or, nor, it can lead to
243
comma splice or run on sentence. Now, let me give you a run on sentence, many students
make these mistakes; my guide, my supervisor read my report he said it was no good.
Now this is a run on sentence; it would look better more allegiant more appropriate if
there is a comma here. So, my supervisor, my guide read my report, he said it was no
good.
Let me give it you on the board. My supervisor read my report he said it was no good is a
run on sentence. Clearly, look at it the layout itself shows there is something wrong with
it. What would be the correct form, if you insert a comma, where do you insert the
comma, my supervisor read my report, remove this he, and comma said it was no good
and you are solving the problem of comma splice. Now, let me give you this text - a
sample text and look at the kinds of punctuations that are used here particularly full stops
and commas.
244
Please look at the text and read with me. In the Roman period, it was commonly thought
that disease was brought by the alignment of the stars. They believed that looking into
astrology was the key thing to finding out why diseases occurred, for example, let us say
let us notice the way for example, is separated by pair appear of commas this is the way
it should be done, if a planet was lined up with another. Another belief for why diseases
occurred was that there were evil creatures too tiny to be seen that were causing people’s
illnesses. This is very much true as nowadays we know about germs and how they can
cause illness, showing that the Romans were on the right track for some part. Lastly,
comma now again, firstly, lastly, secondly, eventually, they all need a comma after that;
poisonous vapours in the air especially when we start a sentence with that these words.
So, lastly, poisonous vapours in the air were also to blame for diseases. These theories
were made by scientists in the roman period, and lasted until the nineteenth century.
245
Now, let us have an exercise here. Please look at this I have removed every punctuation
mark from this passage, I would like you to solve it. I will read it for you. Progress made
during the medical renaissance was due to several factors the printed book based on
movable type adopted in Europe from the middle of the fifteenth century allowed for a
wider distribution of medical ideas and anatomical diagrams better knowledge of the
original writings of Galen in particular developed into the learned medicine tradition
through the more open attitudes of renaissance humanism church control of the teachings
of the medical profession and universities diminished and the section was more often
possible in addition the seventh century the microscope was an important technical
advance helping to advance medicine. See, without punctuations, how odd its sounds.
So, please insert punctuation marks wherever necessary, wherever you think, it would
look more appropriate.
246
Now, I am showing you the answer here. Look at the answer; please read on. Progress
made during the Medical Renaissance and say this is we are talking about the age of
Medical Renaissance, so therefore, M and R in capital was due to several factors, the full
stop. The printed book based on movable type, comma, adopted in Europe from the
middle of the fifteenth century, comma, allowed for a wider distribution of medical ideas
and anatomical diagrams, full stop. Please read on and look at the slide. The better
knowledge of the original writings of Galen, comma in particular, comma, again note
that words such as in particular, lastly, when they occur in between for example, for
instance, all they when they occur initially or in between a sentence, they generally take
a comma, developed into the learned medicine tradition through the more open attitudes
of Renaissance humanism - R capital. Church control of the teachings of the medical
profession and universities diminished, comma, and dissection was more often possible.
In addition, in the seventeenth century the microscope was an important technical
advance helping to advance medicine.
Now, let us talk about another punctuation mark, the colon - two dots vertical. They are
use to introduce material that explains adds, interprets, and also talk about what precedes
it. We generally use this symbol to make list, and when we use the word following. I
want from the market and then colon this, this, this, this, this. These boys are very
247
naughty in class: colon, this, this, this, this, this - the names or explain the following
colon and then you have your passage, so that is some of the most common uses of the
colon. It suggest parallels and contrast, man proposes; semicolon, god disposes, so that
there you use a semi colon and not a colon.
I am giving you this example here; please look at it. Look at the slide. “If this is actually
IARC’s decision it simply cannot be applied to people’s health because it considers just
one piece of the health puzzle: theoretical hazards,” said Barry Carpenter, President of
the North American Meat Institute. So, just pay attention to the way, how the writer has
used quotation marks, how the writer has used comma and then Barry Carpenter and then
there is some additional information about him President of the North American Meat
Institute. And then most importantly, you look at the way colon has been done, in order
to explain or interpret something.
One piece of help puzzle, what is it theoretical hazards. Colon cannot be used loosely; it
has to be just to show off. Sometimes writers try to show off and they use these
punctuation mark extremely liberally one has to be careful especially in academic
settings. And of course, then you also have one apostrophe people’s and not peoples,
where p e o p l e s; it is always people’s with the apostrophe, this is the way apostrophe is
248
done.
Next is the hyphen the use of hyphen varies between the British and American English; it
also varies from author to author who wants to use a hyphen where. Here is a list of some
common words, please look at the slide. The hyphen is used in these words: disease-
causing germs. I am just giving you some examples healthy-living, run-down, anti-
bacterial, anti-social, anti-nuclear, pre-historic, fifty-one or in suggesting numbers and
then also fractions two-fifths, one-thirds, one-fourths. So, these are some of the
examples.
The hyphen looks like a short dash as we have already done here, but hyphen and dash
used very differently remember, they are not interchangeable hyphen brings together two
different words; dash separates certain ideas. Hyphen is used before a suffix like middle-
aged; it is used after a prefix at a let us look un-gentlemanly behavior. So, un is a prefix
then a hyphen. In compound words, where both words are important and that can be
joined or sometimes can also they know use to use hyphen here in compound words will
be-gotten, side-case, text-pair. Many writers use a hyphen for in such cases many writers
do not. It is desirable to use hyphen especially in your circumstances where you suggest
fractions and numbers.
249
Coming to the dash; dash the main use of the dash is to surround just the way brackets,
commas do. And we surround what, the material that is included in a sentence, which is
not extremely important. So, we separate it either with comma or with a dash, sometimes
also in parenthesis or brackets that will do in our next lecture. We use a dash to
summarize, and elaborate, explain, interrupt, etcetera. So, in day today a practice we use
a dash while making or taking down notes; you must have notice when you are taking
down notes we keep bullet points or dash is just to separate. We are not writing running
sentences, full complete sentences, we are separating certain key words through dashes
not hyphens.
Look at this sentence this example here. Look at the slide. Eating just a 50 gram portion
of processed meat dash or two rashes of bacon dash a day increases the risk or bowel of
bowel cancer by 18 percent, the experts concluded. Here, process meat is important and
with dash you we have also included some supplementary kind of a material, which is
not so important as the main clause or two rashes of bacon, but what is more important
50 gram portion of processed meat that increases risk of cancer.
250
To understand more about punctuations, please look at this slide. And these are the
references; here some extremely important and useful websites and they may be of use to
you. Please take a good look, all right. Now from here, I move on to another topic that is
measurement and the mention and properties. Now, the dimensions of an object are its
length, width, height, volume, etcetera. As you know here is a point full stop is a point
period, you know advance learners also call it a period or stop. It has no dimension; a
line - a straight line like our hyphen is as a one dimension; a solid has three dimensions;
a surface has two dimensions, and as you know a line has one dimension. We have
several ways of describing dimensions and measurement such as you know we use words
and terms such as a liter, centimeters, meters, inches, etcetera.
I would like to draw your attention to commonly confuse words; tall and high and a wide
and broad. Sometimes students get confused here now wide and broad are ways of
expressing the same thing and can be used interchangeably. It is a broad I am not trying
to tell you the length. So, let us look it is a wide and we are we can also talk about the
width and breadth of this particular structure surface. So, they can be used
interchangeably. Tall and high are also mean the same thing; however, they cannot be
used interchangeably. They suggest height but tall is use to express height especially of
those physical objects, which are longer in height than in width. So, we say a tall man, a
251
tall building; high on the other hand is used for rectangular, circular, also its a square
objects for example, a high dam, we do not say a tall dam, we do not say a tall mountain,
we say a high mountain range. So, some words that describe property and dimensions are
long; long is an adjective and the noun becomes length - l e n g t h, please remember the
spellings. It is a very one of the very common errors where people makes mistakes here
high and height, so h e i g h t. Thick, thickness, wide, width, deep, depth - d e p t h;
remember the spellings please consult your dictionary. So, these are some of the words
that suggest or describe properties and dimensions.
Now, here is an exercise for you; please look at this slide. Complete the sentences with
adjectives. Use the word high, thick, tall, long, wide, etcetera. So, if you say this laptop
is, what would you like to say a few centimeters thick, a few inches perhaps, a few feet
long or high, you can talk about and describe it in these terms. The scale is 10 inches
long. Mountain is this many meters high. Building is 40 meters tall. Table is 4 feet wide.
The wall is 2 feet perhaps you can say thick, high also, but then it would not make much
of sense having a 2 feet high wall, but thickness is a more appropriate may be. The lake
is 4 kilometers wide. And he is 6 feet tall, not 6 feet high.
252
Look at this slide, and another exercise for you instead of adjectives, I would like you
use nouns here. The well has a depth of 30 meters, so its deep is 30 meters deep that
becomes your adjective depth that becomes your noun. Water has a freezing point of 0
degrees. This sphere has a dimension of 20 centimeter. Pure water has no smell. The
speed of sound is so much. And the dash in the furnace is 100 degree centigrade of the
something the boiling point.
Let us move on to talk about approximation in your day today writing and reading you
come across very frequently approximations. Approximations, what are they, if the
quantities not exactly stated - explicitly stated that this is a 333 meter per second that is
exact, sometimes we are not too sure. So, we have to infer that this is not stated exactly
or extremely accurately, but almost there, almost accurately it is not erroneous, but not
exactly specific. Some of the words that are used to express approximation are about is
about 6 feet; tall could be a little 1 inch here or there approximately. Approximately this
temperature must be this room must be having a temperature of 24 degrees give or take a
few. Over, under, slightly, just over, a little over, allmost, nearly, more or less, these are
the expressions we use to express approximation. So, these are things that when we will
look into more in depth, because this is something that is extremely important to your
writing and reading.
253
Before we end the class, I would like to do a little listening activity with you; please look
at the questions here. Before, I read the passage for you and you listen, you would not be
shown the passage. Please look at the questions, and take them down. Questions, first
question, you have to write or answer in very brief, what is the basic tool for combining
colors? Which model is the most common version of basic design based on? What is an
analogous color scheme? And these are the filling the blanks. Please look at the
sentences carefully, look at the slide.
I am going to start reading the passage and you would not be shown the slides here.
Listen to me and then solve the exercise. The color wheel or color circle is the basic tool
for combining colors. The first circular color diagram was designed by Sir Isaac Newton
in 1666. The color wheel is designed so that virtually any colors you pick from it will
look good together. Over the years, many variations of the basic design have been made,
but the most common version is a wheel of 12 color based on the RYB or artistic color
model. Traditionally, there are a number of color combinations that are considered
especially pleasing. These are call color harmonies or color codes, and they consist of
two or more colors with a fixed relation in the color wheel. Color impact is designed to
dynamically create a color wheel to match your base color.
254
Talking about primary, secondary and tertiary colors in the RYB or subtractive color
model, the primary colors are red, yellow and blue. The three secondary colors green,
orange and purple are created by mixing two primary colors. Another six tertiary colors
are created by mixing primary and secondary colors. Tints, shades and tones. Now, these
are terms often used incorrectly, although they describe fairly, simple color concepts. If a
color is made lighter by adding white the result is called a tint. If color is added, if black
is added the darker version is called a shade, and if grace gray is added the result is a
different tone.
What is complimentary color scheme? Colors that are opposite each other on the color
wheel are considered to be complimentary colors, example, red and green. The high
contrasts of complimentary colors create a vibrant look especially when used at full
saturation. This color is scheme must be managed well, so it is not jarring.
Complementary color scheme are tricky to use in large doses, but work well when you
want something to stand out. Analogues color schemes use colors that are next to each
other on the color wheel. We usually match well and create serene and comfortable
designs. Analogous colors schemes are often found in nature and are harmonious and
freezing to the eye.
Now let us look at the answers. So, the answer to your first question is the color wheel or
color circle. Answer to your second question is the RYB or artistic color model. And
answer to your third question is analogues colors schemes are colors that are next to each
other on the color wheel. For the filling the blanks, first is the answer is circular then you
have color codes and the last answer is tint.
255
Here is the link; here on this slide, please look at the slide, here you will find full text on
color theory.
So, thank you very much and we will meet for the next class.
unTags
Presentation, Punctuation
256
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture- 19
Punctuation (Continued)
Welcome friends, to another part of our topics where we have been learning elements of
punctuation. So, today, we are going to look at brackets, ellipsis, capital letters,
paragraphing, abbreviations and numbers. As you may recall, we have already done quite
a bit of punctuations in our earlier classes. Now, we are going to look at something else
all together.
Now, coming to brackets, what are brackets? There are two types of brackets round and
square; square is more formal and it is less frequently used; most of the time we use
round brackets. The basic function of brackets is to separate the bracketed material that a
value material which it is written in brackets, and to separate it from the material that is
surrounds it, for example, Albert Einstein, so what was his dates (1879 to 1955) So, here
what is the role of the brackets, it is giving some extra information, a brief history of
time, in brackets you write the year of its publication 1988. Now, what is the difference
258
between using brackets and commas, you may ask because comma also after all
separates the material that is given in the main clause. So, words and clauses set off in
brackets are less closely integrated with the surroundings then materials set off up by
comma.
Now, if you will take a sentence like the cement comma rather than form up in the holes
and act as counter weight comma sand into the clay beneath the structure causing the
tower to lean over even more. Now what are we doing here, we have separated in by a
pair of commas, a clause rather than form up in the wholes and act as a counter weight is
giving some extra information of what happened in the making of Leaning Tower of Pisa
that is in Italy. So, and it is giving some extra information about a cement. You cannot
bracket it. Bracket is always less closely integrated with the material. Here, it is giving
very relevant extra information.
Let us now look at this particular text, where I have given you some examples of where
and when to use brackets. So, brackets for giving extra information; please look at the
slides and read on. The richness and sheer size of the place (in bracket - the south side
facing the seine is 700 meters long) can be overwhelming.
259
For many, the star attraction is the Leonardo da Vinci’s La Joconde, better known as
Mona Lisa and where is it placed (Room 6, 1st floor, Denon) So, giving some extra
information, a definitely not information about Mona Lisa. This entire section of the first
floor of the Denon Wing, in fact, is hung with masterpieces - room 75 and 77 have
enormous French paintings from Ingres, Delacroix (Liberty Leading the People) and
Gericault (The Raft of the Medusa), while rooms 1, 3, 5 and 8 contain transcendent
pieces by Raphael, Titian, Botticini and Botticcelli. On the ground floor of the Denon
Wing, take time for Michelangelo’s The Dying Slave and Canova’s Psyche and Cupid
(Room 4) So, this is the use of bracket.
Now, if the contrast is between the set-off material and the surrounding text and it is
particularly abrupt, writers often use dashes.
260
So, when the contrast is abrupt, we use a dash. Brackets just serve to give extra
information. Square brackets are more technical more formal and less used, less
frequently used. Many people put square brackets to enclose comment or explanations in
material written by someone else or you have to set them off from round brackets. So,
brackets, within brackets that is also commonly used. The main thing is to remember is
to be very consistent in your style.
If you are using round brackets, throughout use round brackets; if it square brackets then
square brackets, but generally it is more advisable to use round brackets, and use square
brackets only once you have the full command over punctuations. A square bracket also
encloses words inserted into a text instead of the words originally there. So, in academic
writing, you will often find that writers often insert their own thoughts in the quoted text,
so there they use a square bracket, it a very clear indicator or indicative that this is not
written originally by the author.
Let us move on to talk about another punctuation mark that is an ellipsis. Generally three
dots is punctuation device usually mark by three dots in succession. They are typically
use three at a time to indicate the omission of words in a quoted passage for example,
you can say the people petition and then three dots eventually the minister agreed, we are
261
due to lack of time and space, we are at the moment eliminating much of the things that
happened in between. The people petition may be there was a protest, they got arrested,
there were cases; however, the minister eventually agrees, that is more important. So,
ellipsis indicate something that happen in between, but right now we do not have the
time and space to mark it.
Now, suppose you are writing an essay and want to quote from a lengthy passage, we use
ellipsis there. Now look at this text look at this example. I will read the slide for you.
Benito Mussolini was the next to try his hand stabilizing the tower in 1934. He felt that
the tower was an embarrassment to Italy and that it must be corrected and returned to a
perpendicular state. As a result of his orders, 361 holes were drilled into the foundation
of the tower and 90 tonnes of cement were used to fill them. The cement, rather than
form up in the holes and act as a counterweight, sank into the clay beneath the structure,
causing the tower to lean over even more. Look at the passage.
262
And then here is an example. Benito Mussolini was the next to try his hand stabilizing
the tower in 1934… (ellipsis) The cement… (ellipsis) sank into the clay beneath the
structure, causing the tower to lean over even more. So, now, what have we done, given
you two most significant bits of information using ellipsis. Benito Mussolini tried to
stabilize the tower; however, whatever he did it cause the tower to lean over even more
that is so. In between whatever happened, happened, we do not have the time in space to
tell you everything, but this was an action and that was the reaction.
263
Now, another very often a commonly used punctuation mark is the slash, he or she. So,
we do not want to use or he/she, rich/poor, you use a slash.
Up/down, good/bad. Two opposites are used generally expressed; the slash is used to
express alternatives. We also use the slash as you know to express fractions one by four
264
to indicate, also sub sections in legal document for example, section a bar, a slash 74. We
also use a slash to represent the word per - p e r eighty kilometers and slash hour that is
per hour. We also sometimes use a slash to indicate time.
You know this my vacations will be during period May/June to indicate them. May/June
are the hottest months. Sometimes the hottest month could be May; sometime the hottest
month could be June. Let us talk about where to use the capital letters now. So, as you
know all personal nouns, they use capital. So, , the Himalayas so a Himalayas comes a
famous mountain terrain rain, the Rockies, the Andes, the river Nile, so n is in capital.
So, first words of a sentence, you begin a sentence with capital and then after full stop
when you begin a fresh sentence it is always in capital. Unless and until you are a poet or
a creative writer, in all other circumstances this is the way you have to follow.
The famous American poet, E.E Cummings would use lower capital cases throughout
lower case not lower capital sorry, he would not use capital letters he would use
lowercases throughout all his poems are written in lower cases. But then a poet can take
such kinds of liberty in language for those who are more interested in academic form of
language, we write journal papers academic papers, so we have to follow the rules. The
pronoun - I, I am talking, I am teaching, I am writing. So, this takes this is always in a
265
capital form.
After colon if the clause represents a rule and here is a colon all boys must be or must
come neatly dressed. So, after colon if it is a rule, a school has prescribed the rule, so that
begins also with a capital letter. Remember proper nouns, organizations, names of
countries, continents, rivers, mountains, regions, religions, titles of books, titles of
movies, days like Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday; months – January, February, March;
events - the first World War, the second World War, so W’s in capital, The Great
Depression, G and D in capital; the Age of Enlightenment, so A and E capital; the Age of
Reason, A and E capital. Romantics, when we are talking about poets, the age of the
poets such as a Barren Byron,Milton, Barren, Wordsworth and Cellarage Coleridge then
and also Shelly.. So, here we are using romantics with capital R, the Middle Age is
Jurassic Age, so J and A capital; Middle Age is M and A capital when you are is denoting
or suggesting events, the Space Age.
266
Now, look at the sentence. Capital letters, how it is used. “The Leaning Tower of Pisa is
the complete name was closed for construction in 1990 and was then reopened once it
was safe for everyone to tour. From start to finish, the leaning tower of Pisa took over
800 years to be constructed-probably the longest construction in the world!” what is so
wrong with it; at one point, it does not use the capital letters Leaning and Tower. So, this
is an error that many of us make. The complete it has to be done repeatedly, this is the
way the Tower should be written in all capital letters.
Italics, when do we use italics, now italics is the very ornamental kind of a punctuation
device, we use it to emphasize, most importantly we use it to emphasize a point. It is
almost like when you speak and you say I have seen it with my own eyes, I have seen it
with my own eyes you can underline it you can italicize, so seen is important, so most of
the time it is used to express emphasis and is used to catch someone's attention. Book
titles are always used in italics, A Brief History of Time, The Age of Innocence, Wings of
Fire, The Wings of Dove, all these book titles are always in italics; titles of magazines,
Nature, National Geographic, Discoveries. So, these are always in italics. Foreign
language words and expressions such as is defacto [FL] 17 09, these are always used in
italics. For emphasis as I have already said so what. So, would you please stop that
noise? So, please it is an italics because I want you to emphasize on that I am
267
emphasizing on that because I want you to pay attention to that, so, so much about
italics.
And let us move on to do because we are now discussing how to write the mechanics of
writing. So, an important aspect of any report, any SOP, and any kind of a journal paper
that you want to write any assignment is a paragraph. A paragraph is a distinct division of
a piece of writing. It expresses some thought or information relevant to the whole piece
of writing. A paragraph always begins with a new line and when you are typing, there
has to be a space between the preceding paragraph and what you are writing to indicate
space. Most paragraph contain at least three sentences, generally in academic and
scientific and technical writing, we do not accept single sentences as paragraphs. Many
of us are in the habit using one line, two lines as paragraphs, but that is not very
appropriate. Again, it can be used for creative kind of writing for more colorful way of
writing, but not for formal and impersonal kind of writing.
A paragraph should have a new topic and it should be developed accordingly. There
cannot be two new topics and unrelated topics in a single paragraph. So, same paragraph
can never have two topics, two different topics. If you are speaking for something, is
wearing a uniform a good practice or emphasizing schools insisting on or emphasizing
268
on wearing uniforms is good or bad thing. So, you have to give some paragraphs about
the pluses - the positives and some for negatives, so that would be another paragraph.
And then your own opinion if you have one then that should be another, but you cannot
mix up everything.
Look at this sample and here is an example of paragraphing. I will read it out for you.
Begun in 1173 or 1173, the process by which the leaning tower of Pisa had transformed
into the monument as we know it today was long and drawn out. In fact, it took over 800
years from start to finish.
Second paragraph: Intricate carvings, columns, arch’s, and other design elements are
incorporated into the construction of the tower. Here is a mistake arch’s; you it has to be
in the apostrophe should go, so here is a mistake. For medieval Europe, these types of
design themes and construction processes were way ahead of the time, resulting in a
structure that has remained timeless in appearance through the ages.
The tower was built with limestone and lime mortar, though the exterior of the tower is
covered in marble. Ironically, the limestone is probably why the tower has not cracked
and broken ‘dash’, now look at the way dash is used the rock is flexible enough that it
269
can withstand the pressures placed on it by the lean. It is doubtful that the original
architect, the Pisano, had any idea that the qualities of limestone would play a role in
preventing its ultimate collapse.
Now, the first para talks about the year of construction. Second - how it is, and then third
what went into the construction. So, second is the elements, the carvings, the columns,
the arch’s and design elements, so the elements are the second paragraph that is the main
topic. And third was the material used for construction. You cannot mix up everything in
one single paragraph. There has to be a break.
Now, here I am giving you a paragraph, a single paragraph. And you have to mark,
where how you can break the paragraph, what are the right places, where you can break
this very lengthy passage into separate paragraphs. Look at it.
Few art galleries are as prized or daunting as the Musee du Louvre, Paris’s piece de
resistance no first-time visited to the city can resist. This is, after all, one of the world’s
largest and most diverse museums. Showcase to 35,000 works of art - from
Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greek antiquities to masterpieces by artist such as da
Vinci, Michelangelo, and Rembrandt - it would take nine months to glance at every
270
piece, rendering advance planning essential.
Today the palace rambles over four floors, up and down innumerable staircases, and
through three wings: the Sully Wing creates the four sides of the Cour Carree at the
eastern end of the complex; Denon Wing stretches 800 meters along Seine to the south’
and northern Richelieu Wing skirts rue de Rivoli. Long before its modern incarnation,
the vast Palais du Louvre originally served as a fortress constructed by Phillippe Auguste
in the 12th century; it was rebuilt in the mid-16th century as a royal residence in the
Renaissance style. The Revolutionary Convention turned it into national museum in
1793. The paintings, sculptures and artefacts on display in the Louvre Museum have
been amassed by subsequent French governments. So, what you was expected to do is,
break this very lengthy passage into paragraphs. Let us try to solve it.
So, few art galleries etcetera, and let us go on to rendering advanced planning essential.
So, in the first passage, we have paragraph we have just introduced the Louvre to you.
Now, second para, today the palace and then we are talking about the length, and
breadth, and the enormity, the size, the magnitude of it. And the third paragraph could be,
a nice break would be the paintings sculptures and art effects on display have been
amassed. So, this is the way every topic, every paragraph has a single independent topic.
271
Now, here I am giving you another exercise. Rearrange the jumbled paras, which
paragraph. So, you all you have to do is quickly go through it, and give me the answer
whether first should come, last, or whether second should come first, so how to just
rearrange the jumbled paras. I am not asking to rearrange the jumbled sentences.
And the answer is the first is the second paragraph, when Solomon R Guggenheim gave
Frank Lloyd Wright the commission look at the slide. So, second para goes first it is the
background. Next comes “Highly expressive” that is the third one, and “Intensely
personal” perfectly describe Frank Gehry’s design. And then third para is the first para
goes at the end the Guggenheim foundation’s relationship to architecture and promotion
of architecture investigation this goes at the end.
Just look at the way these things make sense. Second paragraph is the introduction;
number three is your second paragraph; the second paragraph is the actually your first
paragraph is the introduction. The third paragraph, the number three is your second
paragraph where it talks about the design and then the last one that is number one the
Guggenheim etcetera, etcetera, etcetera it talks about how it all happened and the modern
museum which the way we know it today. The correct answer would be two, three, one.
Let us move on to another feature of punctuation that is abbreviation. We often use it and
we use it very frequently specially in our informal letters and emails, and sometimes
even in our spoken English. It is very common to use abbreviated words. We do this in
order to be more understandable and also because most of us feel comfortable using the
short and abbreviated forms. Generally, we use a full stop after an abbreviation such as
Dr., so that is doctor; Prof., full stop, so professor. So, here, but sometimes we also do
not use, it does not make much of a difference one is British; one is American way, but
both are acceptable.
Informal writing; however, we avoid abbreviations unless we use a standard acceptable

use. So, let us talk about plural in abbreviation. So, sentences such as Prof. Jones, if we
use Prof. Johnson and Prof. David are here, so both are correct we are using Professor in
front of both these names, but if is a Professors Johnson and David where here, this is
also correct and this is one way to use plurals in abbreviations. So, we can we say P r o f
272
s – Profs. Johnson and David where here and it is correct. So, the rule is, if the
abbreviation contains more than one full stop, we use the plural s, for example, M.P.s, so
there is more than one full stop.
So, we use the plural s as for example M. Ps, l.bws, but if we there is only one full stop
we say Drs so and so, Profs so and so, Capts so and so. So look at the difference, two full
stops, and this is the way s is used a plural l.bws more than two full stops, and that is this
is the way. We would not say M.P’s as in this will become a possessive form right, this is
incorrect, this is not a plural. Other kinds of abbreviations are we often use our models
and auxiliaries can and should and may and we say shall, shan’t, and can’t, and won’t
which is all very good. These words take an apostrophe to represent the missing letters,
but they are more informal in nature, informal and scientific writing it is advisable to
avoid these contracted forms.
Numbers are again important area of punctuations. When should a number, be expressed
in words and when in figures. So, when because you see figures, give the impression of
being very precise and accurate. They are also more formal. Numbers expressed in words
suggest a sense of approximation; they are more formal. Rule is that we spell out
numbers from 1 to 10, we write in the spellings, so o n e, t w o - two between one and ten
273
we spell them out, but over that we use figures for all numbers about ten. For example,
about 120 students attended the class, so 1 2 0; we do not say one hundred and twenty,
do not give that. If a sentence or paragraph contains related numbers and some are above
10 and some below the practice varies and large number of more than a million can be
expressed all in figures.
So, thank you very much and we will be continuing with our other classes. Hope you are
benefiting from the course so far.
Thank and good day to you.
Tags
274
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 20
Reading-SQW3R Method and Note-taking
Good morning. So, we are going to do reading today. Reading, a little bit of listening and
I am going to talk about a method called SQW3R, SQW3R method that may be of use to
you while you are reading a passage. We also have another terminology skimming and
scanning the reading text. I know that most of you in your day-to-day life's, you read a
variety of text. So, it is not just your engineering text, but as a well educated person you
should also be familiar with reading a variety of different kinds of text, so that when you
appear for higher level exams, let say competitive exams, international exams, these
techniques may be of use to you.
I will also touch upon note taking today may not be able to go into it with the too much
of detailing, but we will touch upon it and then you will do more of it in our subsequent
classes. And I will also start another area that would be of great interest to you defining
scientific concepts and here I would ask you to keep consulting your dictionary. So,
dictionary skills are extremely important. Remember, you have to as higher order
275
students, you have to be able to consult your dictionaries very frequently and very
thoroughly and I have already recommended a dictionary.
So, let us look at SQW3R; S stand for survey. So, the idea is that you survey the text,
reader should survey the text for immediate information, what strikes, what is it about, is
it about museums, is it about mosquitoes, is it about earthworms, is it about some new
scientific discovery in applied mechanics, is it about designing buildings, what is it
about. So, immediate information, you should look at the title.
So, survey, look at the titles, subheadings, keywords and the highlights. A well written
passage article will always have a summary, in conclusion, look at it, quickly look at it
summary, conclusion and if there are graphs and charts which are very important, in your
discipline graph charts and table focus some questions on those also that should be your
immediate survey. And survey will also help you in getting yourself familiarized,
familiar with the text.
276
For example, survey. So, here is a text, here is a very small passage. The main heading is
History of the English language: A short history of the origins and development of
English. Look at the heading, the subheading also. Subheading of this book or this essay
is a short history of the origins and development of English, and look at the key words.
Let us read it together; look at the slide please. The history of the English language really
started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th
century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea
from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of
Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and
north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles
came from “Englaland” and here is your square brackets, because why are we using
square brackets here, because this is not written by the author. So, someone has inserted
just for the sake of revising and their language was called ‘Englisc’, from where from
which the words “England” and “English” are derived.
Now, what are the keywords here, Angle, Saxons, Jutes those are the keywords here, that
is important and English of course. English language and the extreme origin of it, and
keywords are the races here - the Angles, Jutes, the Saxons, Britain if you want to look
add one more keyword to it so that is it, but not every word is a keyword. So, you look at
277
this passage, and you say the English language Saxon, the Angles and the Jutes and
anyone even will understand what it is about.
Second important now - Q strategy is for questions, so survey and question. What
question. So, it is important to have questions to you that is asked questions yourself, and
questions to yourself what do I hope to get from this text? What I am looking for
exactly? What is it saying? What is my past knowledge about the topic discussed in the
text, and what has others told about this text or what has others said about this text, so
these are the questions and questions to yourself and questions to the text, do I agree with
what is being said; if it is a higher level question, you do not have to agree and disagree
with, but certain there are times when you may be shown a passage and then you have to
give your own opinion. So, look at it and what are my points of agreement and
disagreement. Now, a good reader will note down the questions. You can always make
your thought balloons and fill those up. And try to answer the question while you revise
your notes.
So, you have reading and this is the first reading. See the first reading requires focus;
reduce the speed of reading, read it peacefully. And at that moment, at that point, do not
take notes; take time to understand, what the author says. And if you do not follow any
word look it up in the dictionary that is a good strategy. As you finish reflect on what
does article has said and note down your question.
Now there is ‘W’ and W is write. Take notes in your own words do not copy language.
Try to summarize, try to derive at it summary conclusions and see if you are able to do
write your own subheading or at least follow the process of subheadings that the author
has given, author of the text has given. And also remember, note making is important;
you always make the key points not everything.
Second R, we have talked about 3 R’s. So, recall now the calling what remember this is
to assess, how much you remember from reading, you have read a text already. What do
you remember from that text about English, the origin of English language? So, recall it,
keep away the text and notes and recall the details to prepare a new note. After you are
done compare it with the original note at the hand and depending on the assessment, you
278
can improve your understanding of the text. If require read again those portions which
you could not recollect. And remember, if the parts you could not recollect are of minor
important, they are not extremely important then you may as well relax and a do not pay
too much or do not fret too much about that.
And the third R is review of course, revise your notes try to answer the questions, you
have noted down, the revise again. So, this very important read, revise, read, revise take
down notes that is the key to good reading. I have already spoken to you about is
skimming and is scanning. So, what is skimming; skimming is or skimming through the
text is to get the gist of what the article says, you have to look for keywords you read.
So, a skimming does not mean that you read something passively you have to engage
yourself and if you are interested in a passage or a piece of writing, definitely you will be
engaged in with it. So, you have to be very clear about, what you are reading, and how it
is going.
You have to also talk about introductory paragraphs that usually provide the essence of
what is given in the succeeding paragraphs; usually introductory paragraph gives what
the author aims to tell you. So, this was the passage that we just did is an introductory
paragraph. It tells you what the essay is all about what the article is all about article is
about history of origin of and growth of the English language that is what you are
supposed to do. See, what the author is aiming to tell you author is going to just
introduce that area to you, topic to you and then you are expected to predict that this is
going to be developed. So, prediction is another technique; we will soon come to that
also predicting while reading. Now reading complete sentences, do we do that or do we
not do that that is the question. Now, the idea is sometimes we can predict that what is
going to happen.
So, let us assume that paragraph or the line is starts with so an so all the benefits of this
let us organic foods and suddenly you come across the sentence that is starts with on the
other hand or in contrast that means, you can predict that now after the benefits come
something that is opposite to what has been told you already. So, you should be able to
predict. And then just look at the next sentence, if you are short of time, running short of
time just predict what it is going to be all about useful technique in order to save time.
279
So, reading complete sentences is not required all the time, grasp the idea and skip to
next. And then also extremely important at the back of your mind, and if you are on a
good note taker, keep making notes and summarize each paragraph in bullet points.
See, there is some key idea that you should always remember. Bullet points while taking
notes if someone is asking you to make note, take notes or write notes or if you are being
tested on note taking then it is very important to take bullet points. But we do not use
bullet points in serious academic writings; we do not give numbers a, b, c or 1, 2, 3 or the
bullet points. Sentences should be running and complete that is the key idea unless and
until your supervisor, your guide has specifically told you that bullet points are allowed,
try to avoid numbering and giving those lower cases alphabets and also bullet points.
Good writing requires running sentences.
Now again look at this passage, which is a continuation of what we were doing just now
the history of the English language. So, this is another paragraph continuation. Now, Old
English, I am reading it for you, please look at the text. Old English and these are the
dates. The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed
into what we now call old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today.
Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding old English.
280
Nevertheless, about half of the commonly used words in Modern English have Old
English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English.
Old English was spoken until around 1100.
Now, what are the keywords here Old English. Old English is the most important word
here and also the fact that it is, who developed it? It was developed in Britain, but by the
invading Germanic tribes. So, that is very important to remember and then native English
speakers, that is also important that is a keyword and very important term is that how
difficult it is to follow. So, difficult to understand Old English, those are the keywords
here. Now, here is an activity, I want to you to read the passage and express the idea in
bullet points. This is the link given article called newspaper article and it is written by
Shubashree Desikan in the Hindu paper, the science and technology section and article is
titled ‘A new way to Turn light into matter”.
So, the first paragraph I would like you to read the entire article yourself I have already
given you the link, but look at the first paragraph here. Let us read it together, please
look at the slide. The title begs the question - did older ways to turn light into matter
exist? Well, that is exactly what photo-electric effect does! So, what is new here is that
we are talking about using direct, pairwise, photon-photon interactions to produce
281
electron-positron pairs, which has not been possible to achieve, experimentally. Writing
in Nature Photonics, O. J. Pike et al of Imperial College, London and Max-Planck
Institute, Heidelberg, have come up with a suggestion for an experiment in which this
can be achieved. They further reiterate their idea by running a Monte Carlo simulation
which demonstrates that the dominant channel with proper design of the experimental
apparatus is the two photon (Breit-Wheeler) process of pair production.
I would like you to write some of the key ideas in bullet points. This is your activity.
Now, how do we do that? If you have been able to do it good, but let me suggest some
techniques, so from the title itself what do we learn we learn at that it is about a new way
to turn light into matter. Think what were the old ways, this is important, what what
where was the old ways, what innovation is the writer talking about. Now, go
horizontally and look at the keywords for example, photo-electric effect, what is new
here, we get answer for this talking about using direct, pairwise, photon-photon
interaction etcetera, remember, so that is the answer.
And then another word Heidelberg experiment, Monte Carlo simulation, these are the
things as engineers you should be able to respond to them immediately. Then go
vertically and follow the same steps, notice the keywords. So, first look at the paragraphs
and then go down and see what the keywords, skim through it are. And then notice this is
always remember this is a skim reading you have to increase the speed of reading.
282
Now I am giving you another interesting passage now it is on this game called Sudoku. I
am sure many of you are familiar and even play this game. So, please look at this
passage. Let us read it together. Forget vitamins and exercise - if you want to stave off
mental decline a Sudoku instead, say scientists. A review of various studies on how to
preserve brainpower found only a mental workout made a difference in later life. In
Britain, around so many people have dementia, most suffering from Alzheimer’s.
283
Next slide, some research has found exercise can cut the risk of dementia, while other
studies suggest doing crosswords playing cards or using a the computer. But patients and
doctors may find the conflicting information confusing, said Dr. Raza Naqvi of the
University of Toronto, Canada, who led the review. His team looked at 32 trials
involving about 25,000 healthy patients aged 65 or older.
284
For the most part, studies of drugs, hormone therapy, vitamins and supplements ginkgo,
omega 3 and DHEA showed no positive effect. With physical activity, the evidence for
benefits was ‘weak’, said the review in the Canadian Medical Association Journal. Only
mental training, which featured in three trials, showed benefits every time. Dr. Naqvi
said: ‘In one trail participants had significantly improved memory during five-year
follow-up periods’.
Now look at the passage and then answer the questions here you are supposed to skim
and answer and very simple exercise. I want you to save at state Whether the statements
are true or false. According to the text Sudoku is better than vitamins and exercise for
preventing brain decline, whether it is true or false, according to the text, yes, it is true.
Alzheimer’s disease is very uncommon in Britain, is it true or false; it is false the passage
at clearly says that many people suffer from brain disorder. Ginkgo and omega 3 have
shown extremely positive results in improving brain power, and now what does it say it
says that there is very little scientific research to show that omega 3 and other so called
supplements can actually yield in increasing brain power, no it is not true. So, it is also a
false statement, so true, false, false. And then please look at the meanings of the
following words is stave off, conflicting information, dementia. Please try to understand
the words from the context given otherwise you should consult your dictionary.
285
Let us move on to do another exercise now, here is a letter from an airline to an irate
customer. On behalf of Delta Air Lines, I would like to extend my personal apology for
the inconvenience you experienced as a result of the delay of Flight number on February
21, 2011. In light of the current state of the economy, and in today's competitive airline
industry, travelers expect the best value for their travel dollar. Our airlines strive to
provide this value through a mix of safety, on-time performance, courteous and
professional service, and a wide range of destination options. We want to make travel on
us a convenient and trouble-free experience for our passengers and I am truly sorry we
fail to do so on this occasion.
286
Continue, to demonstrate our commitment to service excellence and as a gesture of

apology for our service failure, I am adding 1000 bonus miles to your SkyMiles account
number. These bonus miles and those earned on flights and through hundreds of partners
can be used toward award travel on our airlines, our 25 partner airlines, and at it
SkyMiles Marketplace, a new program where you can redeem miles for car rentals, hotel
stays, merchandise, and more. Please visit us at our website to verify your mileage
balance and to gain access to all of our mileage redemption programs. It is our goal to
provide exceptional service on every occasion, and I hope you will provide us with an
opportunity to restore your confidence. Your support is important to our airlines, our
Connection carriers and our SkyTeam partners. We look forward to your continued
patronage and the privilege of serving your air travel needs again soon.
As you can understand here is the chairman or the manager is writing to a customer and a
customer must have, I am sure written letter that he suffered great deal of inconvenience
because of the delay in flight. So, this is a response to that, and what he is it trying to tell
you, what is he trying to tell the passenger.
287
So, here is a list of questions is skim the text and answer the following. First is
vocabulary. Number one, something that annoys you or cause trouble, and the answer is
given in the passage itself, please look it up. Second - not on time, third – dedicated,
support and encouragement, and practice that contributes to the sale of products. Please
take a quick look at the passage and try to find relevant words related here. Let me try to
support you here. So, something that annoys you or cause trouble, the answer is given in
the text itself, it is inconvenience. Not on time is delay. Dedicated, where is the word
related to dedicated, let us look at it second slide to demonstrate our commitment to
service excellence. So, commitment is a sort of dedication; we are dedicated to serving
you that is the idea so. Support and encouragement, let us look at second slide again,
look at the last line, we look forward to your continued patronage.
Now, what is patronage? Support and encouragement. Now, the last one practice that
contributes to the sale of products; again look as the second slide you have this lengthy
line; these bonus miles and those earned on flights and through hundreds of partners can
be used towards award travel on our airlines our 25 partner airlines and at it SkyMiles
Marketplace, a new program where you can redeem miles for car rentals, hotel stays,
merchandise and more, while practice that contributes to sales of products.
288
Now, here is another set of questions, please answer very briefly. Why is the writer
apologizing? What does this airline is strive to provide to it is customers/travelers?
generally speaking, ? What is the customer being provided with as a form of
compensation? He has been inconvenience, so, what is he being promised? And why is
the airline providing these rewards to the passenger? What is the ideology or philosophy
behind this? Please look at it and try to solve this.
From here we move on to another topic, note taking or note making. Now why do we
make notes at all; note making is an important skill that helps us understand a text better
or a lecture better. When we are listening to a lecture, continuous, like it is always good
not to take down complete sentences, but more importantly the bullet points, just try to
develop this technique that what are highlights of someone’s lectures or a written
passage. The purpose is to be of use in future you are going to appear for an exam or may
be use it later in your life and it is important to use it. So, therefore, you need notes.
Hence, note making is a skill that one should develop to reproduce effectively the ideas
read or heard in various papers or heard in lectures. And we are taking notes to remember
the ideas the thoughts the concept and not exactly, we are not we do not remember this
then is very important. We do not produce or replicate is not in a an exact replication or
reproduction of what we have read or heard.
289
While you make notes, there is no need to write down each and every word. This is
important and no need to write running sentences use symbols and abbreviations and this
is important. A symbols and abbreviations that are very comprehensible and that will
help you in your speed note taking, for example, you now have to use, I mean in your
SMS and texting, you use a variety of codes and symbols. So, I think it is a good idea
that you start employing that, so that there is sense of immediate to recall when you look
at it or consult the notes later.
Color coding also helps sometimes students, I have noted, keep color pencils and the
keep highlighting, which is and they color it according to the themes that are being
discuss, they make important details, all this help in revising. And one serious issue that
you have to remember is plagiarism. Remember that our aim is to remember the idea and
not to copy. So, remember not to produce it. I am again giving you a very friendly
warning that it is not at all advisable to reproduce exactly what the author has said;
otherwise, it leads to plagiarism issues and always better to write the answer in your own
language and develop your own ideas subsequently. We will be doing some practical
examples of note taking also in our subsequent classes.
I want you start a new topic that is defining scientific concepts. Now, what are
definitions? We know the definitions occur in technical writing because it is essential to
define certain operations, machines, equipment, instrument, processes, etcetera. The
thing to be defined includes description and in we begin with the general class and so a
machine is a device, so that is a general class then in terms of it is particular properties,
qualities and uses.
For example, if I ask you what is a, I do not have a white board here, but what is a
whiteboard. So, what is a white board, now whiteboard is generally defined as a kind of a
pen board or a kind of dry white broad, which could be any glossy and usually white
surface for non-permanent markings, we use a marker right, but it is not a permanent. So,
we use it for marking. Now generally we use it in a classroom situation, but nowadays it
is very common to use of whiteboard even in various other places not necessarily in
classroom.
290
Now, look at this list and I would like you to give me the general class of these words
and that is how we begin. So, a triangle, a square, who is a doctor, a cook, a pilot, a test
tube, aluminum, look and think about the general class of these.
And next question is, I want to match the following. An engineer, a school, gravity, a
291
dynamo, and then against these there are certain you know I have attempted to give
definitions and see which fits there. So, let us see an engineer who could be an engineer
here, someone who designs machines, buildings and public works. What is a school, a
school is a place, so that is general categories, where children learn to read and write, so
what are the uses. Gravity is a force that attracts, so it is a force; remember so that is the
general class and what does it do, it attracts bodies from the center of the earth. And
likewise, dynamo is an instrument; it is an instrument general class that generates
electricity. This is the way we give definitions.
Now I would like you to give the definitions of let us look at the slide. A biologist, an
amoeba, a circle, iron, iron as matter, a generator and a condenser, you may use your
dictionaries if necessary.
292
Now, let us move on to do some listening, and before I read out the passage. You would
not be shown the passage that I am going to read out; however, I would like you to listen
carefully to what I am saying it. These you can look at these questions here, please look
at the question and the slide. Later on, you would not be shown the slide when I start
reading. What is the percentage growth for organic food in recent years? What role has
environmental groups played in popularizing organic food? Name the two food products
that are scientifically proven to be superior to non-organic foods. And give meanings
from context inflated, conventional, multitude. I am going to start the listening text, you
would not be shown the slides here; I will be reading the passage, kindly pay attention to
it and then solve the questions. I am going to start reading; you would not be able to see
the passage.
The health benefits of organic food are more based on perception then real facts.
However, the public opinion that organic food is healthier than conventional food is quite
a strong and is the main reason for about 30 percent of growth in the organic food
industry over the past 5 to 6 years. Much of this inflated support of organic food as a
healthy and alternative comes from environmental groups who do not want pesticides
and fertilizers to do any more damage to the environment. So, promoting organic foods,
which do not use those types of chemicals, seems like a good way to get the result they
293
want. The producers of organic food are also very strong contributors to the idea that
organic food is superior to other types.
First of all there is a small amount of scientific evidence to show that organic food is
better in quality than conventional food. Scientific research conducted thus far on various
organic food items has not been able to give strong evidence about the superiority of
organic food over non-organic food. As a result, even the FDA and the USDA clearly
mentioned that non-organic food is as healthy as organic food. However, there are some
scientific studies that have proved organic milk and organic tomatoes to be better than
the non-organic varieties. There is an ongoing research about a variety of other types of
organic food that may have additional health benefits compared to the non-organic
varieties. In general, organic food consumers, manufacturers and farmers strongly
believe that organic food has several benefits compared to non-organic food, while there
are plenty of arguments against the multitude of organic food being over priced on the
market, there is no denying that there are some benefits that can be enjoyed.
Let us look at the questions. What is the percentage growth for organic food in recent
years? And I think it is, the answer should be 30 percent; there has been an increase from
5 percent to 30 percent, it is mentioned somewhere. What role has have environmental
groups played in popularizing organic food? You must write in your own language; the
answer should be in I can give you quickly the mental notes that I had prepared while
reading that because organic foods do not use pesticides, etcetera. So, therefore,
environmental groups have been pressurizing a lot of have been publicizing organic food
a lot. And name the two food products is clearly mention that are scientifically proven to
be superior to non-organic foods organic milk and organic tomatoes. Now, give meaning
from context inflated, conventional, multitude. You will have to listen to the passage
again, and then please use your dictionaries wherever necessary.
294
Before I end, kindly look at the slide and this is the recommended reading. Please look at
these links that may be of some benefit to you.
So thank you very much, we will meet soon.
Tags
Presentation, Punctuation, SQW3R method, Note taking
295
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 21
Phrasal Verbs
So, today's lecture is going to be all about Word Formation. Now, there are several ways
of forming words. Vocabulary is a very important aspect of communication, written or
spoken. At the same time, when you read or listen it is important that you should have a
good command and good control over words, after all words are the building blocks of
any language. There are several things, several aspects of word formation. We will be
talking about antonym, synonyms soon. We will also talk about suffix and prefixes,
although I remember we have touched upon this aspect of affixes in one of our earlier
classes.
So, today I am going to talk about something extremely important and very often
confused element of language and vocabulary that is Phrasal Verbs. Now phrasal verbs,
before I go into, let me read out these are phrasal verbs that I have written for you, 'wind
up', 'break down', 'taken in', 'cut off', 'work out'. 'break out', 'taken up', what do these
297
things mean? Now 'wind up' I will give an example, my job here is done I can wind up
and leave. Pronunciation is not 'wind up' but 'wind up' I can wind up that means, I can
finish whatever work I have here and whatever my commitments are and I am done for
the day or for the year of our whatever term I was here, so wind up and leave.
'Break down', we also say break down in terms of having a nervous break down, but we
often say some gadget broke down. So what I am trying to say is, these things are phrasal
verbs are exactly a not always what they seem to be, what they appear to be, there is
more sort of deeper meaning even idiomatic meaning to these. So they are not to be
taken literally. 'Cut off', so we do not take a pair of scissors and cut off something. We
can cut off ties with someone. I cut off all my ties with that friend that means I severed
all my ties with a person. 'Taken up', 'taken in', you get taken in when you are fooled by
someone. 'Work out', they are trying to make things work out. A certain aspect of
anything is not working well that trying to make it work, to make it work is another
example and of phrasal. So without realizing, consider the number of times we use
phrasal verbs.
Before I go deep into it, I wanted to focus on something else together dangling modifier.
Now, see many students while writing make this is error, it is less commonly mistake in
Spoken English. In reading, we do not find it because after all it is a very erroneous
construction. However, in writing many of us who are non-native speakers especially,
perhaps it is common among native speakers but more among non-native speakers of
English, where they make errors, which are pertaining to dangling modifier. Now, what
is dangling modifier?
Before I define it and explain it, let me give you a very simple sentence. Standing at the
top of the building the people below looked small. Let me repeat, standing at the top of
the building the people below looked small. Now, who is standing at the top of the
building? Where is the subject? Definitely people are not standing, the people who are
under discussion here or under consideration here, definitely they are not the once who
are standing at the top of the building. So who are they? Where is it? So, remember
standing at the top of the building is a dangling modifier or the unrelated participle
phrase.
298
A participle qualifies the first noun or pronoun that follows it, here it is the people below
but definitely it is not the people below who are standing at the top of the buildings
though, that is what the sentence seems to suggest. The word it modifies is not clearly
stated in the sentence. So, how do we correct it? One way is to change the first part, and
add another word from the top of the building or you can even rewrite it. As we stood at
the top of the building, the people below looked invisible or looked barely visible or
looked very small. Now, these words or these expressions are adverbial. We can retain
the participial phrase, but follow it up with the word to which it really refers. So now we
are not saying standing below or standing on top of the building, now we are saying as
we stood on the top of the building, right? So, 'we' is important the people below looked
small to us as we stood at the top of the building.
Another example I will give you, having listened to both sides of the argument it should
now be possible to arrive at a decision or at a conclusion. Now having listened to both
sides of the argument, who listened to the argument? So, it is not clearly stated, therefore
it is important to insert it and rewrite it. Having listened to both sides of the argument,
we should now be able to arrive at a conclusion or decision or judgment. Now, why this
is necessary? Because the word 'we' has to be in because only then it is going to give you
a sense or an appropriate accurate meaning to the sentence.
299
Look at this slide here. Here is an exercise for you, look at these sentences. While
picking flowers a bee stung her. Now look at the way it is done, who is picking flowers?
The way the sentence is constructed without a very clearly stated subject or comma its
looks like at or it appears as though bee was picking flowers. Definitely, while she was
picking flowers a bee stung her. So, while she was picking flowers is essential. So you
have to insert those two words. On opening the door a cloud of smoke was seen in the
room. Now who opened the door? When he opened the door, a cloud was of smoke was
seen or when he opened the door, he saw a cloud of smoke in the room. This is the way
you correct. Not being photographers there was nothing in the exhibition that could
interest us. This could be or should be re written as, as we are not photographers there
was nothing in the exhibition. Otherwise not doing photographers is not acceptable.
Please look at that these web resources. These are important links that have good
materials on dangling the modifiers with plenty of examples. Please do go through these.
Let us now move on to do phrasal verbs. Now a phrasal verb is a verb formed from 2
parts of sometimes even 3 parts, a verb and an adverb or preposition, a verb preposition,
a verb preposition, a verb preposition, sometimes an adverb also. For example, 'Spirited
Away' title of a movie, any movie but spirited away, 'away' is an adverb and you have
your verb there. So, this is one example of phrasal verb. Now most a10 43 form from a
300
small number of common verbs, common verbs right cut, break, taken in, work, common
verbs also sit, sat, etcetera.
Now we also have adverbs and prepositions, such as I just gave you all these examples,
away, out, up, in, off, through, etcetera. Bring up, set off, put off, these are phrasal verbs.
Why do we use English language is extremely fond of using phrasal verbs. Without
understanding phrasal verbs is very difficult to read complex passages and write
advanced level of English. And therefore, we need phrasal verb; they add more variety to
a reading or writing. But if we make mistakes here, then there is trouble. A mistake in
phrasal verbs, they change the entire meaning of the sentence.
You cannot say 'taken in' in place of 'taken up'. Taken up is something very different
from taken in, look at your dictionaries. Break in is very different from break up.
Therefore, it is important to have a thorough knowledge of phrasal verbs. Let me give
you some more uncommon, right now I have given you a list of common phrasal verbs,
but let us let us talk about more uncommon phrasal verbs. Before I go into it let me
remind you I have already suggested a dictionary to you, that dictionary happens to be
extremely rich in phrasal verbs as well. So, if you want to look at particular phrasal verbs
and examples you should always look at the head word. So, if you want to look at break
up, break in or break into, you have to first look at the word 'break'.
The second word, the preposition is not going to help you, but definitely the head word
and then you have to go down and it all depends on the kind of dictionary you are using.
How many varieties of language and it is meaning and synonyms and phrasal verbs it can
offer to you. So, as I was telling you some examples of less common phrasal verbs
gravitate towards, 'gravitates towards' that is 'to be with some one' you like with. People
gravitate towards this product. Let us think of a very popular soap or a detergent in our
own country and people gravitate towards this product, why? Because they trust this
product, they like it for some reason.
301
So gravitate towards. Another example, graft onto. Please note the spelling is not 'into'
but 'onto'. What is graft onto? It is more medical and surgical. To take a piece of bone or
skin and use it to replace a damaged part of someone’s body. For example, we say skin
was grafted on to the wound to help it heel. Another example, 'hand in' when you hand
in, this is different from hand out. Hand in is giving and when you give hand out to
someone it is like I am handing out something, but some one has to hand me in or I can
also hand in some work to someone. It is a very different meaning in both words.
Therefore, certain new answers of English language, hand in and hand out you just
cannot confuse the two. Hand in is give something to someone in authority for example,
hand in your assignment to the professor.
'Caved in', caved in is collapse. It can be collapse of a physical body, it is more common
when we talk about the roof collapsed, the building collapse, the caved in. It can also be
a caved in to pressure. The minister caved in to the pressure of his advisers and signed a
bill, something like that. I caved in, I gave in to pressure. So it is almost like a collapse, it
can be a collapse of a physical structure or even moral collapse or collapse in your ability
to take decisions. For example, the roof of the old building caved in on top of the people.
302
Another example, let me write it out for you, ‘zeroed in on’. Now how interesting you
have 3 words here and 2 prepositions. This means focus on someone or something the
section community has zeroed in on 2 candidates for their scholarship, they have selected
for almost short listed 2 people for this. In infra 1744formed, that is the form in opinion
or conclusion, I cannot infer anything from your thesis, from your report. Now let me
draw your attention to this sample text.
Please look at the slide, phrasal verbs. This is the passage that I have taken from a review
of a film called "The Man Who Knew Infinity". This is a review article. I have
highlighted as usual all the words that I want you to pay the attention too. Let me read it
out for you.
A beautiful mind is reduced to simplified dramatic equations in The Man Who Knew
Infinity, an easily digestible fish-out-of-water. You know what is fish-out-of-water?
Something quite odd, something that does not belong, its is an idiom. So, biopic and
what is biopic? Biopic is a picture, which is a made like a biography of a person. You
have biopic of a Napoleon, Alexander, a biopic of our own great athlete Milkha Singh.
So this is biopic of Srinavasa Ramanujan, the India born mathematical prodigy whose
tutelage under the English academic G.H. Hardy gave rise to some of the fields most
303
rapport can’t cannot ward off the movie's slow descent into a rhythmically and
dramatically plodding cycle of misfortune. Ramanujan's health steadily worsens, as
signaled by a nagging tubercular cough, accompanied by regular cutaways to Janaki
despairing from thousands of miles away, with no one except the mother-in-law from
hell for company. "The Man Who Knew Infinity" builds to a moment of hard-won
recognition from Ramanujan's peers at Cambridge, followed by the sobering
acknowledgment that he was taken from the world too soon.
Try to use these expressions in language of your own. Reduced to, gave rise to, ward off,
descent into, singled by, accompanied by, despairing from, followed by, taken from.
Interesting phrasal verbs quiet useful and very common in English language as we talk
about moving towards more complex kind of reading and writing.
Now here is an exercise for, please look at these words, these phrasal verbs. fill in the
blanks using the phrasal verbs, 'arrived at', 'did away', 'kept pouring', 'shot down', 'go
back'. And here is the passage for you, fill in the blanks using these phrasal verbs.
304
Let’s us dash to what you are saying. We finally dash a conclusion. He dash all my ideas.
They should dash with such obsolete rules. The offers dash. So let us go back to what
you are saying, we finally arrived at a conclusion. He shot down all my ideas. What do
you do when you shoot something down? Again, please note it is not literally shooting
down with a gun, but shot down is dismissed of all your ideas. Next, they should do
away research obsolete rules, that means scrap all these rules which are of no
consequence or relevance or significance today. The offers kept pouring in. It is like rain,
flooded with offers, someone so popular that she or he is getting offers to do a project
perhaps and endorsement perhaps.
305
Here is the list of a set of popular phrasal verbs. Please look at these phrasal verbs and
make sentences of your own. Put forward, Drive out, Lead-in, Look for, Consist of,
Burnt out, Narrow down, Feed on.
306
Now, I will give you another exercise and complete the following using phrasal verbs.
The phrasal words are there, but they are not given the second half or second part of the
phrasal word is missing or phrasal verb is missing.
They have broken dash their deal. Robbers had broken dash their house. You need to
tone dash your attitude. Things are good they are looking dash. He has a superiority
complex, and looks dash on others. The rains eased dash after a while. Now, what do you
do with this? They have broken off the deal; o double f. Robbers had broken into their
house. You need to tone up or down, so when you talk about attitude and behavior and
perhaps the way you interact with people you have to tone down. Perhaps this aggressive
attitude would not work, but tone down your attitude, tone down your approach towards
people.
Things are good; therefore they are looking; now we cannot say looking down. If they
are good they cannot be down, so they have to look up. So, things are looking up. You
have another sense of looking up, you look up to someone that means you admire them
they are your role models. Srinavasa Ramanujan may be a role model, I am sure he is a
role model to several scientist, and many people millions of people look up to him. He
has the a superiority complex, and therefore this person cannot look up on others right,
he has to look down on others that means everyone else is inferior. So he looks down on
others. The rains eased off after a while this is an expression. So the rains eased off after
a while.
Remember, phrasal verbs and passive they have a very complicated relationship. So you
know we have done passive voice. Now there are some phrasal verbs that can be passive
voice, for example 'reduced to', she was reduced to tears to by her boss. She was reduced
to tears by the response. So this is reduced to is a phrasal verb, it has to be passive
voiced. Switch off is another word. Switch off the lights. Let the lights be switched off.
But look at sentence like that she had put up with the lot of a struggle, how do you make
it passive? How do you pacify this sentence? She had to put up with the lot of a struggle.
307
Think of a way is difficult. So, phrasal verbs can be passivized voiced only in those few
verbs that take an object. Otherwise, it is difficult to turn a phrasal verb into a passive
construction.
Now, look at this slide of phrasal verbs. Look at the words, the phrasal verbs that I am
giving to you, 'designed to', 'setting in', 'focus on', 'agree on', 'bandied around'. Use these
expressions, use these phrasal verbs and fill in the blanks. Here is your exercise, please
look at the slide.
308
The term "startup" has been dash. Please use the words that we have a just looked at.
With increasing frequency over the past few years to describe scrappy young ventures,
hip San Francisco apps and huge tech companies. According to Merriam-Webster,
Merriam-Webster is an American Dictionary. Start-up means "the act or an instance of
dash operation or motion" or "a fledgling business enterprise." One thing we can all
dash, the key attribute of a startup is it is ability to grow. A startup is a company dash is
scale very quickly. It is this dash growth unconstrained by geography, which
differentiates startups from small businesses. A restaurant in one town is not a startup,
nor is a franchise a startup.
I am showing you the slide again, of course the exercise is phrasal verbs, but also look at
some very interesting words here. For example, 'unconstrained' very soon you will do
more of affixes and prefixes and suffixes. Unconstrained uses a prefix 'un' otherwise you
say constrain. Unconstrained means unrestricted. Differentiates is another interesting
word, you have difference which is the noun, different which is an adjective and
differentiates becomes your verb, differential is also your noun. So, word formation that
is what we talking about. Now, let us solve this exercise, take a minute or so. And here is
the answer.
309
The term is "startup" has been bandied around. So interesting 'bandied around,' has been
thrown around, has been in circulation. With increasing frequency over the past few
years to describe scrappy young ventures, hip San Francisco apps. Hip is very modern,
very stylish and huge tech companies. According to Merriam-Webster, start-up means
"the act or an instance of setting in operation or motion" or "a fledgling business and
enterprise." One thing we can all agree on: so when the preceding word was we can all it
has to be or it has to be agree on. The key attribute of a startup is its ability to grow. A
startup is a company design to scale very quickly, it is this focus on growth etcetera,
etcetera and therefore, this is your exercise.
310
Look at this slide. This is computer vocabulary, see every domain, every area of a
specialization has it is specific register. By register we mean, a kind of technical jargon
that is specialized or but that is restricted only to that particular domain. So, this
vocabulary is common to computer people who deal in computers, but also consider the
way these words have come to form a part of our popular lexicon. I would like you to
find the meanings of the following. Look at the definitions of the following: Cyber
culture, User-friendly, Technobabble, Information highway, Bandwidth, Netiquette,
Flames and Technophobe.
311
Let us me move on to do another exercise and here is a list of words all misspelt. I would
like you to rewrite these words and write the correct form of spellings. Please look at the
list, I will give you only a moment. Seperate, Pursuite, Accommodation, Beleive,
Conveneince, Recieve, Decition, Avialable. This is the answer: Separate, Pursuit,
Accommodation, Believe, Convenience, Receive. Remember the 'e, i' and 'i, e'
combination. After see ‘c’ you have an 'i' and 'e' and then after ‘c’ it is the 'e, i'
combination. Otherwise, it remains i e. Decision and Available. I also like to do some
pronunciation with you today. Let’s us talk about stresses. Now, what are stresses in
spoken language?
312
I am not talking about word stress and not sentence stress. Let us begin with the basics.
Now, word 'stress', when we stress on a particular syllable, as you know words consists
of syllables. Many a time there are monosyllabic words. For example, 'k n o w' know and
'no' one sound, but here you have 'gra vi tate' try syllabic. Now very often it is important
to stress on the right syllable. We say no and here is a stress, when we say word just one
syllable, stress one syllable, zeroed in on, so I stressed on the initial sound zeroed in on.
Otherwise, if you I say zeroed in on it looks, it appears extremely problematic. Graft on
to, use do not. Wind up is important to stress on the right syllable or the sound. Taken in,
taken up, so it is important to know, what are those syllables that have to be stressed on?
Now, I am reading out a list of word, this I have taken from the book 'Better Spoken
English' I have already referred to this book in our introductory or in one of our initial
classes. So, here is a list of words and I would like you to follow me as you sit in your
classroom or as you sit in your rooms and Please follow me as I read out this list of
words with correct enunciation and correct stress. Abdomen Adamant we do not say
abdomen, we say abdomen, Adjective, Accident, Advocate, Acronym, Agency, Algebra,
Ambassador. Now, where is this the stress? On the second sound we do not say
'ambassador', 'ambassador' second syllable, Analysis, not analysis, 'analysis'. Please note
now the stress is on the second syllable antonym, we do not say antonym.
313
Antonym you know opposite of some word, Apostrophe, Aptitude, Bulletin, Canada
name of a country, they to need to be stressed properly in order to make a sound and the
meaning clearer. Cinema, Comedy, Compromise, Cucumber, Customer, Destiny,
Dynamite, Ecstasy, Element, Eminence, Emporium, Envelope, Encyclopedic, Enterprise,
Etiquette, Evidence, Expenditure, Experiment, Experience not experience, 'experience'
stress is on the second syllable.
Now, Better Spoken English is a book that has been written in order to facilitate the
pronunciation to improve the pronunciation of non-native speakers of the English
language. Now see, the entire idea of the English of having a course like this is that, we
need to understand that we are trying to be more profession in the English language, so
that we can communicate better and make ourselves understandable and comprehensible
to other people, whether they are in India or Abroad.
So, it is important to be able to understand the idiom, the language, the way people
communicate and also correct pronunciation and stress and emphasis of words and
sentences is a very important part of making yourself comprehensible. Especially, to
those who are the native speakers of the English language, remember this. When I use
the word native speakers I am using it in a very broad sense, people whose first language
is the English language. The idea of this course is not to try to turn you into British or
American speakers of the language, what I mean here is that, do not put on accents or
what I would rather say false accent or fake accent. The way you speak would be
perfectly comprehensible, if you just know where to emphasize and stress.
We have already done some work on phase and rhythm of other language, pay attention
to those. It is not at all important that you should be able to put on the kind of accents
that perhaps a Canadian may have or an American may have, that is not required. That is
also not very appropriate thing to do. So retain your accents, but makes sure that they
have minimum interference with your spoken language and therefore it is more
important to practice the way words and sentences are suppose to be enunciated.
Thank you very much and see you in the next class.
314
Tags
315
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 22
Collocation
In our previous class, we were talking about the ways where phrasal verbs convey
meanings and the situations where they are used. In today’s lecture, we will continue
talking about building vocabulary and also word formation. And with particular
reference to collocations, collocations and we will see how words come together to form
meaning that is what is meant by the word collocations.
So, what are collocations, here I have written collocations for you. And all these look at
the list here; reassuring presence, little hesitation, proved feasible, constant disturbance,
consistently good, wonderful voice, extraordinarily punctual, habitually late, spoke
loudly or said loudly rarely occurring. Now, these are examples of collocations and
examples of how certain words come together. Proved feasible, you can also say looked
feasible, but try replacing another, the feasible of course is an adjective right; disturbance
is a noun, constant is an adjective.
316
So, I would say what my question was initial question was, if you replace constant
disturbance with let us say, habitual disturbance as said habitually late, but if you say
habitual disturbance. It may convey the meaning, but it would not be so appropriate.
Now, what do collocations do, collocations is the way words come together. Let me
repeat, collocation is the way words come together and rarely occurring.
Look at the word. Now try to replace rarely with something else rarely of course is an
adverb; frequently occurring, hardly occurring, often occurring, try, they may sound
good, but ask yourself which is better. Spoke loudly, wonderful voice, you can also say
pretty voice, you can also say extraordinary voice, exceptional voice, all these adjectives
would go with the noun voice. Pretty face, wonderful face, perhaps, but which sounds
better. Wonderfully expressive, but prettily expressive, hardly expressive, ask yourself,
which sounds most natural.
Again, we may say driving ambition. He is driven by ambition. I was propelled by this
driving and ambition to do something, but you do not say walking ambition or running
ambition. Heavy rains, but would you say strong rains; strong wind, but would you say
heavy wind; these are the ways words and expressions occur and come together. You
have to remember that, all these words they nothing exceptional about these words, but it
is the way they come together. So, in order to understand, how do we bring word
together, we need or readers need or as user of the English language - we need greater
familiarity with the nuisances of vocabulary particularly collocations. So, this is what we
mean and this is what we are going to do in today’s class.
Now again, you have to remember that collocations are not like your phrasal verb, we
were doing phrasal verb the other day. So, to understand collocations, now we have to
understand or we have to know, which adjective goes with a particular noun, which
adjective goes with a particular noun; adjective, noun. You have to say which verb will
go with a certain noun, which verb goes with an adjective here, which verb goes with a
certain adverb here. So, this is the way you have to do, which adverb will go with a
particular adjective.
Now let us see here; reassuring presence, now this is an adjective here, it acts as an
317
adjective and this is a noun. Little hesitation, you can also say great hesitation or I was
really hesitate, but you cannot say rarely hesitating; it looks and sounds quite odd;
although the meaning is absolutely clear, but it would not take you from one level to the
next higher level. So, you have to also think how adverbs collocate with certain
adjectives. We will give you example soon. Now, let me come to another interesting
word, which you people may need on a day-to-day basis. Now look at something like
energy; if you have your dictionary or if you are using an online dictionary while
watching this lecture, please look at this word ‘energy’.
What is energy? Energy is a noun. It is a noun and it is also an adjective. It can be use the
way engineers use you know conserve energy, so that becomes your noun, if I use energy
as again as a noun and what are the adjectives that can go with it. What are the
adjectives; I will repeat my questions, what are the adjectives that go when we use
energy as a noun, what adjectives can collocate with energy. Think, I have little energy
left; I can give you one example from here itself from this. But can you say wonderful
energy, can you say strong energy, but can you say boundless energy, now it sounds more
natural and unlimited energy, boundless energy, you can also say inexhaustible energy,
creative energy.
318
All these great writers that we read and admire so much and that is what we use about
them or even about a the great scientist, the other day, we were doing a passage about
Srinivasa Ramanujam, so why not use his boundless creative energy, sounds natural,
sounds all right. Nervous energy, now this is another kind of Nish word, but yes, it goes
well. You can also say youthful energy, diminishing energy and the opposite of
diminishing surplus energy. So, there is an all these are adjectives. You can say full of
energy, now bursting with energy. You can also say channel your energy. Now you are
using certain verbs – bursting, channel. Expand energy, conserve energy, save energy,
waste energy, dissipate energy, so all these words, what are they? You are using
collocating verbs with a very commonly used word that is your energy.
Please consult your dictionaries. See, how many more things, you can do with this one
very simple noun. Let me give you another example – help, all right, very common word.
Little help, can you use; constant help, you can use; thanks for your wonderful help, the
meaning is clear, but of course we understand what is the speaker is trying to do. But let
us say enormous help, valuable help, real help, timely help, unexpected help; I was not
expecting your help, but it came in time; immeasurable helps all these are adjectives, so
tremendous help. So, look up your dictionaries, you can also use help along with appeal
for help.
Now, here you are collocating verbs with the word help; plea for help, seek help, send for
help, shout for help, someone help, so all these show how verb collocates with certain
other verbs in case of help. You can do any number of such exercises, and you will find it
enormously beneficial to develop your word power and vocabulary. When you write
remember that you need to have a variety of expressions to use not just, please do not
repeat, please do not use just a set a formulas and this and keep on repeating that as you
advance, as you move up in life, you have to understand that is very important to use
wide range of vocabulary.
319
Now take a look at this exercise. Here is a slide and exercise for you. It is all mixed up,
you have to match the correct verb with the correct adverb, collocate them appropriately.
Argued foolishly, grinned heatedly, defend markedly, contrast fiercely, waited honestly,
behaved patiently, you may say that everything can collocate with everything. To an
extent, you may be right, all right, but how to sound better. Now, let us look at the list
again. How do you collocate, take a movement.
Now, let us do the exercise together. Argued heatedly, you are arguing confronting
someone, having a heated discussion. Grinned foolishly, grinned sheepishly, you know
what is a grinning a sort of a smile, but foolishly when you are caught doing or when you
find yourself in a situation, which is not too appropriate, and then you grinned foolishly,
just as an act of saving face. Defend fiercely, we are going to defend our borders fiercely,
our country fiercely. Contrast markedly; there is a mark contrast here. Waited patiently, a
waited impatiently; the other way is also correct. Behaved very honestly; can you say
behaved foolishly, yes. So, what I am trying to say here is that there are words in this list
that can go, there can be more than one word that collocate here with the other word, but
you have to be careful about how you use there. So this can come only with practice and
consulting your dictionaries.
320
Now here look at this another list, another exercise for you, match the following. Please
look at the slide; mechanical entry, a shining pressure, a spelling force, an electric
surface, an encyclopedic triangle, a right angle mistake.
Now look at the answers. A mechanical force, reduced pressure, encyclopedic entry, a
321
black surface, a right angle triangle, a spelling mistake, and you can also have a shining
surface, why not a black surface, a shining surface. So, mechanical but a shining force a
shining pressure, a spelling mistake, a mechanical mistake perhaps, but think again how
appropriate would that word be there in that situation and of course, you cannot have
anything else a right angle triangle, it collocates beautifully. And encyclopedic entry,
what else can you have has, an encyclopedic writing, an encyclopedic knowledge, an
encyclopedic brain. Dr. Johnson had an encyclopedic brain, can you use it that way,
please try to answer that.
Now here is a sample text for you. I have highlighted certain commonly and frequently
occurring collocations. Please look at it. Let us read the passage together. In 1899, Roald
Amundsen became a sea captain and organized an expedition. So, you organized an
expedition, arranged an expedition could also be one word, but try to think of other
words that can go with organization. What I am trying to tell you here is, randomly you
cannot bring two words together, you have to have the right kind of word to collocate, to
go through to the North Magnetic pole. While on the island, the Netsilik Indian taught
them Arctic survival techniques. Now, survival techniques these go together. Matter of
survival, survival technique, survival, what else can you use, survival techniques,
survival methods; think of other words that can go with survival, survival is an adjective;
322
techniques is a noun.
After reaching the North Pole, Amundsen admitted that he was heavily in debt, now
there is no such thing as lightly in debt. You are always heavily in debt, slightly in debt,
may be, but heavily in debt collocates very naturally, you do not say mildly in debt that,
you do not say strongly in debt, and knew that his best chance of raising money was to
bring off. Now Best chance, last chance, exceptional chance, perhaps, but there are very
few other words that will go with chance. So, the best is an adjective.
Remember, we were doing degrees of comparison, so good, better, best. Would you say
good chance, perhaps would you say better chance may be not, ask yourself. Raising
money was to bring off a spectacular triumph, and this is the way it collocates.
Spectacular failure, yes very poetic, very creative, very literary, but generally we say
spectacular triumph, spectacular along with triumph. What else you can use an
extraordinary triumph, an exceptional triumph, you never you cannot use wonderful
triumph perhaps, but you see meaning is clear with nothing wrong, you are able to
communicate, but would not sound that proficient, would not sound that natural.
Spectacular triumph look good when these two words come together they look good.
According to Amundsen, if at that juncture I had made my intention public. Intention

public or my public intentions they collocate well. You can publicize intentions, it would
only give occasion for a lot of newspaper discussion, you can also say newspaper
speculation, newspaper publicity, but try to think of other kinds of nouns that can go with
other noun that is your newspaper, and possibly have ended in the project being stifled at
its birth. My brother, upon whose absolute silence; now you can also say complete
silence, you can also say expected silence. You know in this context, I expect my brother
to be silence so but what are the other adjectives that you can use with the noun silence,
think about that. You cannot say wonderful silence, you cannot cay little silence, it has to
be absolute silence.
I could blindly rely or I could blindly depend on my brother’s silence. Now blindly rely
how else can you write this, blindly trust, blindly depend what else, so think of the
limited number of choices you have for collocations you cannot again let me tell you the
323
same thing you cannot bring words together randomly. There has to be a method there
has to be some thinking that that must go behind this, was the only a person, I let into the
secret of my change of plan, and he did me many important services during the time
when we alone shared the knowledge. So, the important services, exceptional services,
wonderful services, many services, so many there are so many possibilities, but then
there are only so many possibilities not endless possibilities. So, please be careful when
you collocate.
Let me give you another example, please take a look. Let say officially launched; iCloud
drive was officially launched alongside iOS 8 and is Apple's solution to managing
documents across iPhone, and iPad and Mac. Now, if you look at the sentence like this,
what are the words that are collocating beautifully; officially launched, you can say
properly launched, perhaps you can say finally launched, at last launched. And what else,
can you say instead can you replace officially, with legally, socially. Ask yourself which
sounds better. Managing documents is another expression in this sentence, so it is
Apple’s solution to managing documents. Now what else can you use in place of
managing ask yourself, but managing documents, filing documents, and what else ask
yourself.
324
Let me give you another example Marie and Pierre curie they were dedicated scientists
and also completely devoted to one another. So, dedicated scientist, extraordinary
scientist, exceptional scientist, devoted scientist and completely devoted to each other
completely devoted to each other. You can say fully devoted to each other, you can say
what else can you say exceptionally devoted to each other perhaps. Then ask yourself
how natural completely devoted sounds.
Here is another exercise for you, please take a look. You have to fill in the blanks using
the words given at the end. There is a list given at the bottom reliable, leader, dramatic,
corporate, it is of course a very jumbled list, not in the sequential order, liabilities, grace,
appraisal. Your sentence is the employees have to go through performance. The company
is a marketing dash in manufacturing cars. These sales are indicators of consumer
confidence. The company has to reduce its for the current financial year. There has been
a downturn in the industry in the past few years. After several years of climbing the
ladder, I left to start my own firm. The Nobel laureate was kind enough to the occasion.
Now what words would go there.
Let us look at it. The employees have to go through performance, and the word that goes
best appraisal you know what is performance appraisal. The company is a market what
325
look at the other words and we only think that goes the only word that goes very well
here is leader in manufacturing cars. These sales are dash indicators of consumer
confidence, reliable indicators. That is the way you try to look at the word indicator and
then see what the words that go with it are. There has been a and what kind of a
downturn dramatic downturn that is the only word that you can use here. After several
years of climbing the word is very clear corporate ladder. And then Nobel laureate was
kind enough to grace the occasion.
Now, look at this exercise and fill in the words. This is a passage now; use the words:
Interests, advance, concept, and behavior. It’s is hard to remember a time when the
ubiquitous Like button did not exist, but back in 2010, it was a novel. It was also a major
in terms of the way brands and business would come to use Facebook in the future.
Rather than simply communicating with users who visited their own Facebook pages,
brands could now study data about user and capitalize on their perceived.
What are the words how are you going to collocate It’s is hard to remember a time when
the ubiquitous Like button did not exist, but back in 2010, it was a novel concept, you
always use along with novel what is the other word that can come up with concept, what
else can you collocate with concept look up your dictionaries. It was also a major a major
326
what advance, you know break through you can use another word breakthrough in terms
of the way brands and businesses come to use Facebook in the future. Rather than simply
communicating with users who visited their own Facebook pages brands could now
study data about user behavior, consumer behavior. So, there are certain words that go
with each other and capitalize on their perceived interest.
Here is a list of useful references, useful links, please take a look here. This is a list of
web sources, which are rich in vocabulary development, especially in the area of
collocation. If you would wish to know more about collocation, please go through these
websites. I would also recommend Oxford Dictionary of Collocation; it is standalone
kind of a dictionary on collocations, extremely useful and a very worthy addition to your
dictionaries; the other dictionaries that I had recommended the other day to you. So, you
can always use Oxford Dictionary of Collocation, if you are interested in this area.
So thank you very much, we will soon meet for our next class.
327
Tags
Presentation, Punctuation, collocation
328
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 23
Word Formation
Good morning, before I start the class today, please take a look at this text; a sample text
and then once you read it; once we read it, I will tell you what we are supposed to do.
Kindly pay attention to the highlighted words. Let us read, many concerns have been
raised over the inadequate testing of the effects of genetic engineering on humans and
the environment. Almost all GE foods contain antibiotic resistance marker genes. Unlike
chemical and nuclear contamination, which can at least be contained, genetic pollution
cannot be isolated and separated from the environment in which it is spreading. These
highlighted words inadequate, antibiotic, unlike what category is or what category do
they come under; we are talking about prefix.
329
Perhaps we have touched upon this element of the English language earlier, but let us
consider it today in greater detail. I am very sure that even in Indian languages, we have
prefixes as part of our grammar. I can give you example from Hindi language itself, let
us consider samanya [FL] that is ordinary and asamaya[FL] you add a in front or before
the word and it becomes extraordinary.
So, we do have examples of prefixes in our languages as well, you may have to consider
more if you are interested in this area, a wonderful area for research. So prefixes; in the
English language prefixes as well as suffixes. In the earlier sentences, in the earlier slide
that we have just seen, you may have come across the word contamination. Now, the root
word is contaminate and it turns into noun with the addition of’ i o n’ that is is shun tion
or ‘t i o n’. So, you turn the category, you change the category of a word from a verb
contaminate to contamination.
So, prefixes and suffixes these are the words that cannot stand by their own. Let us say t i
o n, what does it mean nothing u n, a prefix t i o n; a suffix, a t e another suffix. They do
not stand alone, they do not mean anything by themselves. You cannot write them
separately, they always have to come along or be attached along with the root word.
Today, we are going to consider, how to identify root words also. It is not that simple, it
330
is not that easy. Many students, the non native speaker students; they do make errors,
severe errors in the way they form or they use word formation especially in the written
communication and also in oral communication.
Again, I go back to my previous statement; suffixes, prefixes they do not stand alone to
make a word, but can be added prefix at the beginning, suffix at the end to make a
different word. Let me give you some examples that you may find of some use, I am
giving you examples of prefixes, let us say a g r o; agro, a m b i; ambi let me write it.
So, I am talking prefixes agro, ambi, im, in, dis, macro, micro. So, these are specialized
fields of inquiry right; chrono, bi, try, contra, ante; a n t e, What do these mean? What do
these prefixes mean? By themselves they make very little sense, but you add agro and
you get agro industry, you have ambi you have ambidextrous, ambivalent something that
suggest duality. You have ante; ante's room, ante room, ante mean something before that
occurs before, bi; something that occurs twice, bilingual; so someone who can speak two
languages, bimonthly, biannual; duration frequency. Chrono; chrono generally suggest
time, so chronometer, chronology and then you have contra; contra is against contrary we
say so contra indicator, this is the way we use.
331
Now, here I am going to give you an exercise, please make two words with the following
prefixes and here is your list, please look at the slide.
Electro, mid, intra, infra, macro, over, poly, petro. Please work in pairs and come up with
at least two words and using the following and using these prefixes, you may please
consider your dictionary if necessary. Now look at this sample text.
332
Here I am giving you example of a suffix or of a few suffixes, read the text with mean.
‘Melinda Gates notes that paid parental leave has been linked to higher birth weights
and lower rates of infant mortality, long-term emotional health of both parents and
children, and greater engagement from fathers and professional opportunity for
mothers’. Look at the highlighted words, perhaps there are more than the highlighted
words, the words that can go as suffixes.
But here let us look at some of the words highlighted; parental, higher, mortality,
emotional, engagement, professional. Where do you think are the suffixes in these
words? So, let us consider one by one; parent, parental, it becomes an adjective. Look at
the word noun, the leave right after it which is the noun, so parental leave qualifies the
noun leave, higher birth weights, so high and head and e r and turn it into a degree of
comparison. We have already done comparative adjectives. Look at infant mortality, now
this is your noun; mortal, mortality, long-term emotional health again an adjective;
emotion and health. So, a l becomes your suffix greater engagement; engage and m e n t
ment is another very commonly use suffix and last professional opportunity;
professional, profession and with an a l it turns into an adjective, opportunity also you
have the opportunity by itself is a noun. You can convert it into an adjective opportune.
333
So, opportune moment we may discuss this thing at some opportune moment, so
opportunity is your noun, opportune is your adjective. Now, look at these examples.
Look and also their meanings; able, ability these are commonly used suffixes, an
example noticeable is spelling is please note their spelling s. So, here you have to note
their spelling of noticeable it is not n o t i c a b l e, but it is n o t i c e a b l e. If you want
to say noticeable, then you have to eliminate e, but the pronunciation is definitely not
noticeable, it is noticeable so therefore e remains; look at the other suffix a l i a, this
means items of interest like memorabilia a n c e or e n c e. You have confidence,
assistance, a t i v e that is doing something demonstrative, illustrative; you have i z e, i s
e; that means, to make to become nationalize or privatize.
At this moment, let me also do drive your attention to the distinction between British and
American spellings; i z e is American, i s e is British. The rule is that if you want to use
American grammar, American English then please be consistent about it, do not switch
between American and British way of the spelling. It is always important to consult your
teacher, your faculty, your supervisor while writing your dissertations digitations that
which spelling you should use. See, in e-mail writing or in more informal and semi
formal kinds of writing, you can use American English and its variants, however it is
334
always advisable to check with your supervisor, with your professor what kinds of
English or what variety of English would he or she prefer.
Look at this slide and this is an exercise for you, make two words using the following
suffixes ator, ism, ize, crat, er, ology, ory, ship; s h i p, wise and y. So, this is what I want
you to do and again as usual you may work in pairs and consult your dictionary, make at
least two words using these suffixes. So, we have just seen how there are and so many
words that can be made using prefixes and suffixes. Now, consider let me move on to
something else now. So, let us consider words such as amaze; a m a z e.
335
Amaze, this is a verb, you amaze me. This was one invention of the 21st century that
truly amazed me. Amazing is an adjective, you have added i n g. This was an amazing
invention, now you are using it as an in adjective. Amazingly, what is it ly form, so it is
your adverb and she starred at the gadget in amazement, in sheer amazement.
Amazement could be of shock well you as well you can be so pleased or so thrilled or
you can be so put off by something that you are amaze. So, amaze can work either way
and amazement is a noun, so she looked at something in amazement. This is the way we
construct words, we form words, so please look at the slide given here.
336
Word formation; now I will guide you how to do this, please look at the slide. Differ is a
verb, I want to you to do noun, adjective and adverb for it, accuse is a verb please do
noun, adjective adverb for it, compete is a verb and you have to fill in for noun, adjective
and adverb form of it, curious is an adjective write adverbs, noun and verb for it, human
is a noun write adjective adverb and verb for it, method is a noun write verb, adjective
and adverb for it, presume is a verb write noun, adjective and adverb for it. I will give
you two minutes to complete this exercise and then we will discuss the answers.
337
So, let us discuss the answers differ; noun is difference, adjective different, differently.
Accuse; verb accusation, noun accusatory; accusatory remark. Remember, accusingly is
adverb. Compete, competition, competitive see look at your, i v e form and
competitively. Curious, curiously it has no noun form and no verb form, so what is the
rule here every word cannot be converted into whatever we wish it to. So, there are
certain rules and we have to abide by those. Humanize; verb human, noun humanitarian
and humanly adverb, method there is no verb for it; methodical adjective, methodically is
your adverb. Presume, presumption, presumptive. Please look at the category and the
word presumptive the spelling of this word presumably is adverb.
338
Now, look at this exercise word formation I would like you to find nouns, adverbs,
adjectives and of course, noun, verbs, adverbs and adjectives for these words. You may
consult your dictionary please and work in pairs if you think necessary. Allergy, argue,
assume, broad, drama, electric, idea, grow, science, solve not as easy as it appears; it will
take some effort and some dictionary skills on your part to identify the various forms of
these words. Now, let us look at this paragraph or passage.
339
The perfume industry is facing a major problem maintaining constant levels of quality is
necessary, but it is increasingly difficult to obtain a regular supply of all the necessary
natural ingredients. Essential oils cannot be synthesized in the laboratory, but supplies
are dwindling and need to be protected, in some cases by the perfume industry itself. I
have highlighted the first noun for you, that is industry my question to you is to identify
all the nouns here and make various words, other categories of words using the same
nouns. This is your exercise, I will repeat, I have marked the noun for you, the first
sentence that is industry, I would like you to identify all the nouns in this passage, it is a
very short passage and please use different words or forms of words for those nouns.
Let us move on. This is another exercise for you.
340
In the brackets there are certain words given, you have to write the proper or the
appropriate form of these words. Spiderman; let us read the passage, let us look at the
passage, ‘Spiderman is dash; (argue) the most popular dash; (cinema) superhero since
superman. In most successful movie franchises, it’s is hard for the sequels to match the
original and in the case of superhero action movies, the (cohesive) of plot and dialogue
tend to diminish in favor of ever more (spectacle) and improbable action sequences and
special effects. Spiderman 3 is no exception to this phenomenon, however, that said it’s
is still really fun to watch and the CG sequences are truly amazing. Now when analyzing
the physics in a superhero fantasy obviously you have to suspend dash; (belief) and
accept the basic and impossible premise of the movie if you want to have any fun’. Take
a minute and then we will solve the exercise.
Now, let us consider the exercise all over again; let us look at the slide, Spiderman is
arguably the most popular cinematic; please consider it is not cinema hero, it is cinematic
hero. We always use the word cinematic experience, so cinematic adjective is hard, I
have skipped up little, it is hard for the sequels to match the original and in the case of
superhero action movies, the cohesiveness of plot and dialogue tend to diminish in favor
of ever more and see look at the next word, we have an adjective here; improbable
defining action, adding to action sequences. So, it has to be an adjective again, it is not
341
spectacle action sequences, but it is spectacular action sequences. This is the logic that
you apply here is, Spiderman 3 is no exception to this phenomenon; however, that said it
is still really fun to watch and the CG sequences are truly amazing. Now when I
analyzing the physics in a superhero fantasy obviously you have to suspend and you
cannot suspend belief, you are suspending disbelief.
I do not believe that all these things are can happen or are possible. So, willing
suspension of disbelief, this is a literary term; this is such a popular literary term, that it
has become part of the idiom and lexicon of the English language, so willing suspension
of so you have to suspend your disbelief. There is a prefix here and accept the basic and
impossible premise of the movie, if you want to have any fun. If you do not want to have
fun, you are not going to suspend disbelief, but if you want to have fun you have to go
with the flow.
Let us look at this exercise now and the question is finding the root word. Three
sentences for you, first sentence about; ‘The island of Dr. Moreau is H.G. Well's most
Darwinian book and owes most of its inspiration to the theory of evaluation’. Second
and these two second sentence, second and three that taken from the time machine again
by H.G. Well's one of the greatest writers of science fiction genre. ‘At one time, it had
342
for a little while glowed more brilliantly again, but it is speedily reverted to its sullen red
heat. Its back was corrugated and ornamented with ungainly bosses, and a greenish
incrustation blotched it here and there’.
So, let us look at the first sentence, Darwinian now the root word is Darwinian, it comes
from Darwin. Darwin is the proper noun, adjective Darwinian, every name of every
author cannot be changed into an adjective. Writer has to be of such great magnitude,
such great importance that we can change his style and his thoughts and we can make an
adjective out of that. So, Darwin, Darwinian that is an honor we give him; Dickens,
Charles Dickens; Dickensian, but we cannot take everyone who writes a novel and turn it
into an adjectival word, owes most of his inspiration, inspire is the basic word, inspiring
is an adjective, inspiration is a noun.
Theory of evolution, evolve is your verb, evolution is your noun and like wise please
solve this exercise. Speedily, what could be the answer; speedily is; obviously, an adverb
speed, speed is your basic root word. Ornamented is used as a verb here, ornament is a
noun and the basic and root word greenish is a color green is a color, green can be use as
a noun and a green dress; it can be used as an adjective, greenish; i s h it is a noun here or
if you want in a greenish incrustation, yes so a noun or an adjective. So, it can be used in
different places, in different situations as various categories.
343
Now, here is an exercise, you turn these words into their antonyms using prefixes.
Active, believe, order, interested, personal, specified, just, learn, polite, quiet. I will give
you one example; you write i n; as a prefix and it turns into inactive. So, diametrically
opposite of active is inactive using just a little prefix i n. So, in use in as a prefix and
inactive from active it becomes inactive. So, the answers are active, inactive; believe,
disbelieve; order, disorder; interested, uninterested, there is also word called
disinterested; it is again very interesting word and you have to see, consider the
difference between disinterested and uninterested. You have personal, impersonal;
specified, unspecified; just, unjust; learn, unlearn; polite, in impolite; quiet, disquiet and
here is a useful slide for you.
344
Please look at the slide for references, if you want to learn more about references or these
are your go to links, extremely useful websites. Before we wind up, I want you to do
some practice in speaking. Now, your homework is and this is your, this is something
that you have to do on your own. I want you to talk about what cities are famous in our
country and what makes them famous or what are those qualities that make them famous.
What cities are famous or what are the famous cities in our country and what are the
factors that make them famous.
This is your pre-speaking discussion and your main activity is, describe a city that you
are enjoyed visiting. You should be able to talk about where is the city? What is so
unique about the city? And what are the facilities available for the tourist in this city? So,
you have to do some pre-discussion and then you have to talk about a specific city that
you enjoyed visiting. This is something that I would like you to discuss and practice
speaking.
Thank you very much. We will meet soon for our next class.
345
Tags
346
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 24
Reading: Understanding text organization
Let us practice some of grammar and usage now. Although, today the basic focus, please,
pay attention to this is going to be reading and understanding the organization of a text;
how a text is organized and some inferences. So, we will do today a greater analysis, a
more in depth analysis of how a text is organized. So, before we do all that, since we, in
our last class we stopped at word formation and vocabulary building. I wanted you to
practice little bit of grammar and which is also associated with vocabulary and word
formation.
So, let us talk about some kind of usage and some common mistakes that we often make.
Now, I want you to take down three expressions; cold temperature, a young age and
cheap prices. I repeat; cold temperature, a young age and cheap prices. Do you find
anything wrong with these expressions? My next question, do you use them in your
everyday communication? If you are doing, then this is a mistake and it is basically
called mistakes of category. Some people may also call it redundant words. It is not
exactly that, but it is definitely a mistake of category.
Now, remember when you say cold temperature, you have to remember that temperature
is a number. It is just a number. We use certain numbers like zero degree, two degrees,
four degrees. Temperature cannot be hot and cold, a day may be hot and cold. So, you
could say it is a hot day or a cold day, or we can even say very less temperature, a fall or
decline in temperature. But, these cold temperature, such kinds of words they do not
collocate.
So, you have already done some amount of collocation in one of our previous classes.
So, please remember that. Again, things are cheap, you know, inexpensive things, but not
prices. So, we do not say cheap cost, you cannot say expensive cost but you can say
these are cheap things; inexpensive objects, inexpensive furniture, inexpensive clothes.
347
We do not say cheap prices or high prices. Prices are prices. So, rather say low
temperature and low prices. And, what happens to young age? A person is young and old,
not age. Age is again a number. We can also say an early age, but we do not say old age,
young age.
Another mistake that I often find in particularly in the right thing of some of our students
is the overuse of contractions. You know what are contractions? Can’t, won’t, shan’t,
that’s, that’ll like that is, it’s, they’re; t h e y and then an apostrophe and re. What is the
wrong with that? After all we do speak that way. So, what do you think could be wrong
with that? The idea is that in formal communication, we need to avoid as much as we can
the use of contractions.
And, also is important to avoid the use of the word etc. or etcetera, is an overused word
and it really does not have any purpose in good writing. It just makes it look quite
shabby and inelegant. So, do not use contractions, and do not overuse the use of the word
etcetera. And, sometimes people even say etcetera, etcetera. You must avoid using this,
although it is perfectly to use these terms in your oral expressions, in your spoken
English. But not in, again let me make the distinction very clear; not in formal writing,
not in report writing, not for a report that you would like to give to your boss, not for in
an S O P kind of a document which you want if perhaps you are trying to apply for a
fellowship abroad or something more competitive, avoid the use of this. These are the
basic things, basic mistakes that you should avoid.
348
Let me now move on to another exercise or rather the first exercise of the day. And, I
want you to look at this slide and tell me, what is wrong with the following. What is
wrong with the following? Adequate enough, 2 am in the morning, please read the slide,
close proximity, end result, future plans, in the field of physics, a period of 6 weeks,
revert back, track record, surround on all sides?
Again mistakes of category, we do not need some of the words. They are; they may be
redundant, they are extras. You either say adequate or you say enough, not adequate
enough. You say two a m and the meaning is quite clear. It has; if it is a m, it has to be in
the morning. You do not need to further elaborate it. Close proximity; I am in proximity
or I am close, but you do not have to use both words altogether, both words together. End
result; it is a very common mistake to use. End result, do not use it together. Any one
word is enough. So, you can say in the end or the result of it or resultant, resultantly. So,
there are both these words would suffice independently, not together.
Future plans; of course, I am making plans. And, of course when you make plans it
cannot be; it is understood that is for the future. So, you do not have to use the word
future here. In the field of Physics; someone has won the Nobel in the field of Physics,
you just have to say in Physics, in Economics, in English, literature. A period of 6 weeks;
349
6 weeks should be enough, not a period. Revert back; return back, mistakes of
prepositions. You just have to say I am going to revert to you. I am going to return the
book to you. Do not say return back. Track record; he has a good record. You do not have
to use the word track here. And, surround on all sides; you just say surround. I was
surrounded by opponents. We do not have to say all sides. Surrounded by sea, but you do
not have to say by all sides.
So, now what have we been doing? We have been looking at some examples of words,
which merely repeat some of meaning, which is already present in another word. So, we
do not have to repeat these words in good writing. So, let us consider some more
examples. For example, a new invention; it is invention, it is new. A prior experience; so,
experience should be enough. Repeat again; repeat, just repeat. You do not have to say
again. Particular interest; very commonly used expression. Many of us use that without
realizing that. Just using the word interest is enough. True fact; if it is fact, it has to be
true. Usual custom; if it is custom, it is usual; likewise. I would like to now draw your
attention to some reading. And, here look at the slide.
Look at this passage. I will read out the passage for you and then we will do some
exercises based on it. This is just a warm up reading. Today, we have to do lot of such
350
similar exercises.
Enid Blyton, an English novelist, specialized herself in children's literature right from the
beginning of her career. She taught for a few years before dedicating herself completely
to writing. The publication of the first volume of the popular Famous Five series, written
between 1942 and 1963 made her famous worldwide, especially in France, which
continues to publish the 21 books of in the Bibliotheque Rose series, since 1954. She
tells a the story of a group of four kids, and their dog, who are in charge of solving police
enigmas. Later on, between 1942 and 1963, the Secret Seven, made up of fifteen stories
also encountered much success. Her books translated into more than fifty languages,
have sold over 400 million copies. She has been accused of writing without style and of
portraying an over simplified world, but it has to be said that her works have allowed
many young children to become interested in reading. Enid Blyton wants to reinforce
children's talent for reading, while allowing them to discover the world around them.
Thanks to exciting stories that are full of twists and turns.
Please look at the exercises now and try to solve it. First question. Rewrite the sentence
using the word ‘because’. And, you have to rewrite this; she has been accused of writing
without style and of portraying an over-simplified world. So, rewrite this particular
351
sentences starting it with ‘because’ and then use the remaining part from the passage
given.
Again, look at some referential words. Referential words are those that indicate what has
already been said before. For example, my mother is a doctor. She practices in Chennai.
Who does she refer to? She refers to my mother. So, there are certain kind of pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns; this, that, who, which, where, which are used in lieu of the noun
or pronoun that has been already referred to. So, those are referential words.
So, question is what does the word ‘which’ in line 6 refer to? And, in line thirteen what
does the word ‘but’ signal? This happened, that happened consequently, this happened,
but this thing did not happen. So, what does the word ‘but’ signify or signal. And, lastly
what is the main idea of the passage? I would like you to do this exercise in pairs, before
we move on to more complex reading.
Now, let us talk about understanding the organization of a text or understanding text
organization. How do we organize text? We organize text by paying attention to certain
signal words; but, consequently, as a result, in the end, resultantly, which, who, in
contrast, along with, as well as, consequently. So, these are the words that signal
something. So, because these words are there, this is the way that text would follow. You
have to do some prediction, in other words. Now, here is a slide for you.
352
Please, look at this line. I am giving you a passage on Steve Jobs. And, I want you to use
these sentences and expressions taken from the text and fill these sentences and
expressions, wherever appropriate. The text has some blanks. You have to use these
expressions and fill in those lengthy gaps. You have to do some prediction now. How
texts are organized?
353
Please, look at the text. Now, I will read for you the slide for you. In 1976, Steve Jobs
and Steve Wozniak co-founded Apple Computer, designing and building personal
computers in the Job’s family garage. Here is a big blank. Not just a word, but you have
to think what fits best in this blank. Jobs and Wozniak continue to design and release
improved versions of their computer’s building Apple Computer into a commercial
enterprise. Within five years, Apple Computer had grown to become the largest private
manufacturer of personal computers. Again, there is a gap. Fill it in.
We continue. Steve Job was the public face of Apple for much of its history, and there is
a blank. Inside the company, it is claimed Jobs exerted a level of influence unheard of by
most corporate leaders. Capable of drilling down through the rank and file to
communicate directly with his employees at any level, Jobs was often praised for his
ability to motivate staff and control product.
354
And, the last blank Former Apple staff have referred to him as obsessive, paranoid and
tyrannical. He was known to be caustic in his criticism and many Apple staff found his
meddling in the minutiae of product design infuriating. But, many also praised his ability
to spot opportunities for new products that other people missed. How do you fill in the
blanks? Now, take few moments and then I will give you the answers.
355
Let us look at the first one. And, the first could be; you see that they we are talking about
the early stages, early growth in Steve Jobs and another Steve’s partnership. And then,
there is, we are told that how they started manufacturing, designing, building in the
family garage.
What should follow? The answer is right here. Their first personal computer, look at the
fifth bullet point, the Apple one, sold for so many dollars. And then, we move on because
you are still in the early stages. Therefore, their first apple computer; within five years,
Apple Computer had grown to become the largest private manufacturer of personal
computers.
Largest, and then there should be the third bullet point and the second largest
manufacturer of home computers in the US. You see largest, private and the second
largest of home computers in the US.
Now, let us look at this blank. Steve Jobs was the public face of Apple for much of its
history. Inside the company, it is claimed Jobs exerted. So, what is the best answer here?
Look at the fourth bullet point. He represented a belief in the premium design, etcetera,
to see how well it fits.
Now, let us look at the next blank. And then, there is a reference to that, Jobs was not
always an easy boss to work for. Therefore, this is followed by Former Apple staff have
referred to him as obsessive, paranoid and tyrannical. He was not an easy person. But in
spite of all these, many also praise his ability to spot opportunities for new projects that
other people missed and then, and his ability to clearly conceptualize, describe and bring
to fruition his vision; the first bullet point.
So, I hope you understand the signal words. If people are referring to him as obsessive,
naturally the earlier sentence has got to be something negative. But, there is a con, you
know, there is a contrast here in the last line; but, many also praises. For what? So, there
has to be something positive. So, look for that. So, these are the signal terms.
356
And, the full text of this passage is available on this link. Now, let us move on to do
another exercise.
Please, look at this slide. This is about Malcolm Gladwell, who is the author of Blink.
Malcolm Gladwell is one of a new generation of American authors, who toggle between
357
lit-crit, cultural commentary, self-help, marketing, how to, brain function, business
studies and futurology. He is a writer on the New Yorker where he contributes a
continuous stream of fascinating school of Nicholson Baker stories, including a recent
masterpiece about why tomato ketchup tastes so good.
There are so many newly coined words here. Please, look at the slide again; cultural
commentary, self-help, how to, brain function, futurology, toggle, new generation.
Please, look up all these words in your dictionary. A very recent edition of any dictionary
would tell you the meanings and usage of these words. You can also go to any online
dictionary that are very quick on the uptake. Now, I want you to look at the second
paragraph of this passage.
And, your exercise is to rearrange the following sentences. You have to rewrite,
rearrange. These are all jumbled sentences. The money shot in Blink is ‘thin slicing’,
Gladwell’s term for that ability to make a rapid judgment on a small amount of data.
Gladwell called this ‘idea epidemics’, a coinage that is stuck. It was a neat idea and a
deserve success; the title, too, has now passed into the language of business. Gladwell
has a good eye for the premium-priced, branded concept. He is, as he might put it,
brilliant at pattern recognition. Gladwell’s reputation was made five years ago with a
358
book called the Tipping Point, about how brand whispering can alter the reputation of
products.
Now, you have already seen the first slide. This is the second slide. This is the second
paragraph. Please rearrange and let us see a more coherent paragraph that makes better
meaning, better sense.
And, here is the answer. First bullet point; Gladwell’s reputation was made five years
ago. Second one starts with Gladwell called this ‘idea epidemics’. Next, Gladwell has a
good eye for the premium price. The money shot in blink is ‘thin slicing’. Gladwell’s
term for that ability to make a rapid judgment because as we are already told he is good;
he is good at branding concepts. So therefore, again going back to Blink and the money
shot in Blink. Money shot is something that made something, a big success; you can
have money shot in the film. Money shot in; Speilberg’s Jaws is the shot, where the shark
makes its first appearance. So, things like that.
We are going to do now another exercise in reading. Before we do that, I would like you
to practice some speaking. And, let us call it pre-reading exercises. It is a warm up to
your next passage. So, I am going to give you a topic. You have to describe your favorite
359
building. Describe your favorite building and try to talk at length about where that
building is? What happens in that building or what are the uses of that building? And
why do you like that building?
Again before I move on to that passage, I would like to talk to you about something
called Tone; tone of a written communication passage or a tone of a passage. Tone; tone,
I know that tone also has some scientific connotations. But, here we are talking about
something more language related. So, what is tone? Tone, when you shout at someone
you say it is an angry tone, but what about written communication? Tone in written
communication? Now in written communication, tone suggests the attitude of the writer
and it can be recognized by the choice of words and phrases. Sometimes, tone can be
extremely compassionate. Sometimes, it could be extremely exuberant and laudatory.
The passage that you just read about Enid Blyton, what is the tone of that passage?
Finally, what is the main idea? There is a question of main idea of that passage. Main
passage is that she may not have had great style, but she has influenced people, inspired
people to read more and therefore she being such a hugely popular author, she has
inspired many people to read. And, it is evident by the number, the huge number of
translations that her books have inspired.
360
So tone is, obviously it is an admiring tone. The writer, the author of that Enid Blyton
passage is definitely full of admiration for the late author. Again, Steve Jobs also, it may
be critical at times, but it gives the very balanced overview. So, again this; it is written in
laudatory terms. So, again tone can be compassionate, it can be humorous, it can be
ironical, saying something, but meaning something else. It can be angry. So, that is the
way we describe or understand, try to understand tone; is difficult. But, it will come with
practice. So, the next passage that we are going to do among other things, try to identify
the tone of the writer. Here it goes.
The passage is about the John Hancock Centre. It is a building. An iconic presence in a
city of architectural icons, the John Hancock Center rises boldly from the mid-American
prairie to cast a cultural shadow much larger than the one it gets from the sun. It is a
staple of movies, television newscasts, t-shirts, corporate logos and children's drawings.
The John Hancock Center is photographed, idealized and simplified into its various
components and used for all things Chicago. It is visible everywhere, both visually and
in branding for all sorts of products and companies in the city and suburbs. But once you
get beyond a 50-mile radius, the Hancock’s identity begins to fade and become confused
with its taller, younger, possibly even better-looking sibling, the Sears Tower.
361
It is not surprising that the majority of Americans confuse the Hancock Center and the
Sears Tower. Both were erected at roughly the same time. Both are black monoliths and
both are located in hard core fly-over territory. In fact, many tourists are surprised to
learn that Chicago has not one, but four super towers, with a fifth under construction.
When it comes to scraping the sky, New York and Los Angeles simply cannot compete
with Chicago. In its simplest form, the John Hancock Center is four vertical beams
connected by a series of cross braces forming a square tube. It is perfectly
comprehensible to even the most casual observer and the reason you can sometimes see
it scrawled on sidewalks in children's chalk doodles. A simple rectangle filled with X's
topped by two sticks representing the building’s antennae is an almost universal symbol
of Chicago for millions of people.
362
Here is your exercise, based on this section. I would like you to match the words with
their meanings. The passage, as you might have recognized is extremely rich in
vocabulary. So, please read on. Iconic, boldly; I have boldly in this sense, in the context
of this passage. Staple, monolith, scrawled. Please, take a moment. Look at the possible
meanings on the other side.
So, let us solve it. Iconic is extremely significant; an iconic tower, an iconic building, an
iconic person, an iconic star. That is the way we use the word. We do not go around using
this word very carelessly. It has to be; it has to refer to something of extreme importance.
Boldly conspicuously; the tower boldly rises. Staple; staple is inevitable. Salt is a staple
part of our diet. The very significant, extremely essential, without which you just cannot
do. Monolith is a single massive structure, rock or any piece of metal and scrawled is
you write carelessly often in handwriting which is not too legible, is scrawled across.
363
Now, let us move on to this exercise. Please, take a look at this slide and answer the
questions given. What does the author mean by the following statements? To cast a
cultural shadow much larger than the one it gets from the sun; second, it is perfectly
comprehensible to even the most casual observer and the reason you can sometime see it
scrawled on sidewalks in children’s chalk doodles. Please, work in pairs and solve this
exercise. And, the next question is you have to imagine a situation where you have seen
or heard about or read even about major building. Talk to your friend about it, make
some comparisons. In your language, try to bring as much vocabulary that deals with
comparisons; taller, shorter, better looking, things like that.
364
Let us move on. It is a same passage. Please, look at the slide. The John Hancock Center
does not fuss with setbacks like other tall structures. Its broad shoulders carry its massive
girth all the way to the top. But, that is not to say it is a box. The tower tapers as it gets
higher, an unnecessary use of forced perspective in a skyscraper that is already one of the
biggest in the world. The effect is that the glass and steel obelisk appears even taller than
it really is. The construction of the Hancock Center was a game-changer for Chicago’s
North side. Before 1969, North Michigan Avenue was lined with fairly uniform and
elegant mid- and low- rise buildings that some compared to the look and feel of Paris.
365
Next slide; when the John Hancock center came online, it ushered in a wave of
skyscraper building along the magnificent mile that transformed it into a modern canyon
of commerce. There was originally supposed to be two skyscrapers here, which is why it
is called John Hancock center, not the John Hancock building. The second tower would
have been East of the first, but the developers could not wrest the land at 195 East
Delaware Place away from the very private Casino Club. The developers sent a letter
about the second tower to then-club president Doris Winterbotham. She ignored the letter
and the development went forward with only one tower. The letter in question was found
in Winterbotham’s papers after she died, and was later publicized by the Chicago
Tribune.
I would like you to explain the following. First, its broad shoulders carry its massive
girth all the way to the top. He is talking about the center. And, see how he is almost
personifying the center. Personifying is using or imposing human attributes on something
which is so clearly an inanimate object, a building. But, building is tall and it has broad
shoulders and it carries its girth well, its weight well.
Second sentence that I would like you to elaborate and explain and discuss with your
friends; the construction of the Hancock Center was a game changer for Chicago’s North
366
side. What could it mean? And, last question. And the last question? W hat is the tone of
the writer? He is talking about a very important building a center but not in a usual
descriptive way. It is not a flat tone. Look at some of the expressions here. Let me take
you back here. Do not fuss with the setbacks like other tall structures, a very chatty
informal tone but giving you a lot of information. Again, let us look at it; an unnecessary
use of force perspective in a skyscraper that is already one of the biggest in the world.
Look at the next slide. Modern canyon of commerce, so, the language is at time quite
informal, quite friendly. At the same time, here it does not display as if the writer is over
odd by the building, which is such a monumental piece of a work of architecture, right in
the middle of the city. Let us look at another slide and this is another exercise for you.
Use these words in sentences of your own. Of course, first use a dictionary and find their
meanings, in case you are not very clear about the meanings. So tapers, ushered in,
obelisk, girth, canyon of commerce, lined with; make sentences using these expressions.
367
Please, look at this particular slide. And this, there, here are some references. You can use
them and improve your reading abilities.
So, thank you very much. That is the end of the class today.
Subject, Verb, Object, Articles, comparatives, passive voice, Dictionary
skills,Presentation, Punctuation, collocation
368
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 25
Email Writing
Good morning, this is what we are going to do today writing and some reading as well.
Under writing, we are going to talk about emails, how we write the subject, the body, the
content, what should be the tone and what should be the language of an email
particularly in formal and semi formal situations. So, basically, we will be talking about
how to write an appropriate email, appropriate to what are the parameters of
appropriateness - tone, language, also the way we write the subject. These are the
important features of email writing. We will do this in greater detail today; we will also
talk about how to write a précis.
370
Now, let me show you this email. I have brought some sample text, and here is one. Dear
Mani Thanks for looking at the account. You were right, there were errors in calculation.
I accept full responsibility for that. By the end of this month we will start our e-
commerce store, so we will be able to do away with the manual aspect of accounts.
Thanks for your help. Will catch up. Cheers. Obviously, this mail is written in a work
place. You here think such as errors, calculations, accounts, accepting responsibility, e
commerce, so this is an email between two colleagues.
However, the fact that it is rounded off with will catch up, cheers, it means that the writer
of this email is on familiar terms with the person, he is sending the mail to the receiver of
the mail. So, the writer is on good terms with the receiver. So, therefore, the use of will
catch up, cheers. Still remember that just because the writer and the receiver appear to be
familiar with each other and on good talking terms. Still, look at the rest of the language
look at the body of the email; he thanks him, there was an error pointed out to him, he
accepts responsibility; he also says that why these things may are not going to happen in
the future and then he thanks him again. So, what we should understand is that when we
are writing in work place situation, it is important to be professional about things; it does
not matter even if you are very close to the person.
371
Second sample; look at the text, read the slide. Dear Joe, please send the report again, the
attachment is not opening on my computer. Thanks. Manisha. Again, it looks like an
exchange at the work place. You see report, attachment all these things, so and very short
very precise, thanks. Now here she is not saying or the writer is not saying cheers, a see
you, will catch up or let us go for coffee together, nothing of the sort. It is clear, simple to
the point, and again an email between colleagues. So, this is another example of writing
an effective mail that she makes her point very clearly; if you are not on social terms
with the receiver, keep the tone extremely formal and professional.
372
Let us look at another email. Dear Colleague, PFA or please find attached some info
about a forthcoming conference to be held in Singapore from this to this. All details are
given in the attached doc. Now, this could be one of those mails where the author of the
mail - the writer of the mail is sending some kind of information to his colleagues or her
colleagues. So, look at the tone of the mail. It starts with the salutation Dear Colleague, it
rounds off with regards. These are formal uses of languages.
This is a formal instance of writing an email, Dear Colleague, Regards and again
extremely to the point, the use of info that is information is absolutely acceptable, where
let us assume that you are sending this kind of a mail to a group, you are already familiar
with and you know their personal interest. So, this would this word info would not come
in the way of effective communication. However, if you are writing an email or to a
person who is much superior to you in station, in work place situation then it is better to
write complete words, and make it short and concise. And never use the rounding of
expression cheers, and let us catch up soon, especially with your boss or with your
instructor or vendor.
So, what have we seen so far, the components of a mail. I am sure that all of you are
extremely comfortable with the structure of an email. We know how these things work to
373
is the address of the recipient or recipients, cc is the copy - copying people more than
one; bcc is blind carbon copy, where many people are attached or addressed or the mail
is being sent to many people. Subject, remember, subject is very important people should
be interested in looking at your or opening your mail, so that is the crux of the mail. We
have to greet, that is salutation Dear so, Dear, Dear Jim, Dear John, Dear colleague, Dear
professor so and so dear Dr so and so, so greeting.
The body of the mail, we have already seen and then the signature always write, always
conclude it with something your sincerely, your or with regards, yours truly. In email
writing, we are not too fussy about the use of the distinction between yours truly, yours
sincerely, with regards, warm regards all these are more or less acceptable in formal,
semi formal situations.
And let us assume there is an attachment also. So, you have to be very careful about this,
if you are saying please find an attachment- PFA then make sure that before sending the
mail, you have attached the document. Many a time, it does happen; in our stress, in our
hurry, we forget to attach a relevant piece of information, although in the body of the
mail, we have already mentioned a please find here, please find attached.
374
Now, look at the slide, and here is a list of subjects for email. From UK lottery, Need
interest free cash?, Message from the CEO, Pay slip, ‘I need your assistance’,
Confirmation of order number so and so, Renewal of subscription. Now your question is
how many of these subject lines are relevant to you, I mean I can immediately tell you
‘From UK lottery’ this is one of those spam mails right. We keep getting all of us, keep
getting the this sort of mail, and then I need your assistance. So, these are clearly a spam
mails. Most of us would delete it without giving this sort of mail, a second thought a
second look.
But if it, if you know that the messages from the CEO, Pay slip, Renewal of subscription
- if you want to renew or want to cancel, Confirmation of order - you have placed the
order for some online thing and it is the dealer is confirming your order. So, all these are
things that we use on our daily bases. Now, again need second one, need interest free
cash is also one of those spam mails. So, this is a an exercise that I would like you to do
identify spam mails and write three kinds of emails, Message from the CEO, Pay slip,
and Confirmation of order number so and so. So these are the topics, I will repeat,
Message from the CEO, Pay slip and Confirmation of order number. So, your work is
now to write appropriate emails using these heading as in your subject, and then you can
always consult your partner, your friend and compare notes.
Tone and style of emails one of the key features of emails in the work place is that they
are precise and to the point. You have already seen one; thanks for the info, here is some
info, please find the attachment. Most email writers need not write more than they need
to, is not at all necessary to go into lots of examples or description, just to drive home a
point. Now what are those occasions when we must write a mail.
Now, email works best when the recipient is not easily available for a more personal
more face-to-face interaction. Also the information you want to share is not time
sensitive, so this is what you know, so therefore, we are not sending an sms or WhatsApp
message, we are the information you want to share is not time sensitive. Responses to
mails can also, always be delayed, you have to remember that. Some people travel a lot
they may not be able to access their mails. So, these are the situations when we write an
email rather than texting or calling people up. Again, it also depends on our own need,
375
we need to send an electronic file, we need to have some kind of an attachment. So, it
works beautifully, email works very well in such circumstances.
And again, if particular information should reach a large number of people, a large huge
group of people then again we need to write an email. Again many a time, we use an
email to have a written record of the conversation of the communication. It is important
that we want to play something on record and we write an email for that. Are there any
situations when it is not at all necessary to write a mail? We have to remember that email
is not the right medium of communication, if the message is long and complicated and
these things can be sorted out only face-to-face or even on the phone.
Sometimes it so happens that the message is very long and people generally do not like
reading emails, a very lengthy email, a very long email can also be misconstrued. Also
when the information we need to communicate is highly confidential because this is one
point where you should avoid writing an email, because an email can be forwarded,
circulated, leaked or recovered from the server even after deletion. So, therefore, always
be careful about sending an email that concerns something very sensitive or confidential.
Now, in a mail, two sections should be filled with the email address of the recipient, we
all know that. It is always necessary and it is very convenient when we cc – copies of the
mail to other people, and the communication of the thread will be visible to everyone
else and then we also know that how we use blind carbon copy that is bcc, and this we
send while ensuring the anonymity of other recipients. So, we must have seen discussion
groups been created, where the personal email ids of other recipients are not revealed to
all. The subject of an email, remember, it should always be short and precise and should
communicate exactly what you are trying to say. So, the most important information
should be concise as concise as possibly. Many a time, we find a subject line absolutely
blank or just one hello or hi, it is always advisable to write something, unless the receiver
and you are on very comfortable terms, it is better to write a subject of an email.
How do we greet, how do we write the salutation, extremely important in all formal
writings, there has to be salutation. So, for example, Dear sir, Dear madam, these are the
most commonly used salutations in writing. We can also say let say Dear friend, Dear
376
colleague, so all these are acceptable. Now, addressing someone as Respected sir or
Respected madam, which is a quite acceptable in many cultures, but by and large if
possible stick to Dear sir and Dear madam or Dear colleague unless you are dealing with
some who actually demands to be addressed that way that is Respected sir or madam;
otherwise, in all other cases Dear sir, Dear madam, Dear colleague is perfectly
acceptable.
We have to also bear in mind that we use sir and madam in formal situations and when
we want to use a formal tone the other day we were talking about tone of a passage. So,
emails, also letters also have a particular kind of tone. So, keep the tone formal, as
formal as possible. We use sir and madam, when we may not know the exact identity of
the recipient, this can happen when you are sending an emails to universities,
institutions, corporate companies, but it is always advisable to do enough research and
find out whom you are sending the mail to and then address them accordingly.
Moving onto the body of the mail; body of the mail should be kept brief and concise is
especially for formal mails. Why do we need to do this? This helps in reducing the
possibility of errors in our language, and increase the overall readability of the mail.
Again the language should be formal and free of errors; you can always double check for
grammatical mistakes. Do avoid making a grammar and spelling mistakes, when you are
sending an email to your professor, to your instructor, and also someone who you think
would not really appreciate reading a mail, which is full of errors.
For signing of, or the signature, we use regards, warmly, sincerely; these are some of the
common usage especially in formal situations regards and sincerely work best. And then
we should also write our names and in many formal situations, our designation and
contact details; especially, if it is a formal professional, a business kind of a situation,
always mention your designation and your email and also your phone number.
Talking about attachments, if you have files as attachments, you should mention the
same along with the brief on its contents in the body of the mail. The file and this is very
important it should be named according to the contents, so that the files are still
identifiable, once the receiver downloads it. So, even in the attach file is advisable to
377
write the title that says it all that this is a report about research on thermodynamics. So,
please keep all this in mind and you should also always ensures that the attachments are
properly uploaded and the contents are comprehensible to the recipients.
Please look at the mail here. This is an example of a well written professional email to
this, cc to this. Subject: Fund Collection for Academic Writing Workshop. Dear All, As
deliberated in the staff meeting held on November first, 2015, an academic writing
workshop will be held on December 29, 2015. The faculty are requested to hand in their
contribution of rupees 500 towards the funds for the same. Please find attached budget
estimation for the event regards so and so and so and so. So, now, based on this email
that you have just seen, this is your exercise, I want you to write a response to this mail.
How would you response to this mail, and also as part of your research, I would like you
to find out what are the features of email etiquette.
378
Well, let us move on now, and we will talk about précis writing. What is a précis, a précis
is a condense form of piece of writing and capsulating the essence of its ideas. So, there
is text the passage and you have to encapsulate the main ideas that is what précis is.
Remember without understanding the text and its signal words, you cannot write or
comprehend the contents of a text. So, it is always extremely important that you
highlight a mark, the signal words, what are the most important words here in this
passage. A précis should be one-third the length of the original text. So, you must count
the words, and remain as close to the word limit. It is important while writing précis to
stick to the point and the main idea. Always avoid digressions, examples and other
supporting details. You just do not have the luxury of including every detail here.
In précis, we may change the structure and even reorder the ideas. A précis therefore, is
different from a regular summary, which is just recounting of an abridgment of the
original passage. The key steps to writing a précis, please make a note, you have to start
by reading the original passage very carefully and always read it more than once for any
kind of reading comprehension, one reading is never enough. Note the main points;
rearrange the order if necessary and if you feel that rearranging the order of ideas will
lead to a more logical development of the text. You should also use your own words and
language, delete adjectives and reduce clauses where possible.
379
So, let me tell you something about direct and indirect speech. In précis, we always use
the indirect speech and not the open inverted commas kind of dialogues, if they are there
in the original précis, and if you think they are extremely important, you should mention
it as succinctly as possible, as briefly as possible just say so and so person things or
according to this. But you do not have to, according to this person or any name that you
want to say, but remember that you cannot use open inverted commas. Now, from précis
writing, I would like to have a focus on some elements of reading, developing our
reading comprehension.
Again has we have been doing a lot of reading; let me reiterate, it is a good idea to skim
through the passage very quickly. First to get the general idea of each paragraph, a good
tip that I can give you here is that you should avoid taking in or a reflecting over each
and every word separately and individually. Pay attention to paragraph structure, you
must know that each para has a topic sentence that contains the central idea. Always pay
attention to the first sentence of the para as well as the last sentence.
So, now, we are going to read a text a passage, and the please note down your pre
reading discussion based on this particular text. You can work in précis; I am going to
now show you a passage on global warming. So, before we start reading the passage, I
would like you to work in précis pairs and discuss, any ten words that are relevant to the
issue of global warming. What are the words that come to your mind, write a list, make a
list of 10 words and compare notes with your friend. Your next pre reading discussion
should be discussing any two solutions for the global warming problem.
380
So, now here is your text, let us read it together. Climate change is the greatest
humanitarian crisis of our time, responsible for rising seas, raging storms, searing heat,
ferocious fires, severe drought, and punishing floods. It threatens our health,
communities, economy, and national security.
Next paragraph: Worldwide, nations have begun taken taking steps to combat this
growing threat, working towards an international agreement in which every country on
earth plays its part. Many of the world’s largest polluters have stepped up with
significant commitments, amplified by efforts from cities, businesses, sports leagues,
churches, and many other individuals and group that have responded to the urgent need
for climate action.
Here in the United States, power plants represent the single-largest source of carbon
pollution, spewing two billion tons into the air each year. In response, President Obama’s
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has developed the Clean Power Plan, which sets
the first national limits on carbon pollution from power plants and provides states with
the flexibility to meet them.
381
And we continue reading, Please look at the slide. The plan represents the most
important step the United States can take right now to combat climate change and help
spur climate action around the globe, as world leaders look forward look toward an
important meeting in Paris this December. With nations working together to cap carbon
pollution, expand renewable power, and embrace energy efficiency, we will have a
fighting chance at getting off this destructive path. Time may not be running out to fight
climate change, but we are not running out of solutions.
382
Now, look at this exercise and this is what I want you to do based on the passage that we
have just done. Identify at least three complex sentences, you do remember what is
complex sentence right. Complex sentence where there is a main clause and subordinate
clause. Compound are those where two clauses of equally snatched, adjoined together by
let us say by some kind of a punctuation or some signal word, some connector. But
complex sentences, the subordinate clause cannot a stand on their own.
I would also like you to write a précis of the given passage and mention at least three
reference words. I hope you remember what are reference words it, this, he, she, that,
those, so once a group has already been identified then in reference word, by using
reference words, we do not say, we do not need to say the Environmental Protection
Agency did that. You can always use the word term or the words it for it; it refers to the
Environmental Protection Agency.
Complex sentences again take a look, very first sentence; climate change is the greatest
humanitarian crisis of our time and etcetera, etcetera, all these details that are given. And
then let us see a second line in the second para, many of the world’s largest polluters
have stepped up with significant commitments amplified by efforts so and so and then
and many other individuals and groups that have responded to the urgent need for
383
climate action. So, this is a very interesting written paragraph; of course, it takes a higher
order candidate or writer or to blend complex and compounds sentence, but here is a
very significant example.
So, thank you very much, and we will meet for our next class soon.
Tags
384
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 26
Academic Writing and Linking Words
Hi. So today, we are going to talk about Academic Writing and second part of today’s
lecture would be focused on Linking Words: that is those words that bring about a sense
of cohesion between sentences and within sentences as well. So, what is academic
writing? Let us first begin with what is written over here, academic writing, and how
often do you need academic writing? Now, the answer to that would be that you need
academic writing very frequently, you write reports, you write your answer papers, you
write your assignments and term papers and then at a later stage you also need to write
publishable papers, your SOPs. So, all these things require a great deal of understanding
of the mechanics of academic writing.
Why do you need academic writing? So we need academic writing and a good
understanding of its mechanisms in order to get by in our academic life. What does
385
academic writing aim to do? Why is academic writing so different from let say any semi
formal kind of writing? See, the main idea of being well versed with writing an academic
piece of work is to demonstrate how well you research a topic, it also reflects and
involves how well you argue, interpret and explain.
Now, I am showing you these two questions here, take a look at this. Take a look at the
slide, please. Discuss the idea that 'overconsumption in the modern world is a serious
threat to true sustainability'. Now discuss, is it a serious threat to true sustainability, what
is sustainability, you have to define that first, and what is overconsumption; consumption
we all know, but what is over consumption and how is that becoming a serious threat to
sustainability. So, look at the various words and expressions involved here, and then you
have to discuss. So, you can say it is a serious threat or you can say it is not so serious
threat to the sustainability, there are other serious threats.
Overconsumption is only one of the many threats, but it is not as serious as some other
issue, some other threats that is the way you discuss. You always are supposed to give an
opinion, take a stand somewhere that comes in your conclusion. That may also come in
the beginning in the introduction, where you mentioned the general thesis, general
statement and say yes, I support or I do not support. Conclusion should always have a
386
good rounding off what you express the idea or the stand you took in the very first
statement, and in the very first paragraph of your essay.
Look at the second question. In the last 20 years, rates of divorce have risen significantly
in Western countries. Critically analyze some of the different explanations given for this
phenomenon. In your discussion, you should consider what implications these
explanations might have for social policy. Now this is the serious question, how many
things you have to look at, Western countries and rates of divorce, critically analyze,
some of the different explanations given for the phenomenon, what are the reasons and
give different explanations or this kind of happening in the Western country.
And then in your next part is, in your discussion you should consider the implication. So,
not just the reasons and you have to critically analyze; just do not say, this is one of the
reason and reason one, reason two, reason three, but you have to also critically analyze,
support it through some scholarly academic readings, and that is where the entire idea of
research comes in. That when you are asked to critically analyze or support something
then you have to look at some kind of readings that support this kind of a question or this
kind of an argument, so that is what we mean by taking a stand and developing an
argument. You look at the entire question and you have to consider what kind of impact
would, these reasons would have on formulation of social policy or public policy. So,
there is lot that is happening in this question. It has various parts; each part has to be
given responses properly.
387
Look at this line, and here is a list of useful words in academic writing. Analyse, argue,
assess, claims, define, describe, discuss, question, summarize.
Enumerate, emphasise, elaborate, explain, illustrate, identify, trace, prove, reflect, state,
point out, observe. Why are these words important for us? These are the words we use in
388
our written language. Now we are not talking about an ordinary written communication
he says and she says and I said and they said and I feel and I believe; you have to now
look at some of the jargons of academic writing where you use such kind of language.
So, you identify trace, prove, reflect, demonstrate, illustrate, and all these words are
loaded with meaning not as simple as I feel, I say, I would say all right in written
ordinary written communication or spoken communication. Here you are looking at
something more complex.
Remember, an academic question demands attention. So, identify the key words in the
essay topic, and ensure that you understand what you have being asked to do. You have
to also pay attention to each part in each section of the question and make sure that you
do not deviate or digression from it. Look at that question on social policy, and reasons
for divorce rate, make sure that you are talking about divorce rate, the reasons -
analyzing the reasons and what all this could have, what implications all these could
have on making social policy.
Now, digression would be you start talking, you take a stand and then go and beat about
it as much, women’s education, you take up something like women’s education and then
go on and on and on about it. You do not talk about the overall picture; you do not view
in your argument and response in the kind of discussion you are supposed to have. So,
we go there deviating and digressing. Remember, if there are two parts in the question;
make sure that you respond to both parts as you have already seen in that previous
question.
Let us talk about researching for academic essays. So, while researching always look for
the most recent reference books and journal articles, also I am sure there are
encyclopedias in your respective domains, so you have to look up those as well, but most
recent reference books and journal articles, particularly reference books that have been
reviewed well, received well. So, you should always consult them. You have to read and
this is a tip, I would give you read the bibliographic given at the end of those books and
journal articles, and references of these resources, and try to find material that could be
of any direct use or relevance to you.
389
I would also suggest that make hand written or type notes on your readings; and note that
if you are reading consulting too many sources on the same topic. If there is a general
concerns, agreement between various experts or a disagreement on any point, sometimes
there can be conflicting opinions on a given topic or area, it is a good practice to include
that also in your discussion. Particular professor says this; however, there is another
theorist, who refutes this argument or this explanation. So, your work should be well
researched, therefore research is complete that you have looked at both sides of the
argument.
Plagiarism extremely important, especially for those interested in academic writing and
also in publishing their works. You know that plagiarism is the act of directly lifting parts
of someone else work. Many a time, students and also establish researches, they feel that
they cannot perhaps express themselves so well as that person who has already done
some work on a given area. So, rather than pushing themselves and coming up with
something original, they prefer to lift the works of other writers. Now remember, this is
another form of theft and it can have and it does has serious consequences when
discovered. So, it is essential to quote and mention sources correctly, while taking
materials from other people's works.
How do you quote appropriately? There are 2 reliable form or 2 reliable formats for
quoting and references; one is the APA that is the American Psychological Association
and the second is the MLA. So, there are two kinds of referencing. One is in-text, and
another is bibliography. In-text is within the body of the article, when we quote source
within the essay of the text or the text. Biblio is a list, bibliography is the list of books
you may have used or read or refereed to while writing your essay. And as I have already
told you APA or MLA style of a quoting is something that is recognized all over.
390
Please take a look at this sample bibliography. I would not be reading it out for you. I am
just giving you the basic format. Please look at the slide, you are given a particular
somebody’s name, month and year, article title, the title of their journal, issue and
volume.
Look at the second bullet point; there are 2 authors, year of the book, title of the book,
place of publication and country, and the publisher - The Royal Society of Chemistry. So,
this is the way you write your bibliography, although formats differ.
391
Please take a look at this particular slide. And this will give you some understanding how
references are done for writing a bibliography. These are useful links for you. Please take
a look at the slide. Now let us talk about how to structure an academic essay. So, there
are three parts, introduction, the body and conclusion. As I have already told you in
introduction, you state the basic premise, and how you are going to approach it, whether
you agree or disagree, what is your opinion, are you taking a stand, are you applying any
theory here. And introduction could be in 3 to 4 sentences, it can also be in one lengthy
paragraph, but you cannot have paragraphs, after paragraphs of introduction.
Body of the essay can have several parts, you can speak go on talking about for in one
paragraph and give several justifications; remember each paragraph has to have one main
point, one central point, you can go on and on non for about for and then you can go on
and on non about against. Body can always have several paras.
Conclusion is the summary of what you have of the stand that you have taken, and
whether you agree, disagree, giving your opinion. So, you have to reiterate more firmly.
Remember in conclusion, you do not bring about a new point, I have been saying this,
but this is also possible. So, please summary is or conclusion is like summarizing and
tying up threads, it is not starting a new thread or a strand here. So, you have to
392
remember that.
So, we will be doing, how to write a paragraph and we will also be doing how to write
more academic kinds of essays in our subsequent classes. But before we do that let me
introduce you to linking words that is the second part of our talk today or our lecture
today. You know words in English and you know what they mean, but there are words
that we use to join our ideas correctly, these words are called linking words.
Please take a look at these slides. How we sequence ideas in within a given within the
body of an essay. So, we may say firstly, we may say secondly, but do not over use this
firstly, secondly, thirdly fourthly. Firstly and secondly are good enough then you can
always say finally, first of all; we can also say instead of firstly and first of all to begin
with. Instead of saying secondly, hence something like that you can always say next, so it
is sequencing of ideas. Finally, lastly in conclusion, again you are sequencing your ideas.
393
Let us look at this slide, how you express contrast. This is true, but still there are some
problems with it; however. So but, however, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless,
yet, these words express contrast.
Look at this slide, these word express conditions; if, unless, when, whether. And when
394
you want to give reason for something – because, due to, as, owing to. And when you
want give examples - for instance, for example.
Look at this slide; it is a useful slide for you for looking at references on academic
writing. Now, let me do one sample text with you; this is about referential words. I will
tell you what are referential words; look at the slide here.
395
Astronomers face an embarrassing conundrum: they do not know what 95 percent of the
universe is made of. Atoms, which form everything we see around us, only account for a
measly 5 percent. Over the past 80 years it has become clear that the substantial
remainder is comprised of two shadowy entities - dark matter and dark energy. The
former, first discovered in 1933, act as an invisible glue, binding galaxies and galaxy
clusters together. Unveiled in 1988, the latter is pushing the universes expansion to ever
greater speeds. So, remember the former refers to the dark matter, we are not saying the
dark matter first discovered in 1933, we want to be more elegant in our expression.
Therefore, we do not want to use the same word again and again, and that is the purpose
of using references. Now again look at the slide the latter is stand for dark energy and
which is pushing the universal expansion to ever greater speeds. Astronomers are closing
in on the true identities of these unseen interlopers; so, dark a matter and dark energy;
these.
So, this is the way we use referential words the idea is not to repeat the same nouns or
any kinds of nouns over and again, but use certain words like those, and these, and that,
which, and also former, latter.
396
Let me take you to another sample text now it is on retail therapy. Again take a look at
the linking words and reference words here. People who are upset tend to be more
impulsive, which could mean this spend more money during a retail therapy experience.
However, individuals did not regret spending money on "self-treats" with the goal of
improving mood.
Second bullet point, of course, its is possible to overdo consumption, in terms of

drinking or shopping, or any number of other things for that matter, 'even', 'or' is a
linking word, you can highlight that too. In fact, the warning signal or signs that habitual
shopping has become a problem have a lot of overlap with the classic tell-tale indications
that you are abusing alcohol. So, those are the examples of linking words and referential
words.
397
Now, here is another useful list of words for you; please take a look at this, look at the
slide. Attitude words: expressing the attitude that the writer is taking and this is
something. However, it is important that you do not over use these words. Evidently
generally speaking, presumably, if I may say so, obviously, frankly, honestly, eventually,
in short, naturally, apparently, personally, ideally, admittedly, confidentially, so these are
attitude words or these are the attitudes, which writers may assume.
398
Let me show you or take you to this exercise. Let us solve it together; please take a look.
Here I want you to employee the list of words that are given at the bottom, all these are
linking words. This film is rated PG- parental guidance, children over 13 are allowed to
watch it. Fresh apples are available during only one season, the winter. Calcium has
several advantages, it gives strength to the bones. You choose science or arts as your
main discipline, you have to work hard. There is a big sale going on, do not miss it.
Moving into a new house requires lot of preparation, one should be ready to spend a lot
of time doing this.
So, this film is rated PG that is children over 13. Fresh apples are available during only
one season, namely the winter. Calcium has several advantages, for instance, it gives
strength to the bones. Whether you choose science or arts. There is a big sale going on,
so do not miss it. Moving into a new house requires lot of preparation, in other words
one should be ready to spend a lot of time doing this. See, you may always have second
thoughts about some other word also, but these are the words that are best suited. There
may be other words also that can go on that can fit here, but those are the best words that
we can think of from the given list.
399
Let us now look at the sample text. Again we are talking about a linking word; an
example. According to Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon, good entrepreneurs must be
stubborn and flexible. When referring to Amazon, Bezos says, “We are stubborn on
vision. We are flexible on details”.
Sticking to the vision is the first part, and being flexible about the tactics is the second
part. Bezos adds, “If you’re are not stubborn, you’ll will give up on experiments too
soon. And if you’re are not flexible, you’ll will pound your head against the wall and you
won’t would not see a different solution to a problem you’re are trying to solve”.
There’s is a challenge in being stubborn and flexible. Bezos warns: “The thing about
inventing is you have to be both stubborn and flexible, more or less simultaneously. The
hard part is figuring out when to be which!”, flexible or a stubborn. So, you are not
repeating those words. So, this is another very good example of using reference and
linking words.
400
Now, let us look at this particular exercise; again based on Jeff Bezos and Amazon. One
of the things I’ve have heard about entrepreneurs is that they are inherently stubborn
individuals. Exercise is about filling in the blank with appropriate linking words. They’re
are the “natural leaders” dash like to take charge and have things done their way, it seems
as if they are close minded on both tactical details and vision. So, dash having natural
leadership skills is good, one of the characteristics that define good entrepreneurs is
being flexible on details. Dash ask the guy who built a company from 0 employees to
over this much. He probably knows a few things about leadership.
401
And here are your answers. Who, in this sense, while and just. So, they are the natural
leaders who like to take charge, and have things done their way in this sense, it seems as
if they are close minded on both tactical. So, while having natural leadership skills is
good, one of the characteristics. And last one; just ask the guy who built a company from
0 employees to over 117,000.
402
Now, here is the last exercise of the day. I want you to identify any five linking words; I
would not be giving you the answers here. This is do it yourself exercise. Let us look at
the passage.
If you have seen Christian Bale in films like The Machinist and American Hustle, then
you know that the actor puts his whole body into any given performance. However, it
appears the weight gain Bale was going to take on in order to star in Enzo Ferrari has
caused the actor to drop out of the production. Bale is famous for his physical
transformations on film, previously dropping down to 121 pounds for The Machinist,
only to gain 109 pounds in just six months in order to star in Batman Begins. But 230
pounds was too big for the shape Christopher Nolan wanted Bale to be in, so he dropped
another 40 pounds. Beyond that, Bale also got quite out of shape for his role in America
Hustle.
Even though Christian Bale had already began the weight gain process he thought
necessary in order to play the role of Ferrari, the actor became worried that he would not
be able to safely gain the right amount weight by the time production starts this spring.
Despite his success with dramatic weight change in a short time before, surely that is not
healthy for him to do so often. Anyway, the film takes place in 1957 and is said to tell the
"personal, intimate story of a passionate man and his sprawling world, at times hilarious
and at the next moment devastating, as he faces a brutal challenge to his survival."
So, please do this exercise on your own. I am very sure that you enjoyed the passage and
you have already identified at least 5 linking words.
Thank you very much, we will meet again soon.
Tags
403
404
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 27
Paragraph Writing
So, paragraph writing and what are the significant components of writing a paragraph. To
begin with, what is a paragraph, we are going to do all that in today’s class.
So, welcome back friends. We will be talking about Paragraph Writing; how to spot key
words, topic sentences, sign posting, linking words, main ideas, all this in one paragraph.
As you already know, a paragraph is the basic unit of any lengthy piece of writing.
Generally, we do not write just one paragraph, but at our level we need to write several
paragraphs. But, let us begin like we had started this course with various parts of speech,
categorizing them. We have also learned how to make sentences, elements of sentences.
We have also seen, how sentences combine together to make more complex varieties of
sentences. So, we have been through all these.
And, now as we move on to discuss more complex way of writing; for example, reports,
405
journal articles, SOPs and your CVs. We will begin with the basic unit of writing a
longer piece of work. So, this is paragraph for us.
Let me show you this example. Please, look at the slide here. And this, I am showing you
as a good example of a paragraph. Please, read the paragraph. It is about Sir Isaac
Newton, mathematician and physicist, one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time.
Born at Woolsthorpe near Grantham in Lincolnshire, where he attended school, he
entered Cambridge University in 1661; he was elected a fellow of Trinity College in
1667 and Lucasian professor of Mathematics in 1669. He remained at the university,
lecturing in most years, until 1698. Of these Cambridge years, in which Newton was at
the height of his creative power, he singled out 1665 to 1666, spent largely in
Lincolnshire because of plague in Cambridge as “the prime of my age for invention”.
During 2 to 3 years of these mental efforts, he prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathemetica, commonly known as the Principia, although this was not published until
1687. As a firm opponent of the attempt by King James the second, to make the
universities into catholic institutions, Newton was elected Member of Parliament for the
university of Cambridge to the Convention Parliament of 1689, and sat again in 1701 to
1702. Meanwhile, in 1696 he had moved to London as Warden of the Royal Mint. He
became master of the Mint in 1699, an office he retained to his death. He was elected a
406
fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1671. And, in 1703 he became president, being
annually re-elected for the rest of his life. His major work, opticks, appeared the next
year; he was knighted in Cambridge in 1705 as Newtonian science became increasingly
accepted on the Continent, and especially after a general peace was restored in 1714.
Following the war of the Spanish succession, Newton became the most highly esteemed
natural philosopher in Europe. His last decades were passed in revising his major works,
polishing his studies of ancient history and defending himself against critics as well as
carrying out his official duties. Newton was modest, diffident and a man of simple tastes.
He was angered by criticism of opposition and harbored resentment. He was harsh
towards enemies, but generous to friends. In government, and at the Royal Society, he
proved able administrator. He never married and lived modestly, but was buried with
great pomp in Westminster Abbey.
Now, what is the wrong with this paragraph? Can anyone tell me? Before we respond to
this question, you have to again ask the question; what is the main idea? Well, main idea
is here they tell you about or give you an overview about the life of this great scientist.
Topic sentences; now, what do you understand by topic sentence? Topic sentence is
something that defines a paragraph. And, it is the main idea that should be developed in
the remaining sentences. That is a very simple definition or explanation of what is the
topic sentence.
Key words; how many key words? There are several keywords here, not just one. If you
start making a list of key words, words which are extremely important here, it would go
on and on. And, every good paragraph should have, let us say 5 or 4 to 5 keywords. What
is happening here? What is so wrong with it? Well, the answer is simple. This is not a
single paragraph. But this piece of writing, this particular piece of writing, it requires
several paragraphs. Is something; its lot of information, very well written, grammatically
correct, it will still not pass as a very effective piece of writing because of the simple
reason, the writer has not used paragraphing at all. He does not know where to end. By,
he does not know, I mean, let me just make it clear. I have taken it from a particular
source. And, I have done the work here. And, very soon you will be seeing with the
original writer of this particular passage has written and broken this writing into several
407
paragraphs. So, this was just to give you an example.
A sense of what can go wrong when paragraph does not work, and when paragraphing is
not up to the mark. Here, of course there is no sense of paragraphing. And, this is
something that we often find in the written works of several students. Every paragraph
should have a single main idea, a topic sentence. And then, remaining sentences should
be an elaboration.
Now, let us look at this paragraph. And, this is the way it was intended to be. This is the
way it appears. And, see the first paragraph. It ends at a particular place, there is some
space; and moving on to the second paragraph and the third paragraph. What is the first
paragraph all about? His early life, and his education. Second paragraph, he was a firm
opponent of the attempt by King James to make our universities Catholic, and then his
good work at the university. Third, it basically talks about his later years, and then up to
his death.
So, every paragraph has a main topic, has a single idea, which is developed. His early
life, and his education; by early life, I mean his education. Second paragraph, his good
work at university of Cambridge. Third paragraph, his peak of achievements and then
408
eventually his death; so, every paragraph should have a single main idea, which should
be developed.
So, coming back to our first or my first question; what is a paragraph? A paragraph is
several sentences, ideally 3 to 4 or 5 to 6, depending on the overall length of your
writing. So, if you have written a reasonably long essay, then each paragraph should have
4 to 5 sentences. And, remember we do not support too much of simple sentences. There
should be a blend of simple, compound and complex.
So, what is a paragraph? A paragraph is several sentences grouped together. And, each
paragraph should relate to one main topic. A paragraph is a group of related sentences, in
other words, that develop an idea. It is rarely that a paragraph contains a single sentence,
although that also happens. But for that, you have to first master writing lengthy
paragraphs. And then, move on to do something more experimental like writing
paragraphs in single sentences.
Otherwise, ideally speaking and for exam purposes, the best way to write is to write a
paragraph is in several sentences. The most important principle to observe in a paragraph
is its unity. By this, we mean that each paragraph should consist of a single idea. That is
what I told you. A main idea; generally, the topic is expressed in the first sentence of a
paragraph. But, there are times when the central idea is seen in the last sentence of a
paragraph. So, pay attention. If you particularly if you are reading, the first and the last
sentence of a paragraph. If you are writing, you can come straight to the point or bring
the punch line in the last sentence of a paragraph. A paragraph should have logical
sequence of thoughts and ideas, which is very key element. A paragraph should have one
single topic. Now, look at this paragraph again. This is the same paragraph taken from
the writing that we have just seen on Newton.
409
Please, look at the slide. This is Newton’s life; highlighted. So, what we have done here
is; who was Newton? This is one basic idea; it will give you one central idea. Who was
Newton, what did he do, major work and his important work and born in this year, died
in this year.
410
Look at now, this second paragraph. Please, read it. Here, I want you to identify the main
idea and the supporting details. For cardinal Newman, the ideal university is a
community of thinkers engaging in intellectual pursuits not for any external purpose, but
as an end in itself. Envisaging a broad, liberal education, which teaches students “to
think and to reason and to compare and to discriminate and to analyze”, look, this is a
compound sentence, but very well written. Overuse of ‘and’ does not really hamper the
progression of idea here. It is an example of good writing.
Newman held that narrow minds are born of narrow specialization and stipulated that
students should be given a solid grounding in all areas of study. A restricted, vocational
education was out of the question for him. Somewhat, surprisingly, he also espoused the
view that universities should be entirely free of religious interference, putting forward a
secular, pluralist and inclusive ideal.
So, what is the main idea? Cardinal Newman’s concept of ideal university, and then the
remaining paragraph supports that what was an ideal university education for or through
the perception of Cardinal Newman; what was his perception up of a great university and
good education. So, main idea is Cardinal Newman’s concept of good education and
ideal university. All the remaining sentences support that idea.
We have to also understand that in a good paragraph, words within a sentence should
appear in the best possible order, so that the sentences within a paragraph read properly.
You should also be able to connect sentences between themselves. So, there should be a
good connection between sentences itself. A good writer always remember, arranges his
sentences in a most of effective way. The basis for this should be logical as well as
chronological, when there is a series of events. Sentences should be arranged logically
when the sentences build up a theme or an argument. So, remember chronology, when
we are talking about a series of events and we talk about developing or connecting
sentences logically, when sentences build up a theme of an argument. And link between,
as you know, the sentences are achieved by an effective use of linking words. We have
already seen in some of our earlier classes, what are those linking words. Please, revise
that.
411
Now, here is an exercise for you. Rearrange the jumbled paragraph or rather the jumbled
sentences in a paragraph. This is a paragraph I would like you to rearrange the sentences.
Please, look at the paragraphs. Read the slide. Take a moment. Look at the way it begins;
not only did television re-envision our sense of the world. Second one, begins with every
major happening is now captured by television. Third one, more than the aeroplane or the
nuclear bomb, the computer or the TV has determined what we know and how we think.
Politics and politicians are determined by how they play on television. What should be
the correct order?
412
Now, look at the answer. The first sentence and this is the topic sentence. Please note
this. The first sentence of this paragraph is its topic sentence. The remaining sentences
are all, but supporting details. The first sentence; every major happening is now captured
by television or it is not a major happening. And then, supporting; politics and politicians
are determined by how they play on television. Public knowledge etcetera are all subject
to its critical influence.
Then, we move on to talk about; more than the aeroplane or the nuclear bomb, the
computer or the telephone, TV has determined what we know and how we think, the way
we believe and how we perceive ourselves.
And, the last line not only did television re-envision our sense of the world, it remains,
even in the age of the internet, Facebook and You Tube, the most powerful generator. So,
this is the summing up of what television is all about and how important it is to our
modern society.
Look at the effective use of connectors and linking words within the sentences also. If it
is not happening on television, it is not a major happening. That is the idea. So, therefore
in the very first sentence, you have the use of ‘or’. And then, in second sentence, second
413
part, you have that you have a very effective use of the connector and then read on. In the
last part, that is the conclusion of paragraph, not only did, it is also stubbornly
unavoidable. It is not only, but also. So, those are the linking words here.
Remember, for bringing about cohesion, connection, always pay attention to sign posting
or linking words. These are the words that guide the reader along the path of the writers
intended meaning. So you want to convey a meaning, use or make an effective use of
linking words. However, by this I do not mean that overuse linking words. In the same
paragraph, use all the linking words that you know. Use them judiciously, but use them
with variety. Again, go back to the previous paragraph and see how linking words are
used. I am going to show you another paragraph. If you try to replace the linking words,
the meaning would not come out that strongly and it will weaken the overall structure.
Let us look at the paragraph. Here is a sample for you. I have highlighted all the linking
words. Read it and see. By replacing these linking words, what happens to the sentence,
to the overall reading quality and coherence of these sentences? Remember, now this is
not just one single paragraph, but several paragraphs coming together. However, for
example, and, and, such, and, whether, but, just like, as late as, meanwhile, however.
Look at the variety; look at the good use of the linking words and the sign posting words.
414
They tell you where to make a turn in your thoughts and ideas.
So, in a nutshell what should you do in order to start writing a good paragraph? Brain
storm ideas, either singly or in pair or in groups, organize your ideas in a planned and
then write a draft. If you want to write practice writing, always write. You can read as
many books about writing. You can listen to as many lectures about writing. Unless, you
write your thoughts on a piece of paper or on your PC, you are not learning enough. So,
practice writing. Here is a list of some practice; paragraph topics for you please look at
the slide.
I would want you to write a paragraph on any 2 of the following in about hundred 150
words each: a diesel engine, a filament lamp, a simple microscope, the Fahrenheit scale,
the periodic table. This is your work to practice writing.
415
Here is another slide for you to consult and refer to on paragraphs. Please, look at the
slide. All right, before we windup I want to do this vocabulary exercise. A very simple,
but you will find it interesting; something that you may use in your day-to-day life.
Please, look at the slide. It is vocabulary. Complete the following. How do you put in
416
these words? A dash of ointment, a dash of aspirin, a dash of bandages, a dash of tissues,
a dash of sunburn spray; so the idea is that I want to test your vocabulary in day-to-day
matters.
And, here are your answers: A tube of an ointment, a bottle of aspirin, a package of
bandages, box of tissues, a can of suntan spray. Sometimes instead of bottle of aspirin,
you may use something else. It is just the cultural thing. In most western societies,
aspirin comes in a bottle. But, I am aware that we get those strips in from which we can
get our aspirins. But, these are some of the general ways of containing things. Now,
before we windup and before I end the class, I want you to practice this speaking. And,
this is the last exercise for the day.
417
Please look at the slide. I want you to use these prepositions. Do a pair work, where I
want you to describe your daily routine using the prepositions at, around, early, late,
until, before, and, after, on, in. Now, remember that you should practice this with your
friend, with your teacher, with your mentor, and develop. Perhaps write it out, write out
your thoughts and then practice speaking. Here is a link for you, a good video.
418
Please, look at the slide. Then, the tittle of the video is called speaking to one or
thousand. Here is a link that I am giving you. The entire video is perhaps not available.
But, you can always (Refer Time: 25: 52) source it through your library or through your
college. This is a reasonably good video, where you can learn how to indulge in or how
to practice public speaking.
Thank you very much. We will meet again for our next class.
Tags
419
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 28
Describing and Explaining Processes
We know that, in your day-to-day writing you have to do a lot of description of processes
and explain plenty of again processes and experiments that you have been involved in.
So, describing and explaining is an important part of your writing. In today's class, this is
what we are going to do Describing and Explaining Processes. While doing this, we are
going to touch upon the kinds of verbs, necessary or commonly used for describing
processes and experiments.
And also, those kinds of verbs and nouns and language that you may use when you
describe let us say, an instrument or equipment, what is the appropriate voice to use
when you are describing and explaining processes? I have received a query regarding
explanation about adverbs, so I am going to explain something about adverbs also and
will try to integrate it with our overall lecture, and then essential vocabulary necessary
for describing and explaining.
So, good morning and this is the title of our lecture today Describing and Explaining
Processes and Experiments.
420
Look at the slide here, and read the passage with me. This is the sample text, title: How
can we obtain pure hydrogen? This is a process. One of the easiest ways to obtain
hydrogen is to get it from water, H 2 O. This method employs electrolysis, which breaks
water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. Hydrogen can be made by reaction of any active
metal like magnesium or zinc with a strong acid such as sulfuric acid or hydro chloric
acid. Since hydrogen gas is almost insoluble in water, it can be collected by displacement
of water using an inverted bottle. The trough is filled with water, and a wide mouth bottle
is completely filled with water and inverted on the shelf. Magnesium or zinc metal is
placed in the bottom of the flask and the acid is introduced through the thistle tube. Fill
the flask with enough solution to cover the bottom of the thistle tube as shown to prevent
air from entering and hydrogen from escaping through the funnel. Hydrogen gas will
begin to escape from the rubber tube; allow the reaction to run for a few minutes before
connecting it to the inverted bottle to sweep air out of the flask.
Please look at the slide, and Let us do some analysis of this passage. One of the easiest
ways to now, I am just revising whatever we have been doing so far. So please look at
the slide, and notice the sentence structure, the constructions, the vocabulary, and the
linking words. Please look at it and read with me, one of easiest ways. Now remember,
you are talking about your subject verb agreement, please revise it. Easiest ways, not
easiest way; one of the easiest ways; therefore, it has to be ways it is one of the many, so
421
it has to be ways and not a way. To obtain hydrogen is to get it from water, this method
now 'this method' which method is? To get it from water; so, we have to pay attention to
the reference words now, you remember the reference words 'this', 'that', 'it', 'which',
those are the words that stand for a noun or pronoun already been talked about. So, here
we are talking about a way, and what is the a way to obtain hydrogen from water and this
method? So, therefore, the use of this method employs electrolysis which breaks.
So, 'which' is for electrolysis method; into hydrogen and oxygen gas, hydrogen can be
made by reaction of any active metal. Now, there are 2 ways of doing this passage, you
can either say hydrogen can be made like; now this is your voice and your passive voice,
remember. You can also use second person narrative voice here and say, you can make
hydrogen by doing so and so thing. But then try doing that, if you use the second person
plural voice by using the second person singular voice, then look at the difference
between that style of writing and this style of writing.
So, let us go on looking at the slide again and notice how everything is in passive voice.
Since hydrogen gas, and now this is your connective word, linking word 'since', is almost
insoluble. Look at the way the word has been formed soluble, insoluble this is making a
word into a negative or antonym or opposite of a given word; you will also find another
word displacement, a displace. So, this is you use in and im and dis and un, in order turn
a word into its opposite. So, remember these things. Completely filled, 'completely' here
is an adverb not an adjective.
And, then go on fill the flask with enough solution to cover the bottom of the thistle tube
as shown to prevent air from entering a hydrogen from escaping you; if you want to look
at the entire process go to this link and you will be shown the diagram as well. Hydrogen
gas will begin to escape; 'to escape' is your verb here, from the rubber tube. Allow the
reaction to run for a few minutes before connecting it to the inverted bottle to sweep air
out of the flask.
422
Now, your exercise here is to identify any 3 examples of passive sentences. There are
plenty of passive sentences here, you have to use. I would like you to identify those
passive sentences. I would also like you to notice the use of Imperative Sentences.
Imperative sentences, are those sentences that tell you what to do, sit down, write it, open
the door, switch on the air conditioner, these are imperatives. So notice, how this passage
423
that you have just seen is; and the way it makes ample use of imperative and passive
constructions. Imperative sentences are like request, suggestion, advise, command,
etcetera. So, when you say you have to do this; that means, this is an imperative
sentence. 'Put it down', imperative; 'fill the flask', imperative; 'see to it that the bottle is
completely filled with water', this is your imperative sentence.
Imperative sentences often appear to have missing subjects and the use a verb to begin
the sentence. So, you will not find it as you filled the bottle, there is a subject missing or
we fill the bottle; is fill in the bottle. 'Open the door' it is not ‘you open the door’, so
therefore, it is imperative. You have to remember, the subject is the person listening or
the audience. In other words, if an imperative sentences or sentence is directed towards
you, then you are the subject of the sentence, remember that.
Look at this second sample text: The Water-Treatment Process. Look at the slide, and let
us read it. Whether in the natural environment or a constructed water-treatment plant,
there are several key processes that occur during water treatment. Now, look at this very
interesting use of punctuation. Recall your earlier classes on punctuation, here is a, what
is it? This is a colon; and when do we use a colon among other things? We use a colon
when we are making a list of something; so, dilution, coagulation, flocculation, settling,
filtration, disinfection and other chemical treatments. Look at the effective use this
punctuation mark; that is a colon. The quality of the source water and the effectiveness of
424
source-water protection and management have a direct bearing on the complexity of the
treatment that is required. Source-water protection is the first step in water-treatment,
with the natural and engineered processes following.
Now, look at the last 2 lines; which is the noun? Processes. What are the adjectives here?
Natural and engineered. So, this is the difference between adverb and adjective.
Adjective always adds something to the noun. Adverb, I will do some adverb with you as
we go on deeper into today's class. So, in this water and how water-treatment process
works, what have we seen? We have seen tenses, the use of tenses; remember while
describing processes, and experiments, tenses should be by and large consistent. A tense
is consistence here, right? What sort of a tense is it? You must have noticed this, all in
present tense. It describes a universal process, tense remains in the present.
Kind of sentences, these are simple; I do not mean simple as in simple and complex, I
mean straight forward declarative. These are assertive sentences, which are making some
sort of a declaration. We have done declaration and declarative sentences in the earlier
parts of this course, so please refer to that. They are also in affirmative tones, you do not
use negatives while writing or describing a process, generally speaking. And then, you
have vocabulary which is very technical, very specific all those listed words dilution,
coagulation, flocculation, settling, filtration, disinfection, effectiveness. I will repeat
these words and I would want you to form different parts of speech with these words and
then use them in sentences of your own. This is your exercise, do it in pairs consult a
dictionary.
I will repeat dilution, coagulation, flocculation, settling, filtration, disinfection,

effectiveness. I will repeat what I want to you to do; I want you to open your
dictionaries, look at the earlier lecture on various kinds of a word formation how the
same word identifying the root word can be chained into different from of word. So,
from noun you turn a word into adjective and into a verb or adverb as the case may be.
So, try to do this exercise with your friends.
Some common or usual examples of describing processes and describing how things
work; I can give you a list. It is like these are some common sentence and a sentences
425
and expressions. And, you can decide for yourself that what is the pattern here; what is
the pattern here when we describe certain processes and experiments. For example, you
can take this down; turn a gas jar upside down, turn a gas jar upside down. Second,
replace the cover, shake the jar. Next, the phosphorus is carefully dried. Next, the circuit
is completed. Next, the air is then pumped through the tire valve. Now, when you say
turn a gas jar upside down, this is your imperative; you turn the gas, we turn the gas jar
upside down. Replace that cover shake the jar, you do it or I will do it or we will do it; so
the subject is missing, but when you say the circuit is completed the prosperous is
carefully dried what are we doing? We; it is not an imperative; it is a declarative sentence
in affirmative, not negative. So, this is the common pattern or a structure of sentences
used. Now please, look at this slide.
Make sentences using the following technical terms, these are extremely important for
you. Use these words in sentences of your own from your daily experience; ignite, insert,
depress, depress as in scientific term and not an emotional terms please; consume,
equalize, occupy, extinguish, add or remove, place, these are verbs I want you to use
them in sentences of your own. Now, here is an exercise please look at the slide.
426
Let us read. Prior to industrialization, in the pollution of rivers and streams was not as
significant a problem. Waste products were released into water bodies, but the quantity of
such discharges was not as great as present-day levels. The receiving waters were large
enough and the mixing or detention time was long enough that the contaminants were
diluted to a level that reduced the amount of concern about risks. A common saying in
the past was "the solution to pollution is dilution." This is not the most efficient treatment
method because even a small amounts of pollutants, such as some pesticides, can build
up, or bio-accumulate, in body fat over time. It is also not the preferred approach because
it sends the message that polluting the environment is an acceptable course of action.
Settling; For facilities treating water that contains a lot of solids, settling or
sedimentation is a common treatment step. The process slows the flow of the water in a
pond or basin so heavier items can settle to the bottom. If the water is not sufficiently
slowed down, these items are carried along to the next step in the process, which is not
desirable. For plants treating very polluted raw water, settling may be used as the first
step in the treatment plant presedimentation and again following the coagulation and
flocculation steps.
Look at the slide take a movement, look at the language. 'Prior to' this is adverb of time,
prior to what? Industrialization; industrialization is nothing but your noun. Look at the
427
various words that you can derive from industrialization. Please keep looking at these
things also, while learning to write something. So, look at the way the passage is written,
look at the sentences structure; now this is simple description, and 'using plenty of'
declarative sentences and also passive voice. So, while describing processes and
experiments, this is what you are supposed to write. Use assertive, affirmative,
declaratives, imperatives and employ passive voice as much as possible. You need not
use passive voice while speaking, but for this kind of writing, yes, you do need the
passive voice.
Again, look at some of the adjectives such as let us say, approach and preferred
approach. Acceptable course of action, this is an adjective, but when you look at a word
like 'sufficiently slowed down' here you have your adverb. It is qualifying slowdowns or
slowing down that is your verb. So, adverb qualifies verb, simple definition. Adjectives
qualified nouns or pronouns. So, use the very effective way the paragraphing has been
done, although I had given you only two paragraphs. Every paragraph has a straight
forward topics sentence. Now, based on this passage that we have just seen dilution and
settling, I would like you to do some exercises please look at the slide.
Identify any three complex sentences. Next, form any three words with -tion and three
words with -able as suffixes; you have already done suffixes and prefixes. Look at the
428
word 'preferred approach' is an example of collocation. Make three collocation words
with 'approach'. Use the right kind of word before approach, so that it collocates well.
You may use your dictionaries of course, and identify 4 reference words.
Now, let us move on to talk about -ing clauses. Now -ing clauses are particularly useful
in description of how things work because they help us avoid describing a series of
process and events otherwise, we may end up using several ands, ands and ands this is
what I mean by -ing clause.
Look at the exercise here.
429
Complete the following by inserting the main clause. Look at the sentences. Dash so
main clause and then you have -ing causing the burner to explode. You have to fill in the
appropriate main clause. Dash, therefore demonstrating, so here is again your -ing clause
that the solution is acidic; Dash, forcing the rocket out of the socket; -ing clause forcing;
Next, causing the reaction; Last, resulting in formation of the gas. So, what should be the
more appropriate clause in the beginning? So, fill in the sentences using your own
knowledge.
430
Now, here is another sample text for you, I would like you to identify verbs here because,
your verbs are very integral to your writing, particularly when you describe and explain
and write reports. So, pay attention to the way verbs are used.
Most chlorine is manufactured electrolytically by the diaphragm, membrane, or mercury

cell process. In each process, a salt solution is electrolyzed by the action of direct electric
current, which converts chloride ions to elemental chlorine. Chlorine is also produced in
a number of other ways, for example, by electrolysis of molten sodium or magnesium
chloride to make elemental sodium or magnesium metal; by electrolysis of hydrochloric
acid; and by non-electrolytic processes. How many verbs did you see here? Please make
a list.
431
And here, is another exercise for you; look at the slide I want you to describe the process
of iron extraction and use the following verbs. Please listen to my question again, look at
slide I want you to describe the iron extraction process and use the following verbs. You
can consult some scientific writings in your text books or even given online, but try to
write and use your own description using the following verbs as far as possible. See there
is no hard and fast compulsion here, if one or two verbs are left out do not worry too
much about that, but use most of these verbs in your explanation and your description. Is
initiated, Is produced, Is extracted, Is drawn, Is supplied, Reacts, Obtains, Prevents.
432
Look at the passage here. Let us read it, look at the slide and I want you to use
appropriate form of the verbs given in the brackets here. Seismic exploration the search
for commercially economic subsurface deposits of crude oil, natural gas and minerals by
the recording, processing, and interpretation of artificially induced shock waves in the
earth. Artificial seismic energy generate on land by shallow borehole explosives such as
dynamite, or surficial vibratory mechanisms mount on a specialized trucks; in marine
environments, air guns fire highly compressed air bubbles into the water that transmit
seismic wave energy into the subsurface rock layers. Seismic waves reflect and refract
off subsurface rock formations and travel back to an acoustic receivers called geophones
or hydrophones. The travel times of the returned seismic energy, integrated with existing
borehole well information, aid geoscientists in the structure of substance formations, and
facilitate the location of prospective drilling targets.
Take a movement, Look at the verbs. This should not be too difficult for you at this stage
we have done plenty of such exercises before, but here I want you to describe a
phenomenon that is seismic exploration and pay attention to the way language is used,
the way verbs are used, the way nouns are used, the way the writer collocates and makes
very effective use of other parts of the speech, such as adverbs and adjective. But verbs
are important, and please pay attention.
433
And here is your answer, please look and tally your answers with what you have just
seen. Please read the slide carefully and tally your answers, alright. Now, as I told you in
the beginning of the class we will be talking about adverbs, and what are adverbs?
Adverbs modify verbs; they add something to the already existing verb and where as
adjectives qualify nouns or pronouns. Now, when I give you sentences like, he ran fast;
he comes here often or he often comes here; I always go to the central library or she
sings well; then fast, often, always, well, these are adverbs they add something to the
verb here. He ran very fast or ran fast, so 'ran' is a verb and 'fast' manner of running, so
that is your adverb.
He comes here often, so 'comes' is your verb and 'often' how often and how many times
does he come here? Twice a week, once a week, often, that is adding to the qualifying the
verb here. I always go; 'go' is your verb and 'always' is your adverb. I always go to the
central library whenever I need a book; she sings very well, how does she sing? Adverb
of manner 'sings' is a verb, she sings well. But, if you say she is a pretty singer, 'singer' is
a noun and 'pretty' is your adjective. Here is a list of adverbs, please look at it, look at the
slide.
434
Adverbs often, please note; Adverbs often end in -ly but not always. So, look at this list
where adverbs end in -ly, very basic list. Similarly, presumably, usually, regularly,
frequently, firstly, secondly, finally, briefly, obviously, all these are adverbs. Remember
that, when you use an adverb like 'she hardly reads', it is a negative sentence; it means
that she does not read at all. She hardly works; it is a negative sentence; that means she
does not work at all. But, she works hard. Now, it is used to qualify her work, in what
manner? Hard working manner, so, that is a very positive treat. There is no such word as
alwaysly or oftenly, please remember these common mistakes that students may make
sometimes.
435
Here is an exercise for you, please take a look at the slide. Use the words given below to
fill in the blanks. List of words is already given to you; before, completely, hardly, often,
generally, now, look at the sentences. Dash is the time to start this project. Which
adverbs? So, all these are adverbs; please note, , these please pay attention to what we
are doing, we are doing adverbs and the list of words given to you here is a list of
adverbs.
Now is the time to start this project. He has read the report before coming for the
meeting. He was completely unprepared for the news. They are hardly ever at home.
Generally, this is the rush hour in Bangalore. I think of my teacher very often. Dash he is
60, he still enjoys extreme sports. What should you write here? The answer should be,
although he's 60, he still enjoys extreme sports. Please tell tally your answers here.
436
Now, Before, Completely, Hardly, Generally, Often, Although. Here is another exercise
for you, please look at the slide.
Use the following adverbs in your own sentences Normally, Frequently, Seldom,
Already, Never, Soon, Until; make sentences using these words adverbs.
437
Here is a reference for you on adverbs, you can look up these links to know more about
adverbs and there is also one link of purdue that gives you distinction between adverbs
and adjectives, the second bullet point. Now, I would like you to complete the following
sentences, look at the slide here.
Using your own knowledge of describing experiments and processes, I would like you to
438
complete the sentences here. I am not giving you any hints or clues; I would like to know
how you will use your own language in order to complete these very common
expressions. These are the kinds of sentences you may use in your or you may use
frequently in your writings. So, please use them appropriately and effectively. It has now
been shown that dash, and you have to write a complete from your own knowledge. It
can be proved that dash. It can be seen that dash. It was once believed that dash.
Although it is generally believed that dash, but dash. So, use the best possible sentences
structure in these sentences.
Here is another exercise for you. I want you to write description of any two of the
following; Hydrocarbons, Velocity of light, Capillary depression, Penicillin, Properties of
semi-conductors. Write description on any two of the following. Let us move on to do
something else now.
439
Look at this passage, read the slide. You have to use or you have to fill in the blanks and
I will give you a list of words soon, using what words and fill in the blanks using those
words.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that heat will dash always flow from a hot
region to a cold region. By itself it dash flows the other way, but it can be made to do so
under the influence of an external agency. The Second Law of Thermodynamics also
states that this outside influence may do some work. In a kitchen refrigerator, the inside
of a closed box is to be kept cool by removing heat from the inside and depositing it on
the outside. Dash the heat will not move freely from the cold inside to the hot outside it
must be made to do so using an intermediate fluid which absorbs heat on the inside, then
carries outside of the box and dash the heat to the air. This fluid circulates in a pipe
which passes in and out of the back of the refrigerator, kept moving by a compressor
dash by an electric motor. It is the work done by this compressor using electrical energy
from the household electricity supply that makes the refrigerator work without dash the
Second Law of Thermodynamics.
440
I want you to use the following words, not necessarily in this order; because, never,
violating, releases, driven, spontaneously.
And here is the answer, please tally your answer with what you have done in the passage.
Now, let us move on to talk about some words which are easily confused. In the English
language, there are several words that sound alike and very often they are even
441
pronounced alike and even their spellings look very similar with just a minor difference
for example, we have affect and effect, right?
Affect and Effect; what is the difference? I was affected by something; I was affected
when there was a par break down in my house a couple of weeks back. So, we were all
affected by that, it means to alter the state of something, impact. Affect is also mood, an
emotional mood that is very poetic, whereas effect is the impact of some action. So,
remember affect is mood or emotion and it is very poetic.
Effect is the impact of some action, whereas affect also means to alter the state of
something that is already happening for example, I was affected when there was traffic
congestion on the street, alright. You say effect this is the effect of not studying. So, then
that becomes e double f e c t. So, there are many such words in the English language, I
would like you to solve this exercise of course, you will have to consult your dictionary
these words look alike sound alike often, but they have different meanings.
442
Apiary and aviary, aural and oral, biannual - biennial, complement - compliment, canvas
- canvass, contagious - contiguous, defuse - diffuse, index - indices, resister - resistor.
Thank you very much and please practice writing. You have already been given some
exercises; please try to do those things at home and we will soon meet for our next
class.Tags
443
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 29
Essay Writing
Hello. So, today we are going to do Essay Writing. We will be doing how to write or
make a frame work for an essay and we will also see how to write the keywords that are
associated with framing an essay. How to outline and how to make a frame work for an
essay? What are the key elements that go into writing an essay? See so far, we have done
plenty of grammar, vocabulary building, you have done plenty of exercises, we have
seen how sentences are made, we have seen various parts of speeches, word categories,
word formation, collocation. Also at one point we have also seen how to write an email,
how to do precis and also writing a paragraph.
So, you know that if we take care of our paragraphs, the other paragraphs or the rest of
the essay will take care of itself. That is the importance of paragraph and which we have
already done in one of our previous classes.
So, considering that 75 percent of this course is already over, you have to be now
extremely clear about the rest or the remaining classes that we are going to do which are
going to be all about writing and writing not just a sentence or a mere paragraph, but
writing extensively and I am going to explain the mechanics of longer pieces of writing.
You have to remember that all the things that we have been learning so far are going to
come in handy from now onwards. Of course, everything is interconnected, everything is
interrelated, but from today onwards; whatever we have done it is going to have an
impact on what we do or how you approach writing complex pieces.
Especially, we are talking about technical kind of writing and academic writing. So,
please recall, please do not ignore any of the classes that we have already done and all
the topics that we have already done. I will want you, I would will like you to revise
whatever we have been doing so far, in order to approach the subsequent classes
445
including today’s class. As you are well aware of, written composition remains at the
center of our education system. Why do I say that? You have to know that written works
carry the maximum weight in our grading and assessment system, especially at
university and institute level.
You know that return works test students on several parameters; such as grammar, syntax
or construction of sentences, structuring sentences, vocabulary, punctuation and text
organization. So, all these things are evaluated on the basis of your written compositions,
you also know that compositions may range between one paragraph report and also
extensive report writing and writing 300 pages of doctoral thesis or your M Tech or M sc
thesis. So, all these things require extensive awareness about a mechanics of writing. So,
in my discussion on essay writing, I will focus on the most common types of academic
writing that our are a student’s need, particularly in our Indian contexts.
You may ask that; what is the purpose? What is the relevance of an essay? Like any other
skill, essay writing is a complex skill and it is a means of communication. All writing
you see even e-mail writing, letter writing is a means of communication. Essay writing is
a notch higher, is a notch above because of the complexities of its skills involved. See,
very often you will realize that, if you practice writing; it impacts your other skills as
well, the more you write the better you are able to organize your thoughts.
It will also help you in speaking better and also in reading better and all these things in
effective or listening listing abilities as well. You know you understand the nuances of
words, you understand vocabulary fast; you do not have to really group around with
understanding or inferring the meanings of various words. Everything is interconnected
you know that we have done so much of reading and listing as well and you know how
much, let say reading is connected to listening and how much writing is connected to
speaking. So, all these skills are interconnected and they should be given equal attention.
Now essay writing can be descriptive, it can be narrative and it can be analytical.
Descriptive is when we described, we have been describing processes, remember? In
some of our earlier classes we have seen how descriptions are, then how equipment are
described, how processes are described.
446
Narrative is when you narrate something and let us say you write a narrative about your
personal experience, how you felt about doing this research, it becomes a narrative,
almost like sharing your thoughts, telling a story. Analytical, this is something that most
of you need, at the essay level, which means that you have to analyze a given question,
approach a given problem and discuss it, you have to present arguments for and against,
that is approaching analytically.
Of course, there are various types of essays, if you pick up any book of essay writing it
would give you bullet points about various types of essays. We will do that also soon, but
understand that generally this is what we need, descriptive is more elementary, narrative
may be more creative. Analytical is more academic because you speak for and against an
argument, you take a stand. Descriptive is more like how I did something or how this let
say how this experiment was conducted and I have to write a short report, a short
description of it. You do not need to be terribly creative in writing a description, for
analytical writing you have to be not creative, but you have to be acutely sensitive to the
nuances of the English language.
So, just writing a string of sentences would not do in the analytical kind of writing. When
key element of writing an essay is that, it is important to be aware of your own strengths
and limitations. For example, if you have a choice; let us say you have been given in a
choice in your exam or by your instructor that here is the choice, here is the list of topics,
write anything, write an essay on one or two of the given choices.
Now always decide on a subject that you have good command and control on or you feel
strongly about. For example, you may have a stronger opinion on let us say; traffic
condition of your city, rather than the State of the United Nations or the role of the
United Nations in promoting world peace. You will be more equipped to tackle
competently, what you are comfortable with. Style is another thing, always be careful
about your style; it is important that you use the right kind of tone.
Please be very clear about the tone you employ, your tone has to be in accordance with
the general nature of the essay. For instance, if your topic is violence in contemporary
society; do not approach the essay in a light hearted tone, it is a serious issue. Role of
447
women in society, these are serious issues we do not banter about these things, we do not
crack jokes about these things. So, please remember that there are plenty of opportunities
for us to be light hearted about, but not when you approach an academic under serious
essay, you have to adopt a very formal tone, a serious tone when you are approaching
serious topic.
Finally, be careful about employing a personal point of view. The use of you know
constantly saying I believe, I think or in my opinion, in my view, it should be avoided if
essay is of objective and scientific nature, you have to be more detached more
impersonal. Coming to the important elements in an essay, you always begin with an
introduction. When you go to introduction, remember that you have to explain why the
general topic of the essay is relevant and then you put the essay in context of it. Your
thesis sentence should include your introduction of course, and introduction should end
with the specific thesis of statement, this could be the major argument of your essay.
So introduction, where you explain why the general topic of your essay is relevant, you
put the essay in context and then introduction should end with a specific thesis statement,
this is the main argument. After establishing the context, you move on to the next
paragraph, see essay writing is all about mastering paragraphing as well. You cannot
have, one single block running into 5 pages or 2 pages or even 1 page, there has to be
necessarily break-up in paragraph.
So next paragraph should be, the so called body after introduction there is body of
paragraphs, depending on the length of your essay. So, assuming it is 300 or 500 then 4
to 5 paragraphs in body should be sufficient, it could be more but 4 to 5 maximum 6
could be sufficient or should be sufficient. These paragraphs contain argument, evidence,
supporting statements and topics that aid and help the thesis in or thesis statement in
standing.
Now, you know what is a topic sentence, topic sentence is; we are talking about the body
of the paragraph, body of the essay. So, you introduce the topic at the beginning of each
body paragraph and this should really directly to the rest of the paragraph and link them
to the thesis statement and then you move on to do supporting sentences. They should
448
contain your argument, analysis of your data and facts, if you need to coat something or
need to tell an anecdote; particularly in lengthier pieces of writing. You need to give
examples supporting details in order to aid your topic sentence.
You should have at least three supporting sentences and that is a standard, but it could be
more. So, you should have at least three sentences to support each topic sentence and
then make good use of transition moving from one paragraph to another. When we talk
about transition, you should focus on the final sentence of the body paragraph that links
it to the next paragraph, we will just talk about it in detail and then this should go on for
the rest of the essay.
How you develop body? Remember you should not introduce two contrasting ideas or
two new ideas in the same para. While doing paragraph, we have already talked about it
that each paragraph should contain one main idea. If you may recall, we have done
something on Isaac Newton, where I drew do your attention to the fact that each
paragraph had something new to say with supporting details. So, please go back to your
earlier classes, earlier lectures if you need more explanation about what is the main idea,
how to identify a main idea and then of course, when you are done with your arguments
for an against, you we have conclusion; conclusion summarizes the general points and
general theme of the essay and please remember in conclusion, you no longer have a
liberty to introduce new information. Please remember that many a time I have noticed
that the students include something that is absolutely new in the last final paragraph. This
is not the right thing or correct thing to do, please avoid this.
So to reiterate, a good essay contains introduction, some general information about the
topic. You have to make the reader interested, I am talking about an educated reader to be
interested in what you are writing and establish the context, write your thesis statement,
you have to write your body, the topic sentences supporting the argument and given
details, examples, data explanations etcetera, it should go on supporting that way and
then marking transition from one para to another. So, this is the way general body of an
essay goes. Now please look at the slide and let us look at the sample.
449
This is an introduction and in the same part, please note that for your own convenience, I
have given two sub headings, intro and context. Actually this is one single paragraph,
please note in order to make you understand what is introduction and what is context, I
have given separate paragraphs, but this is not the way to actually practice it, this is just
for explanation. Introduction, a major change that has occurred in the western family is
an increased incidence in divorce. Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare
occurrence, in recent times it has become quite commonplace. This change is borne out
clearly in census figures. For example, 30 years ago in Australia, only one marriage in
ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in three.
In this essay, I will seek to critically examine, so look at what the writer is doing, he is
establishing the context here therefore the sub heading. You should not be writing this
way, please avoid giving such kinds of sub headings in academic essays. So, the context
in this essay; What is the writer trying to do? He states that he will seek to critically
examine a number of sociological explanations for the divorce phenomenon and also
consider the social policy implications that each explanation carries with it, It will be
argued that there, I have left it here it will be argued that there.
450
So, this is how you construct a paragraph or introductory paragraph. Introduce the main
idea, a thesis, what is the problem, he has given some examples how the rate of a divorce
is increasing; particularly in the western world and then establishing the context what am
I going to do here, what is his intention to do here. Let me take you to another example,
please look at the slide
This is a sample text for the body of the sentence, look at the topic sentence and then
look at the supporting details; I will read it out for you. Academic performance is another
key factor that was consistently cited as a factor that influences a student staying in
school and graduating. Now see; this is a part of an essay where the writer is trying to
understand a various reasons for high school drop outs, you look know when children do
not complete their higher studies, higher academics. So, what are the reasons so this is
from the body, this is not the introduction.
The introduction is, for that you will have to read the entire essay. I have given the
source, if you wish you can look at the complete essay. Here I am just trying to explain
how one argument is constructed. So, then you look at the supporting detail this is not the
way you have to write again, please pay attention to these facts you do not have to write
topic sentence and supporting detail in your formula formal essay. I am doing here just
451
to make you understand things better so several research articles cited that the road to
academic success starts early in the education system both school readiness and third
grade reading proficiency have been cited as indicators of future academic success. After
the 3rd grade children are no longer learning to read, but are now reading to learn.
Helping struggling students in the 3rd grade to read at or above reading proficiency will
help be more prepared for success in the future.
Research has also indicated that success in middle school is a key indicator of whether a
student will drop out of high school. In middle school, a student is bombarded with many
social changes that affect success in school. The transition from elementary school,
where children are primarily in one class with the same classmates and teacher, to middle
school, where students are rotating classes, teachers and classmates, is a difficult
transition for some students. The relationship with their teachers is not as strong, due to
the fact that they have multiple subjects. This makes it difficult for students to get the
attention they need. Research has indicated that success in middle school is a strong
indicator for success in high school.
So, this is the body and this is just one reason and one for school drop out, academic
performance and then the various reasons given for the drop in academic performances.
452
The full text is available on this link; please look at it this is the reference for the full
text. A good use of markers, signal words and linking words, you are already very much
familiar with these things, we have been doing a lot of practice with linking words. For
example, when you introduce something, you use a word like now-a-days, these days.
When you describe consequences you say as a consequence, as a result, resultantly,
consequently, therefore, thus. You also know when we give more information, then you
say further more or more over or in addition etcetera and of course, in conclusion you
say; so finally, to summarize and in conclusion.
So, these are the standard words that you use. You are already familiar with these words,
make good use on this. In the previous passage that we have just seen on high school
drop outs, see how well linking words are connected, are woven into the body of the text.
I would like you to identify at least 10 linking words from the paragraph or the passage
that we have just seen. Now, let me show you another sample, please look at the slide.
Again we are going to pay attention to some linkers and this a descriptive type of
passage. Of course, full passage or full essay is not given here; I have just given one
section, one part of the essays on CCTV. So, CCTV and please notice I have highlighted
all the linkers please take a look. CCTV is a visual surveillance technology designed for
453
monitoring a variety of environments and activities all at the same time. CCTV systems
typically involve a dedicated communications link between cameras in the field and
monitors at one or more control centers, systems can be made up of technically mature
analog cameras and image storage devices or newly developed digital cameras and
image storage devices or a mix of the two technologies. CCTV systems may provide real
time, time lapse, event or digitally recorded surveillance information to help in detecting,
responding to investigating and providing evidence for security, safety and related
incidents. A CCTV system may also be used to prevent security breaches by allowing
security personnel to monitor access control systems at in entry points to secure areas.
Now see, it is a very technical kind of writing, it is not trying to impress you with lot of
things, with plenty of jargon. It is all very technical kind of vocabulary and basic
minimal use of linking words, but effectively used.
In the high school drop out paragraph or in that particular essay, you have a wide range
of linking words and single signal words. But that is the demand of that kind of a
passage, here persistence use or continues use of and, an, or an, and, an, or and also
should be enough, there is nothing that writer can be actually do, do this kind of auto
write, this kind of description. But in that one, in the previous passage a writer can, so
that is the difference; however, you as writers, I would strongly suggest that expand your
vocabulary and try to use a variety of markers and singles and linking words in your
writing. Now, here is an exercise for you.
454
Extract is a quiet analytical, please look at the slide. This is your exercise, fill in the
blanks with linking words. Thinking about society using surveillance as a concept,
enables us to mount an ethical, social and spatial critique of the information processing
practices. Dash are part of the way society is formed, governed and managed. Here you
have to fill in a reference word, it enables us to question and evidence its impact on the
social fabric, on discrimination, trust, accountability, transparency, access to services,
mobility, freedoms, community and social justice. Dash it enables us to engage in
debates with regulators, businesses and journalist about the consequences of their
surveillance based activities. Dash instead of thinking about surveillance as a single all
knowing oppressive force, as George Orwell depicts in the novel 1984, we prefer to think
of it as something which is woven into everyday life and that is more complex and multi
layered. The covert hi tech world of the spy or the all seeing evil despot are dash tiny
aspects of the surveillance society. Begin dash by thinking about the many different
activities in which we engage during the course of a single day. At different times, we
interact with surveillance as part of these activities. Dash workers, performance
information is collected by the organizations for which we work. Managers use that
information to let us know how we are performing in our jobs and how we can improve
in future.
455
I would like you to discuss this exercise and do this exercise in pairs or in groups, small
groups of course, and choose a variety of signal words. Perhaps you can think of more
words than that (Refer Time: 31:51) we actually uses, so here is the answer.
Answer list, the first was which, moreover, so, but, for example, as. The full text is given
on this particular link, but I would still want you to approach the essay all over again a
passage sorry all over again and see if you can come up with a different set of answers.
The answer that I have shown are taken from the text itself, but if you think that you can
come up with the different list, different answers please give it a try and see if you are
writing reads better.
Now, I will talk about using a hook, in writing an essay. Hook not be confused with your
scientific hooks law, this is a hook while writing academic essays. So, please look at the
slide.
456
Here is the sample text and how to use a hook. Now New technologies, above all the
computer, facilitate surveillance in ways that Max Weber, Franz Kafka or George Orwell
never dreamed of, but new hardware and software do not on their own, create new
surveillance. Indeed, much surveillance occurs because in the world of modernity, people
prefer a ‘private’ existence, which prompts the development of systems to authenticate
their activities in the ‘public’ world. Presenting a driver’s license to a police officer from
within a private car makes the point well.
Of course, and now of course, is your hook. Transaction from one paragraph to another
and what is he saying that, for the sack of their privacy, people are using surveillance and
of course, it is ironic that the quest for privacy produces surveillance because is
surveillance sort of encourages encroaches on your privacy, but here the writer makes a
very efficient use of a hook where he makes a transition from the previous idea, thought
and connects it to the next paragraph. So, this is a good example of using a hook, you
should know that hooks help in flowing of thoughts from paragraph to paragraph.
Writers use a hook to connect ideas between one paragraph and then next. Of course,
becomes one example of hook and you can also use word such as, as well as, on the
contrary, further, more over, transition of an idea from one para to another, please look at
this particular slide.
457
It has references about writing hooks are given you three useful links. Now layout of an
essay is extremely important and some cardinal rules, layout of an essay. So some
important rules of writing a layout is that, remember to be very particular about when to
use capital and when to use lower cases.
458
Informal and academic writing it is important to distinguish between upper and lower
cases. We have already talked about using contractions and abbreviations minimal use of
abbreviations and contractions and contracted forms of a verbs should be avoided like
don’t or shouldn’t or mustn’t, it should be avoided in written return language. Avoid
writing the entire essay in capital letters, some times people do that please avoid that,
you should also remember not to write one line paragraph, it is important that there
should be paragraphs, but there is a method to it, you cannot write one essay in one
breathless tone with no paragraphing at the same time avoid using one line and single
line paragraphs. Also avoid using bullet points and numbers, unless absolutely necessary
and remember always to live leave some space or a line between paragraphs. Now here
is a list of references how to write effective essays, please take a look at this slide.
So, this was just an introduction to how to write an essay how, to frame the outline and
what are the key elements. We will do essay writing in more detail in our next class.
459
Tags
460
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Department of Technical English for Engineers
Lecture – 30
Essay Writing and Formal Letters
We will be continuing with our discussion of Essays. And let me put some emphasis on
how to write an analytical or critical essay. In today’s lecture, we will also talk about
how to write formal letters. You have done email writing, which I would consider a kind
of semiformal writing. However, in certain more complex situations, of course, you will
be using e-mail and that goes without saying, so these kinds of formal letters can also be
used in the form of emails. But consider the way those kind of email that we have
already discussed in our early lectures, and how different they are from what we are
going to do today.
So, as far as you would remember perhaps, we have talked about writing an email within
a close circle; close circle of friends and colleagues that is why I call them semiformal.
Here the letters are going to be slightly more complex and formal in nature and in their
461
themes, all though let me reiterate, they too can be written via email considering that we
live in an electronic mailing age and system.
So, coming back to the first part of today’s lecture, we will be talking about analytical
and critical essays. We have already seen some different kind of essays in our earlier
session, particularly descriptive kinds where all you have to do is describe something - a
process, or an experiments or an object. We have also seen what is narrative kind of an
essay. There is another term like exploratory essay that again explore its survey, give you
a survey of given topic.
Let me again add that whatever may be the nomenclature or the category, all essays do
demand certain competent, certain extend of discussion and argument. May be not in
purely descriptive process, there you do not argue for and against you just describe
something. However, in this case or rather in all other cases, you are expected to do some
kind of discussion and analysis. So, whether the word or the term analyzes or discuss or
critically assess, these terms may or may not occur in the topic, but please give some
attention whether you are expected to do that or not. So, practices, in other words. The
more you practices the better you will able to address these issues.
So, so far we have been talking about how to approach writing on an academy subject.
We will continue with this, and You have to understand that while writing on an academy
topic, on a technical topic or even when you appear for certain competitive exam in
English, you have to understand the question or the topic. This is always useful strategy
that, you perhaps underline the keywords that you think that are essential within the
essay. Sometimes you find these as a topic themselves are so long, they run into three to
four sentences; underline every keywords by know you should be comfortable with
identifying keywords what are the words that you think are important. Keywords
generally are nouns and also verbs. So, those are the keywords. So, identify the nouns
and identify the verbs and then the question how many parts thus that question have.
Useful strategy is to prepare your answer; it could be an assignment topic or an exam

paper, just look at the question properly, look at the question and understand the
question, underline and highlight the keywords and then make notes try to formulate a
draft. You should understand that essay writing is a test exercise or skills in coming up
with some style and form to explore the subject; you should decide how the topic should
462
be tackle by paying attention to the verbs. Verbs such as describe, discuss, debate,
analysis, interpret, assess, compare, evaluate. So, when it is a comparison do not
neglected contrast, do not just highlight the point where there are similarities, but you
should also be able to contrast on the other hand, on the contrary using such signal
words, also give some indications of contrast. And you know debate is argument form or
in for and against; analysis, giving your opinion well, interpretation giving and in-depth
point of view, so things like this.
Now, it is always important to research a topic; remember that it is investigation, at this

level of your academic life; you have to be good researcher. So, you need to or at least
attempt to investigate any work, which the essay title is specifies as your topic. Now this
cannot be done in exam situation, but if it is assignment or term attempt paper, yes, you
need to do some research, read the relevant material more than once in the order to
understand. Make notes based on that relevant material, you can make those notes on in
your laptop and save them, and read as much published criticism on the related subject.
If I give you a sample as a topic such why maths should be compulsory all high school
student, then you should be able to. And if the second part of the question is discussed,
let us assume the question like some people feel that maths should be compulsory for all
high school students, and there is should be no options to choose either maths or you
know science subjects. Some boards do have this practice you; you have the option of
leaving maths. So, the question hear is maths should be compulsory whether you are
taking the biology stream or maths stream, it should be compulsory for all or even people
who obtain opt for arts subject then maths should be compulsory.
So, now, how do you tackle question like that, if you are asked to discuss. See, you are
supposed to go for and argue for and against, remember that. So, you can say maths
enables us to understand statistic used in various places, it enables us to make sense of
our economic, medicine and law, many competitive exams requires maths. Without the
capacity to deal with numbers, we are always placed at disadvantage. At even later in
your life, let us assume you are expected to calculate interest on your savings; and if you
are not comfortable with maths, you would not be able to do it, you will have to depend
it another to do that. So, this is for the topic, and how you speak against it, you will have
to think of strategy, what are the points that go against that; no, maths people should
463
have the option, people should have the freedom to exercise their option and then you
talk against it.
So, I would you like you to work in pairs, and solve this; solve this as in write an
argument - good cohesive argument against making maths compulsory for all at high
school level. I would like your mentors to guide you on that, write at least one paragraph;
and if you do not have mentors, please work with your friends and attempt to write a
paragraph, discuss your answers.
Here is a sample exercise for you; please look at it. In many countries we find an
increasing number of old age homes. Some people feel this is the right thing to do.
Discuss. Now here is an argument given against: We must care for parents who cared for
us. They have spent their whole life time for us and it is our responsibility to care for
them in turn… We are now busy in work at high position because of them. If they have
not spent, I am sorry about this contraction, you ignore it, we are not suppose to use
contraction or contracted form in formalizes, we cannot have this life now. If we care for
our parents now, then only our children will care for us.
Your exercise is, to write an argument supporting old age homes. Argument here is
against, I would like you to write arguments supporting. Now see personal thought or
personal ideas believes do not matter in a critical analytical way. Many a time these
topics are given to you not to test your personal ideology, perhaps 90 percent, 99 percent
464
of us here would be against the concept of old age homes that does not matter; the essay
want you to discuss. So, you have to talk for and against, you cannot say that I had
nothing against it.
The idea is to test your ability to discuss, therefore you are in an exam like situation, and
therefore you are suppose to do some kind of research perhaps out there, there are people
who speak for it. So, go get their opinion as valid, a serve kind of a topic. But if it is just
an essay that test your written English then please look at the verb here, the key verb
here in the question is discussed; that means, you have to discuss it well and thoroughly
and covering every angle. Taking a position like, I had nothing against, I have nothing to
say for or in support of establishing old age homes is going to weaken the over all the
way you have written or addressed your essay.
Now, hear is another topic for, you please look at this slide. I would like you to compose
and essay on globalization, I am not asking you for and again, but just globalization that
is your topic. And these are the keywords that I want you to write in your introduction
only. Please look at this list of words - goods and services, knowledge and ideas,
phenomenon, business, development, global marketplace, economy, culture, politics. I
would like you to use these words, these terms, these expressions, in the introductory
part of your essay on globalization. You can of course, these words and expression
elsewhere in the essay also, but try to integrate these words in your introduction.
465
Here is the useful site for you, or rather list of sites for you, please look at this the slide
and these are your references for argument essays. Now, good vocabulary and I cannot
stress enough on the important and value of good vocabulary.
Let us look at this slide and using a dictionary, find the meanings of these commonly
confused words. The reason why I want to do exercise with you is that there are so many
students who keep confusing words and when you confuse vocabulary or when you get
confuse in your choice of word or when the word choice is not all that good you stand to
466
create negative impression on the reader. So, here is the list of words, there are several
other words also, I have just given you some words that I felt you may be interested in.
So, activate and actuate, advice with ‘c’ see advise with ‘s’, appraise and apprise, attain
and obtain, cite and site, continuous and continual, deprecate, depreciate, eminent,
imminent. Use your dictionary understand the meaning, the differences in meanings.
Now, here is another exercise for you; please look at the slide. And I want you to again
check with your dictionary and correct the spelling of the following words. Commonly
miss spell words - campiagn, biznis, comitment, comparision, definate, heirarchy,
maintnance, repitition, alright.
Now, let us move on to discuss how to write a formal letter. Formal letter and writing a
formal letter is an art by itself; although many people would disagree what so artistic, but
sometimes, you find it more difficult to write formal letter especially in a situation where
there are hierarchies, academic and social hierarchies. And it becomes rather difficult for
person who is actually asking for something, requesting for something to write the letter
to someone you know one senior in professional an academic setting. By senior I mean
professionally at somewhat higher level.
Now, it is important that you make notes. If you are beginner, it is important to make
notes while writing a formal letter. Decide on the topic what you want to write on and
then you write your ideas, look through the ideas and decide which ideas are more or less
467
important. Sometime you may have lot to say, but you have to shift through these ideas
and decide on something, something that is very relevant. Essay writing should be
conscious and precious and to the point, I am talking about formal letter and not personal
letters. So you cannot be talking your family’s situation, unless it is extremely important
there. You need to group the ideas and decide on the best possible order.
And after doing this exercise, you should start composing each paragraph; write the
body, the introduction, the body and conclusion, just the way you write a good essay,
good letter is no different good essay as far as structure is concern; all though, the length
differs. Use appropriate linking word to link the ideas together if it is a formal letter not
personal, again avoid contraction. Writing suitable introduction and concluding it well is
always extremely necessary, if you want to drive your point home effectively.
And of course, you need to have salutation like dear so and so, dear doctor, dear
professor, dear sir, most of us still use or address people with whom we have formal
relationship, the sir and madam; nothing wrong with it this. Just look at the comfort level
of the person, you may address people by the names it is always advisable to use some
kind of title if it is doctor; yes, if it is professor use professor, unless and until you have
been told specifically not to use and just address the person by his or her or name which
is quite rare in especially our situation. And of course rounding off the letter is yours
faithfully, sincerely things like that we no longer use word such as yours obediently, but
your sincerely, with regards, yes all these are acceptable in formal situations.
468
Here is an example of a sample formal letter, please look at the slide. Look at the way it
has been constructed. Dear Dr. Smith that is your salutation. I am the chairman of the
2015 Metropolitan Medical Conference that is being held this year in Miami, Florida on
July 15, 2015. So, consider the way the writer has introduce himself the implication is
there that the writer and the receiver they do not know each them personally. Therefore
this person Michael Brown is in first introducing himself. I right write now come to the
point, why are you writing. I write to invite you to present your groundbreaking research
on stem cell technology with our conference participant and invited guests. A 30-minute
discussion of your work along with a 20-minute question and answer session would add
so much to the intellectual landscape of our annual medical conference.
The Metropolitan Medical Association would be pleased to cover your travel and lodging
expenses, so look at the change of topic in second paragraph. So, in the first paragraph
you want introduce yourself and give reason for invitation; give come to the point why
your writing letter, I am writing you just this to invite you, and why do I want to inviting
you, because you have done some groundbreaking research in this particular area. In
second paragraph, what we can do for you, you are inviting someone all that is very well,
but why should the receiver of letter be so interested in coming and what are the
incentives for him there. So you are giving him that would be please to cover travel and
loading expenses while you visit the conference, in addition to providing a per diem
budget during your stay.
469
And conclusion, please reply with your answer as soon as you are able so that we may
begin making arrangements. I request to contact me with any question or concern. Kind
regards, Dr. Michael brown. So, this is your are rounding off, you do write ing your
name in formal letter.
So, let us repeat what we have done we have introduce ourselves. We clearly stated the
purpose and the reason why the receiver of letter is needed there, why is he wanted there.
In second paragraph, the incentives and then you the conclusion all this is very precis to
the point, there is no beating around the bush; everything is relevant. There is a transition
between paragraph and each paragraph has clear central idea that is main topic. And of
course, the tone in formal letter is extremely important to observe, consistent tone and
here the tone is formal, appropriately formal and polite.
Let us look at this slide now. And the question is what is wrong with this letter. Look at
the letter. Dear Sir, How do you do? I understand from my colleague, Professor William
Jones, who visited your West End plant last month, that you sometimes allow group of a
student to tour the factory and see for themselves, how Japanese production techniques
operate in a European environment. Please pay attention to a European environment we
do not say an European environment, because the a, e, i, o, u scheme works here -
vowels and the sound is still ‘u’ and not ‘e’. So, therefore if it some an elephant, elephant
then it is an elephant otherwise if the sound pronunciation ‘u’ then it is to be. So, in a
470
European environment, so the sound is let me write it for you to make it, clear sound is
‘u; therefore an, so it is not. Even if you say university, you this important ‘u’; so,
therefore these words such sounds take an ‘a’ as an article so, a European environment.
Professor John himself most impressed by his own visit, and recommended that I write to
you. You know that Professor Jones is an expert in the area of car manufacturing and has
project worth millions of dollars in this area. Would it be possible for a group of 20
Business Studies students aged between this and that from Smithsonian Polytechnic to
visit you before the end of this term, which is on the 21 December? I realize that you
must receive many requests for such visits, and that the time available may already be
booked up. If it is not, and you are able to see us, I should be most grateful if you could
suggest a date and let me know of any normal conditions you lay down for visit of this
kind. Cheers and have a good day. Yours faithfully.
Now, to begin with the tone, how do you do in formal letter where the writers are not
really known to each other. You see this person is going to introduce himself and instead
of introducing himself properly, he just comes to how do you do which is in formal and it
is kind of greeting that should be use when we know someone well. There have been
some, we have able to establish some contact between them, with the other person, with
the receiver. Here there is no such indication and he goes, how do you do which is not
really needed, he should have also introduce himself.
He is the colleague of Professor William Jones, yes, but what does he do there of course
he explains that the intention is to visit to this particular plant and to study it and Prof.
Jones was impressed and as recommend that this person should also do same. But then
the inclusion of this detail you know that Prof. Jones is an expert in the area of this and
has project to worth millions of dollars, so why do we need this kind of information, so
this becomes irrelevant, superficial information. We need not include it at all.
We move on to the next paragraph and also look at the paragraphing. Please look at the
slide the paragraphing here, perhaps it would have been better if he had try to fix the date
in separate paragraph, and then take in the conclusion to the third paragraph, but that
then he has not done that. Again look at the tone cheers and have a good day; this not the
way we address people, especially in such formal situation. On one hand, he is giving so
much of detail about his permissions to visit the plant and then the factory and he is
471
concerns the perhaps this people are so much in demand so they may he having some
kind of a prior commitment, but in spite of saying the right thing so many times very
occasionally he say the right thing, but the tone becomes the problem, paragraphing
becomes problem.
There is an irrelevant material, inclusion of some material, which is not really required.
So, therefore this letter has immense scope for improvement, all though by and large it
serves the purpose.
Now, look at this line and I would like you to complete the following I want you to
complete some sentences here. Dear Prof. Raghavan, As a junior at ITS University, I
start my physical therapy course next semester. I would love the opportunity to schedule
an informational interview with you to learn more about and I will like you to complete
this.
I was fascinated with the approach to physical therapy that you describe in your blog
posting on so and so, and I felt you would be one of the most enlightening people in the
field that I could possible interview. I know that you must be quite busy, so I assure you I
will be brief taking up no more than 30 minutes of your time. I will contact your next
472
week to inquire about. And I want to do write the concluding sentences looking forward
to your response, sincerely.
The tone as would you find is appropriate, the intention of the letter is very clear and
concise, there are some sentences missing deliberately, and I would you like you to
complete.
Now, let us practice some vocabulary here. Look at the slide and I would like you the
complete following. This is a letter of recommendation. To Whomsoever it may concern.
It is my great pleasure to write this letter dash Miss Divya Varma’s application to your
esteemed university. I instructed Miss Varma for the course Introduction to Western
Philosophy. She was dash one of the most able student in the class, and her work in the
class consistently reflected a level of insightfulness and attention to detail that is unique
to her. Her reports were always prepared on time, and she dash among her peers for her
eagerness to engage in the process of learning and discovery.
Next paragraph, please look at the paragraphing here. Miss Varma was eager to voice her
own dash during class discussion, and often asked me for further clarification of points I
covered in my lecture. Dash her confidence and eagerness to learn, she also made a good
impression on me due to her pleasant personality. Certainly, she seemed dash with
classmates and teachers at all times, and I believe that she will do that same when she is
in your institution.
473
Based on my observation, I strongly believe she has the potential to be an outstanding
student at your university. I therefore, recommend her for admission to your master’s
program. Please do not dash to contact me for more information.
Here is the list of verb. Choose. these word were all in jumbled in order to fill in the
blanks; unquestionably, hesitate, viewpoints, get on well, stood out, in support of, in
addition to. Please work in pairs, and discuss your answer within your pairs.
474
Here is another sample exercise for you, please look at the text here. Dear professor; and
you can write your professor’s name here. This is a letter by student is apologizing for
something. I am enclosing my assignment for your consideration. I am sorry that I
missed the deadline for March 18; that means; that it is over March 18 it is past; March
18. I had been very busy with; I am sorry about that the, it should be deleted. I had been
very busy with my part-time job all this time. Although I could not do it on time, still I
have tried to answer it to the best of my integrity. I really hope you would be able to use
this.
Is anything wrong with this letter? Your exercise is; write a response to the above
request. You can imagine yourself in choose of in place of the professor and write a
response to this.
The last sentence, I really hope you would be able to use this; perhaps, it could be in
structure better, perhaps you would be or you would consider going through this. You
see, there are some professor who lay down such rules that if you submit assignment,
past deadline, they would not evaluate it; perhaps that should have come in the a better
way. So, words here and there, you know they make all the difference in the world,
please pay attention to these.
Let us look at this slide. Here is an exercise for you; I would like you to rearrange the
jumbled sentences.
475
Sir, Even the test books are not available, now this is very clearly a letter of complaint,
thus depriving economically weaker students from getting assistance. We request you to
look into the matter and take the necessary steps to make the library useful for us.
Sufficient seating and a proper reading facilities are also absent. It is really a matter of
great distress that, the book shelves are covered with dust and the books are also in a
very bad condition. As president of student’s union, I would like to bring to your
attention, the unsatisfactory condition of the college library. We have brought the
attention of the librarian to the above problems, but nothing has been done so far. Most
of the books which are required by us, are either unavailable or have very few copies,
insufficient for us. Thanking you. Yours sincerely.
Now, this could be a very well written letter. A student and who is this student, he is the
president of the student’s union, and he is writing this letter to perhaps to his principal -
the college principal. Library is not in good working order. So, you have to now
rearrange the sentences, use correct form of paragraphing. Do this exercise, discuss the
answer among yourself.
The full text of this particular letter is given at this link; check your answer with that. But
before doing that, please try to please attempt to rewrite the letter in your own words. So,
please make some efforts there.
476
Now, here is the list of exercise for you. This is your homework. Do it yourself and
discusses it among yourself. I would like you to write these three letters, just to help you
practice.
A letter of complaint to the municipal chairman of your local area complaining about
noise in public places. A letter of application for a scholarship to do further studies in a
foreign country. A letter to your instructor requesting a meeting for clarification of
doubts in your field of study.
So, write these three letters and practice.
477
Here is the useful slide for you, look at it; References, for writing letters.
Tags
478
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Indian institute of Technology, Madras
Lecture - 31
Letter Writing and Usage
We will continue with our discussion of letter writing today, and along with that I am
going to do plenty of usage, or rather, how to use the English language correctly.
We have been doing this for quite a while throughout the course, but now as we reach, or
as we are about to complete this course, I want to revise and revisit some of the concepts
that we have already done.
So, good morning friends, Letter Writing, more exercises related to letter writing, and
also, some exercises related to word choices, vocabulary and grammar.
479
To begin with, I would like you to take a look at this slide, and correct the errors
wherever you find them. So, Please take a look at this slide. This is a letter, and I would
like you to tell me what’s is wrong with it. And, it’s is a, as you can see, it’s is an
application for a certain position, the position of a chef in a hotel. Please look at the
slide, and let’s us read. The tenth of December; dear Raj bhargav, I am interested in the
job of Chief cooker advertised on "The Star" this morning and I am enclosing a copy of
my CV. I hope you will consider my application carefully and I look forward to hear
from you. I am working as waitress in Hotel crown since five years before and my
former employer can provide you with a referee. I imagine that you cater mainly for
overseas tourists so I belief my language skills would be useful. In addition to speak both
Tamil and English, I also can understand the French. yours faithfully.
What is so wrong with it? First of all, let’s us look at the way the writer has inserted the
date. We do not write date in words, but rather in number. So, ten as in 10 and December;
see, there is no hard and fast rule about writing dates. Many a time, I find people writing
date like 10 December 2015, which is perfectly correct.
480
And, if you want to write December 15, 2015; but separate, remember to separate it with
a comma, this is correct as well. Of course, there is a very standard formula, 15/ 1/ 16,
and we know what it suggests. Writing in numbers; however, the rule is that we do not
write the year or we do not write the date in words.
‘Dear Raj bhargav’ look at the way, capitalised or capitalisation has been ignored; please
keep looking at the slide. Dear should be d in capital, and Raj bhargav, now of course,
it’s is a proper noun. So, you know how to write it. And, well, ‘I am interesting in’, it
should be I am interested in the job of ‘chief cooker’. Now, what is cooker? This is the
kind of vocabulary that emerges from the assumption that, because drive has driver, so
therefore, a cook, someone who cooks has to be a cooker, which is absolutely not true.
So, cook is the right word, a chef maybe; ‘advertised in the star this morning, and I am
enclosing a copy of my CV. I hope you will consider my’. Now, look at the order. Should
this sentence precede everything else? I am asking you. So, please look at it, and correct
wherever you think necessary, whether the order has been all mixed up.
‘I am working as waitress in Hotel crown’ again, look at the use of lower caps for crown,
‘since five years before’. Now, do we need to use before, because since five years should
be good enough; ‘and my former employer can provide you with a referee’ or reference.
481
So, reference is the correct form. ‘I imagine that you cater mainly for overseas tourists’,
is anything wrong with that? So, ‘I belief’, is anything wrong with belief, or should it be
believe? So, discuss it among yourself. ‘My language skills could be usefull’, look at the
spelling of usefull is it correct, or does it need a re-think. ‘In addition to speak both
tamil’, should it be to speak? ‘both tamil and english’, should t and e be in capital,
because we are referring to proper nouns here. ‘I can also understand the french’, should
it be ‘the french’ or only french? Should F be in capital? I am asking you these questions;
work in pairs and solve this exercise.
Now, this is another sample. Please look at the slide.
Now, it’s is an interesting letter and most of you perhaps, at some point or the other, may
come across a situation where you would want to go for higher studies particularly, do
your M Tech, and if you are already a M Tech or MSc, then perhaps your PhDs, and you
may want to contact people who could be potential supervisors, PhD guides for you, how
to approach them? Not all of us have such excellent networks that we can just walk in, in
some professor's room, and ask him or her to be your supervisor. We have to be, we have
to always do some research on the kind of college you want to join, the kind of
institution you want to join, and the kind of person you want as your guide.
482
So, here is an interesting sample. ‘Dear Professor Rao’, please look at the slide. ‘I am a
student at JJ college, and I am thinking about graduate school on forensic science, and I
am getting in touch to ask if you can give me any advice or direction about that.
Sincerely’ what is so wrong with this letter? After all, the message is quite clear.
But you see it is brief and concise; it does not give extra information. But, on the other
hand, it doesn’t not give any information. Who is this person? He is just a student at JJ
College. Is he talking about his current area of research? Yes, on forensic science, but
what is his background? We don’t not know that. Has he done any work? Has he done
any internship, any project that could be relevant to him? Why does he want to approach
Professor Rao? Is Professor Rao an expert in this area? Has he ever met him? Has he
ever heard him? Has he ever read published papers by Professor Rao? All these things
are necessary, if you want to get in touch with someone of some important stature,
especially, when you request him or her to be your supervisor.
So, it has to be; again, letter writing in formal context is a very complex skill. You have
to be very careful about what you are asking, and how you are asking. So, all these
points should come across very clearly and thoroughly.
So, let me repeat, then, what do you need when you are writing a letter to someone and
requesting him or her for PhD supervision. Now, I would like you to do this exercise.
You may take down notes that what I want you to do; I want you to write a letter to
someone, requesting for PhD supervision. You have to introduce yourself, the kind of
work you have done, why you think you are interested in this particular domain, or field
of research. You should go down to the next paragraph, the body of the letter, make the
request, tell the person how you learnt about him or her, and why you want to work with
him or her.
And then, the next paragraph should be request for an appointment. This request would
be, if the person is in India, then perhaps, I can come in person and meet you, or perhaps,
write an email in greater detail and even via email or perhaps, by phone, I can call you if
you would just tell me when is the right time to approach you; and conclusion, thank the
person in advance for the support that you are expecting from them. And of course, all
483
the relevant attachment should be there; your CVs, your certificates; these are optional,
perhaps. The person you are writing to may not be interested, for that moment in
supervising or taking research scholars. So perhaps, you have to think of other options.
So, it is a long process, a tedious process, and you have to be at it.
When you are writing a letter, remember that, you have to use appropriate words and
vocabulary. Words, such as internship, research, interests, projects, specific projects, I
would like to explore, I would like an appointment. So, the kind of verbs and the kinds of
nouns that we have been talking about in your particular domain, these are very
important to remember, and correct use of that. Remember, you have to always adapt an
extremely polite and formal tone when approaching people in higher education and
academics.
Now, let’s us do some speaking now, as a follow up activity, for whatever we have been
doing. I would like you to discuss in pairs, or even groups, small groups, your plans for
higher education. Let me repeat, your plans for higher education; your M Tech plans,
your MSc plans, or your PhD plans, or even if you want to become project associate
somewhere; so, those kinds of plans, you must speak. Your discussion must include
where you want to go, what you want to do first, then, where you want to pursue your
further education, higher education, and then, give reasons for choosing that particular
domain, in that particular institution.
Also useful would be, to talk about someone, who has done considerable amount of
work; you know, experts go around the world giving talks, presentations, seminars, they
attend conferences, they are invited for workshops, and all. So, perhaps, you have heard,
or met someone of great reputation in that area, and you would like to contact that
person. Or perhaps, you have read a book by that expert, and you would like to work
under him or her. Published papers; you have read something that has been published by,
in some academic journal by that person. So, those are the things you should be able to
mention, when you are discussing. And also, when you write a letter that, I read this
book by you; I am interested in you; I read this article by you, and I am interested in you;
those are the things that should be included.
484
Now, look at the slide here.
I want you to look at this particular letter. Again, a very formal setting; letter to the
Editor; all of us come across, if we are not writing letters to editor, then at least we come
across these things very often. Look at the language, look at the ideas and look at the
vocabulary, grammar, and tell me how you feel about it and if you think that there is
some scope of correction here. Again, this is an exercise that I would like you to do in
pairs.
Dear Editor: It has been a great surprise to the adversities being faced due to odd even
concept at Metro city’. I am sure, all of you are aware of the odd even situation in Delhi.
So, perhaps, we do not need to explain too much here. If you don’t not know, by any
chance, then please look up the odd even concept in Delhi, and it would give you some
idea. ‘There has been no protest by any NGO or political party sarcastically petty issues
are unnecessarily highlighted like that of reservation demands. But, no organisation
come up against odd even concept yet. Scenario is not the same; what about the families
who use cars 4 - 5 days a month for outing have further look for odd even dates too. It is
not even going to stop eventually number of vehicles would rather increase because
those who can afford are definitely going to purchase another car.
485
So, I have given you the source of this letter; very interesting letter. Try to revise, and I
am giving you a hint; I am not going to give you each and every line now that, how you
can improve upon it. But, try to use punctuations. See, if punctuations, full stops,
commas at the right places will make the letter read differently. Now, as a follow up
exercise, I would like you to do an exercise of this activity. Please look at the slide and
you will understand what I want you to do.
I want you to write a letter of complaint to college management, about the poor condition
of canteen in your college. Perhaps, your college has an excellent canteen; you are very
lucky and very fortunate. However, imagine a situation where the college canteen
facilities are not so good and cover these points. Insufficient tables and benches, food
and drinks not covered, too little food counters, dirty and clogged drains - smelly food -
expensive and lacks variety, inadequate food - late comers have nothing to buy to eat,
cold food, food is not fresh, and rude canteen workers. So, write a letter to the
management, to perhaps to the principal, perhaps to the person who manages the
canteen, and address it and include all these points. Discuss your answer in pairs and
groups.
486
Now, look at this slide, and imagine that, you are a contributor for your college
magazine. Here is a news item that you have come across, and I would like you to write
a response to this. See, you have nothing to do with this passage. Please understand the
question. You don’t not have to correct the passage; it’s is quite well written. What I want
you to do is to write a response to the item.
A SIMPLE idea underpins science: "trust, but verify". Results should always be subject
to challenge from experiment. That simple, but powerful idea has generated a vast body
of knowledge. Since its birth in the 17th century, modern science has changed the world
beyond recognition, and overwhelmingly for the better. But success can breed
complacency. Modern scientists are doing too much trusting and not enough verifying -
to the detriment of the whole of science, and of humanity. Too many of the findings that
fill the academic ether are the result of shoddy experiments, or poor analysis.
Now, what do you think? Do you agree with the position? Do you agree with the
premise? Write a response. The response could be for publication in your college
magazine. Refer to this news item and give an opinion, take a stand, and support your
stand and opinion with a few examples that you come across in your day-to-day life.
Follow the format, and discuss your answers in pairs and groups.
487
Now, let’s us move on to do some usage. Look at this exercise, and I want you to fill in
the blanks.
The dog stood dash the pups to protect them. The restaurant was dash a beautiful beach.
Either Ravi, or Jim dash responsible. Either you or I dash to go. Neither Viji nor her
parents dash there. None of the actors dash any ability.
Take a moment; what should be the correct answer? The dog stood, well one answer
could be near the puppies; but, if I want you to use something else, what else, or next to
the puppies, but where is too. So, when we are trying to protect, the correct preposition
now, here is a problem of preposition. So, it is over the pups, to protect them. There is a
term like, now we are talking about phrasal verb. So, please revise; when you look over
or stood over, it is in the sense of observing something. And here, the sense is, you are
protecting someone.
The restaurant was, now, here is a situation, over a beautiful beach, on a beautiful beach;
what should you write? One answer could be, was on a beautiful beach; yes, but we don’t
not say in a beautiful beach; that completely changes the meaning. So, was near a
beautiful beach or if you want to talk about spaces, high and low, above a beautiful
488
beach; sometimes, you come across such constructions also. So, yes, there could be
multiple responses to this one.
Either Ravi, or Jim; remember, we are talking about subject verb agreement here. So,
first 2 questions were regarding prepositions; rest of the items are all about subject verb
agreement. So, two singular nouns or proper nouns is responsible; a singular verb. Either
you or i, now what should go with I? Either you or I am to go. The correct response is
am, a m. Neither Viji nor her parents; so, remember, parents, the verb will agree with the
subject closer. So, here you have were there or are there. And, none of the actors,
generally, we use a singular verb with a singular subject and none being a singular, but
here, look at the way the sentences is constructed. None of the actors have any ability.
We are now looking at the subject closer to the verb. So, we have been doing a lot of
technical writing and I think, now is the right time to do something light-hearted. Of
course, not throughout the lecture today, but let’s us have for a change.
Look at this slide. This is a poem, a humorous poem, “Goodbye Party for Miss Pushpa T.
S.” and it’s is a hilarious take on a variety of English. it’s is a poem by Nissim Ezekiel.
‘Friends, our dear sister is departing for foreign in two three days, and we are meeting
today to wish her bon voyage. You are all knowing, friends, what sweetness is in Miss
489
Pushpa. I don’t not mean any external sweetness, but internal sweetness. Miss Pushpa is
smiling and smiling even for no reason, but simply because she is feeling”.
Well, this is a great poet, and of course, we know what he is trying to do. He is talking
about the way English is used commonly, especially in our situation, where I am talking
about the so called Indian English variety. Of course, there are great writers in Indian
English also, but this is a hilarious take; some of the common mistakes that people make.
You know, it’s is generally speaking not, it’s is not a commentary on people whose, or
Indians whose English is excellent or very good. So, it’s is not about that; it’s is just a
humorous take. So, take it in the right spirit please and of course, you know what is so
wrong with it.
We don’t not say, let’s us say, departing for foreign in two three days. Foreign of course,
is a very Indian English. The concept foreign-returned is, you might be surprised to
know, is unique to Indian English. Generally, people say my relatives are abroad, but
foreign, foreign-return, and going to foreign is something peculiar. And, generally
speaking, those outside our country they do not understand what we mean when we say
foreign; foreign, as in, in this context.
Now, I would like you to look at some examples, which are typical to Indian English.
Correct the following, and look at the slide.
490
This is something that we find very often in the day-to-day speech, and writing of our
students. They bought an accidented car. She wore a blue colour dress. There is a big
shop on backside of his house. We have been breaking our heads over this problem. You
are cent percent correct. Please drop this letter. This batch will pass out next year.
Now, What is so wrong? I think, some of us do use some of these sentences, or these
structures. What is the problem? Now, we don’t not say accidented car, or accidental car;
we say a damaged car or perhaps, a used car. And, if it the used car is a damaged car,
then that’s is what we say or a dented car, but not accidented car.
She wore a blue colour dress; very common, red colour, yellow colour, white colour. All
you have to say is; She wore a blue dress. You don’t not have to use the word colour; that
is redundant there. There is a big shop on the backside of his house; very common
mistake. You have to say, there is a big shop at the back of his house, backside has a
completely different meaning. We have been breaking our heads over this problem. We
don’t not break our heads, we rack our brains. Again, I know that, many of us use some
of these constructions and it has become so prevalent that it has almost become like
fossilized error. You know, what is fossilized? It has become deep-seated, fossilized,
frozen.
491
Therefore, when I get a mail like that; that madam, you said that, there is no plural for
equipment; plural is also equipment and no equipments, then I understand that some
errors are deep-rooted in us. We need to shake them off, if we are striving to be better
users of the English language. Otherwise, you can continue using whatever you wish.
You are cent percent correct. You are 100 percent correct; cent percent is again very
common in our part of the world. Please drop this letter. The correct and more
appropriate is, please post this letter. This batch will pass out next year. Please look up
your dictionaries, and look at the meaning of pass out; very common error. The correct
usage is, this batch will complete their studies this year, or will graduate next year, but
we don’t not say, pass out; pass out has a completely different meaning.
492
Now, I want you to use a dictionary. let’s us practice some dictionary skills. Look at this
slide and find meanings of the following words. Anticipate, aggravate, definitive, in-
depth, infamous, paradigm, perception. Using a dictionary, find the meanings of these
words.
493
Again, look at this slide and practice your dictionary skills. Find the difference in
meanings of these pair of words; very commonly confused words. Acquaintance and
colleague; adherence and adhesion; alternate and alternative; anecdote and antidote;
coarse and course; cloths and clothes, collaborate and corroborate.
Now, let’s us do some reading comprehension; look at the slide here. It has been quite a
while since we last did an exercise like this.
Here is your passage. "I’ve have found it, I’ve have found it", he shouted, running
towards us with a test-tube in his hand. "I found a re-agent which is precipitated by
haemoglobin, and by nothing else", says Sherlock Holmes to Watson in Arthur Conan
Doyle's first novel, “A Study in Scarlet” from 1886 and later. 'Now, we have the Sherlock
Holmes’ test and there will be, no longer be any difficulty. Had this test been invented,
there are hundreds of men now walking the earth who would long ago have paid the
penalty of their crimes. The Eureka shout shook England again and was heard around the
world when roughly 100 years later Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester, found
extraordinarily variable and heritable patterns from repetitive DNA analyzed with multi-
locus probes. Not being Holmes he refrained to call the method after himself but 'DNA
fingerprinting'. Under this name his invention opened up a new area of science.
494
Please look at the exercise. In line 1, who is 'he'? Second question, what is meant by
'Sherlock Holmes test'? Next, what was the Eureka shout 100 years later? And what is
eureka shout? And then, I want you to use the following words in sentences of your own:
precipitated, heritable, refrained, roughly.
495
And, give definitions of the following words: reagent, haemoglobin, and multi-locus
probe; write definitions in 1 to 2 sentences.
Now, here is another exercise for you.
This is your pre-writing exercise. And then, I will give you some exercise to do. Please
look at the slide. In the 2009 film “Up in the air”, I hope you have seen the movie; if not,
please do watch it. it’s is an excellent film, and has some excellent philosophy behind it,
about human relationships. Natalie Keener decides she can no longer stomach being part
of a corporate firing squad and quits her firm. Her mentor, played by George Clooney,
behaves as the magnanimous gent, we all know him to be. He writes a glowing reference
letter on her behalf, addressed simply "to whom it may concern."
496
Now, I want you to find the meanings of - to stomach something; look at, you have
already read the passage; so Corporate firing squad, Magnanimous and glowing. Find the
meanings of these words, and now, we come to your main exercise.
I want you to write a letter to your teacher, asking for a letter of recommendation, for
497
admission to a university. I will repeat, write a letter to your teacher, your supervisor, or
your current instructor and ask them for a letter of recommendation for admission to
another university.
Look at the slide here; this is another exercise. Fill in the blanks using the words that I
have already given in the box above; endeavours, proud, inspiration, glowing,
endorsement. This is a letter of thanks to a Professor, who has already given a good letter
of a reference.
‘Dear Professor Agnihotri, I would like to thank you for the dash letter of
recommendation you wrote for my college application. You are and will always be an
dash to me, and I appreciate you for supporting me in my academic dash. I am confident,
that your dash in the recommendation letter will greatly increase my chances of
admission at the university. Thank you for your support, and I will do my best to make
you proud’.
let’s us a solve this. Dear Professor Agnihotri, I would like to thank you for the glowing
letter of recommendation you wrote for my college application. You are and will always
be an inspiration to me, and I appreciate you for supporting me in my academic
498
endeavours. I am confident, that your endorsement in the recommendation letter will
greatly increase my chances of admission, and I will do my best to make you proud’.
This is a very well written letter of thanking someone.
Look at this slide and this is something where you will find some useful material on
correct usage.
Thank you very much, and we will continue with practising our writing in the next class.
Tags
communication, written communication, Verbs, Noun, adverb, adjective, suffix, prefix,
English writing, English speaking, scientific English, report writing, CV, formal letter,
Essay writing, word categories, word formation, collocation, academic writing, formal
tone, paragraph writing, tone in writing, speaking tone, signal words, linking words,
descriptive passage, hook, layout of an essay, contractions and abbreviations, Letter
writimg, fossilized error
499
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 32
Understanding the Mechanics of Publishable Essays
In today’s lecture, I will take you through the process of writing academic essays and academic papers
of publicable or publishable quality. Now, what do we understand by publishable quality, publishable
papers?
If you are in your final years of academics or academic life or even a research scholar or doing your
post graduate studies, now I am sure at some stage or the other you have been told about the need for
publishing a paper and in academic jargon, we call or we desire rather publication in a refereed journal.
A refereed journal is that journal that has a process of certain experts going through your submission,
the paper you have submitted for publication. So, of course, it is most important to identify the kind of
journal you would want to publish in. For example, if I want to publish, then I should look for those
kinds of journals that are interested in the areas that I researched in, or I work on. Likewise, if you
work in the area of let us say metallurgy, you should be able to publish in journals of metallurgy,
501
in journals of applied mechanics, in journals of all these areas that are related to your domain of study
or domain of interest; environmental sciences, for example; social sciences, for example; there are
excellent journals of economics as well.
So, what I am trying to tell you is that, first identify where you want to publish if you are serious about
your academics and pursuing a life of academics. Then, there is no way that you can ignore this aspect
of writing. So, it is not enough that you know how to write a descriptive essay; it is not enough if you
know how to write an argumentative or analytical essay. All these things, knowledge of these things
should lead you towards writing a good dissertation of course, and finally, a good publishable paper, a
good paper, which has some kind of worth that will be referred to and cited by future scientists and
experts in your domain. So, That is what we understand by a refereed publication, publication which is
reviewed by a bunch of experts. And then, they give certain suggestions where you can improve your
paper, the quality of your paper, the language of your paper, and if you satisfy all the conditions, and of
course, if your paper has that kind of merit it will get published. And, let me tell you, it is an enormous
achievement to get published in refereed journals. That is what all of us should be moving towards.
So, once you identify a journal that you want to publish in, you must define what you want to work on.
Of course, you already know what you work on, the topic you want to work on, but narrow it down.
Try to define or redefine the subject of the essay. Let me tell you at the outset, writing on vague and
imprecise topics and subjects are always dangerous, whether it is an academic essay or a report or a
publishable essay; you have to be very clear about what you are writing. It is your responsibility to try
and define the subject and understand it thoroughly, and then approach it. Ask yourself, what am I
trying to do? what am I supposed to do here? Remember the verbs, analyze, define, you have to
compare and contrast; you have to argue. All these things help you in developing approaches, to
writing something. And, once you have analyzed the way the question is worded or your subject is
worded, you can begin to develop your ideas.
Always make notes and research. Read a lot. Reading is a very complex skill. People find it difficult to
sit through text books and lengthy books, ok. Nowadays people have very short attention spans and
going through text books of enormous lengths is a difficult activity in itself; but, try to do that; that is
what is going to help you in the long run. The more you read, the more you will understand, what
experts are working on.
502
Again, it is important that, as you read make notes, keep records of all your materials, including
bibliographical details. It is very important to always look at the bibliography of published sources and
materials. You never know, what important thing you may come across; what important work or a
published journal or a book chapter you may come across, that you can use in your dissertation or in
the paper that you are trying to publish. Of course, it goes without saying that, all citation should be
made when you are using someone else’s language and ideas. Never try to pass off someone else’s
language and ideas as your own. That is plagiarism, and that always leads to serious consequences.
When you are writing a dissertation or when you are writing a paper that you wish to get published,
remember to make appropriate sections.
Your mentor, your supervisor, should be able to help you; but there are various guidelines that are
available on the net also, that you can use. But it is always, if it is your one of your early papers and
you have not done much writing before, it is always advisable to take someone else’s opinion, someone
who is more experienced in these areas. And then, remember, you have to make a very strong
introduction and a strong conclusion. Traditionally, an academic paper has 6 to 7 main sections. It is
always you need to have an abstract, you need to have an introduction, your methodology should be
clearly defined and spell out, the body of your essay should go at length, should be, you should go at
lengths to explain the method that you have followed; and I am basically talking about papers that are
more scientific in nature.
Also, in certain areas of social sciences; for example, sociology, there too you need to analyze case
studies and explain your method in great detail. Then, you should be able to talk about your research
questions, your results, and an overall discussion, conclusion, and at the end, your reference list.
Look at this slide and here I am giving you a sample abstract.
503
The source is given at the bottom, and read it and tell me how good an abstract it is.
‘Noise is a prominent feature of the environment, including noise from transport, industry and
neighbours. An important part of noise assessment is the actual measurement of the noise levels.
Continuous Leq measurement during day time was carried out in residential, commercial, and silence
zone location of Bolpur - Santiniketan areas, during June to December 2005. The results show that, the
noise pollution in the city is widespread throughout most of its area. The noise in this area is composite
in nature. Public participation, education, traffic management, structural designing play a major role in
noise management arrangement; and look at the key words here, it is talking about noise pollution,
Bolpur – Santiniketan, traffic management; these are the keywords.
See, please Understand that, an abstract, a good abstract, is very precise about what your paper is all
about; what your dissertation is all about. And, key words give the reader an indication of what is going
to be at the center of this writing. So here of course, you have it is a passage on or it is a write-up on
noise pollution, and the abstract gives you a good overview of what we can expect from the rest of the
essay. So, this is what you are supposed to do. Construct an abstract with relevant keywords, and then,
you can start circulating your abstract. Most often, journals want to look at the abstract before they
consider publication. But, abstract is a must.
504
Let me tell you, even if you send your paper, potential paper for publication to a journal editor, first
thing he or she is going to look at, is your abstract and the keywords. Not that they will not look at the
rest of the essay, but it is also important that you pay great attention to your abstract. It should be very
clear; the idea should be clearly brought about that what you want to do.
For introduction, and this is another important area, you need to follow something called the inverted
pyramid. You know what is a pyramid and what it looks like; I am talking about it, inverted; a
pyramidal structure, you start broad and then narrow down to a specific thesis, or a research question;
that is your inverted pyramid. When we were doing academic essays, we have seen that this structure is
very often followed. Remember, your introduction should give suggestion that, you have some broad
knowledge of the overall topic. And, after that, you go on to focus on the main point of the paper.
Here is an example of introduction; look at the slide please.
This is taken from another essay. The source is given at the bottom. Please look and read. ‘In the lyrics
of their iconic song“ I, me, mine” the Beatles’, you remember the Beatles, the great rock and pop band
from Britain, ‘they lament an excessive self focus, which they equate with an overuse of I-talk, or the
use of first person singular pronouns. Excessive self-focus is thought to form the core of narcissism, an
505
important psychological phenomenon with broad interpersonal consequences’. And these are some
references are already given to work done in this area. ‘Although connection between narcissism and I-
talk is highly intuitive, the empirical basis for this association is surprisingly weak. The original
evidence comes from a study that Raskin and Shaw published under the title “Narcissism and the use of
personal pronouns”. Based on a sample of 48 participants, the data yielded a positive correlation of
26.1. The goal of the current project was to evaluate the evidence, for the link between I-talk and
narcissism, on a large scale by pooling data across multiple labs, language tasks and narcissism
measures, to generate a more precise understanding of the connection between narcissism and the use
of first person singular pronouns’.
Now, look at the inverted pyramid structure. They begin with the Beatles, “I, me and mine” and how
Beatles deride the use of the first person singular, and how narcissists take it sound. Narcissistic, this is
too much of importance to the self, self importance; a sense of self importance, where you know and
also in good writing. I am just digressing a bit, so forgive me; but let me also give you an example that,
when you in good writing, if you keep on starting, beginning every sentence with an I or I think, with
my opinion, my work, and all every sentence there are people who talk that way and write that way. It
is extremely off-putting to many people. We would not want, generally, you know we want people who
give respect to others point of view as well. And, someone who is so I-centric, obsessed by his own
self; he or she is definitely not going to pay attention or pay respect to any other, someone else’s point
of view. So, that is the idea. And look at the way the essay begins so generally; talking about the
Beatles and then, gradually narrows down talking about work done by a couple of experts and then,
tells us what the writer is trying to prove here.
The idea is that, ‘goal was, to evaluate the evidence of the link between I-talk and narcissism on a large
scale, by pooling data across multiple labs, language tasks, and narcissism measures, to generate a
more precise understanding of the connection between narcissism and the use of first person singular
pronouns’. So see, from the Beatles, and from other studies and then, going on to very specific problem
or a very specific question.
So, this is an example of a superior kind of an introduction. It tells you what the writer is trying to do;
the researcher is trying to do. So, this is what, this I have given you some good examples, writing an
abstract and a sample introduction. Once you are comfortable with these and then, you develop your
the body; you have to give a strong conclusion.
506
And remember, always to write several drafts. Writing is a very demanding process. This is not your
semi-formal email writing. An academic publishable paper quality of writing demands lot of time,
attention, energy. You have to write several drafts. You have to revise them. Always show your work to
a friend or colleague or your instructor for suggestions, before sending to an academic journal for
publication. And, always remember to apply a self check for plagiarism. Your colleagues, your
instructor, may not be aware or may not be able to spot something that intentionally or unintentionally
has crept in your work, that is not your own. Always apply a self check; even if you feel your work is
very original, it would not hurt if you apply or make it go through the process of plagiarism. You may
be surprised that, there are occasions when the report may show that there are certain overlaps and you
have to revisit and reconsider your write.
Here is a slide, please look at it.
References for academic writing and publishable paper; please make a note of these very useful sites.
Alright, now let us talk about usage. So, good writing necessarily involves good usage and I am going
to now give you a list of confusable words. We have been doing this for quite a while. Please look at
the slide here.
507
Illegible - ineligible, stationary - stationery, discreet - discrete, lightening - lighting, practicable -

practical, principal - principle; subtle differences of pronunciation, subtle differences in spellings, but
look they have so much potential for creating lot of confusion.
So, let me now talk about something that is that often bothers editors when, or peer reviewers, when
they see some kinds of academic papers; they may have the right kind of information, right kind of
references, even vocabulary might be not so bad, but the paper suffers on grounds of punctuation. Yes,
we have done quite an amount of punctuation, but it would not hurt if while coming to the end of this
course, we do revise little bit of punctuation as well.
So, I am sure all of you have heard of that panda. You know what is a panda? Who goes to a rest room,
he eats, and then, shoots everyone around. He is arrested, and the policeman demands a sane
explanation for what he has done, and the panda declares; well, I am a panda, and a panda eats, shoots
and leaves. Now, what do you understand here?
508
Eats, shoots and leaves, 3 verbs. You eat, you shoot and you leave. So, that is what I did. Now, here is
an example of error in punctuation or also error in the way we use word categories. Actually, a panda is
defined as an animal that eats shoots and leaves. Now, shoots, what is shoots? It is a form of vegetation,
a form of grass. So, you eat shoots and leaves. But here, this is just a humorous incident and they are an
anecdote rather. Shoots is used in verb form. If you take it more seriously, then it has to be taken in a
noun form, shoots and leaves. So, that is the humor lies in understanding the distinction between verb
and a noun and also punctuations.
So, if you say eats, shoots and leaves, OK. And you can take it as a noun; but, you can also take it as a
verb. Now, here, look at this book.
509
The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation by Lynne Truss, “Eats, shoots and leaves”. This is a
panda, standing up punctuation ladder, is a very popular book. I would suggest that, if you are
interested in knowing more about punctuations, the writer has taken plenty of examples from higher
order literature; so, if that interests you, this is the book for you.
510
Here is a slide; I would like you to look at these sentences, correct the errors in punctuation here.
Please look at these sentences. Your 16 today! I have come to take an interest in Physics. Here is a great
baby's shop. The food was at its best at the party. He I still cannot believe it jumped into the river.
And, here are your answers. You are 16 today! I have come, look at the apostrophe missing, come to
take an interest in physics. Here again, here is a great baby's shops; not, if you say great baby’s and b a
b y apostrophe s, it looks like the baby is great. Here, you are talking about a great shop for babies. So,
babies’, look at the plural and look at the way apostrophe, apostrophe is used here. The food was at its
best, you do not need an apostrophe after it in this sentence. And then, look at the way the sentence has
been constructed, the last one; I still cannot believe it, separated by a pair of commas, jumped into the
river.
Here is an exercise for you. Please look at it.
I cannot pretend to know how writing ought to be done or what a wise critic would advise me to do
with a view to improving my own writing the most that I can do is to relate some things about my own
attempts until I was twenty one I wished to write more or less in the style of John stuart Mill I liked the
511
structure of his sentences and his manner of developing a subject I had however already a different
ideal derived I suppose from mathematics I wished to say everything in the smallest numbers of words
in which it could be said clearly perhaps I thought one should imitate baedeker rather than any more
literary model I would spend hours trying to find the shortest way of saying something without
ambiguity and to this aim I was willing to sacrifice all attempts at aesthetic excellence at the age of
twenty one however I came under a new influence that of my future brother in law logan pearsall Smith
he was at that time exclusively interested in style as opposed to matter his gods were flaubert and
Walter pater and I was quite ready to believe that the way to learn how to write was to copy their
technique he gave me various simple rules of which I remember only two put a comma every four
words and never use and except at the beginning of a sentence his most emphatic advice was that one
must always re-write I conscientiously tried this but found that my first draft was almost always better
than my second this discovery has saved me an immense amount of time I do not of course apply it to
the substance but only to the form when I discover an error of an important kind I re-write the whole
what I do not find is that I can improve a sentence when I am satisfied with what it means’. I have,
your exercise here is to punctuate wherever necessary.
This is a passage taken from the writings of Bertrand Russell. If you are interested in good essay
writing and Bertrand Russell was a scientist, a writer, an essayist, and I would suggest that, you look up
his writings. Please now do this exercise, you can consult your friends, work in pairs or groups as you
wish.
512
Here is the answer; observe the use of capitalization; observe the use of commas and full stops and also
colon. In one of our earlier lectures, we have talked about, that whenever there is a list of things or an
advice or something like that, you use colon. And see, in one of the last few lines, he says, only to and
the colon, put comma every four words. You also pay attention to the use of speech that is direct
inverted commas.
Now, I want you to look at these sentences; very common errors. Look at the slide.
513
Correct the errors. His hairs have turned grey. There are nice-nice shops on M G Road. You have heard
him many times, isn't it? They lost their luggages at the airport. I am going to my native today.
Perhaps, you feel that you already know all these things; but, it would not hurt if we revise some of the
things that we have been doing so far in this course. And trust me there are many people out there, who
do not know these things. So perhaps, some of you may know the answer and some you may feel that
there is a bit of repetition, but there are still a number of students who get confused in this kind of
usage; this exercise is particularly for them. So, let us correct them.
His hairs have turned grey; you do not generally use hair in plural. Hair is hair. She has brown hair not
brown hairs. But, there is a hair in my soup. So, there is a, or I found some hairs in my soup, perhaps;
but generally, we talk about hair as in a singular no matter how abundant your hair is. There are nice-
nice shops on M G Road. This is an error of reduplication. Nice is enough. You use these things, such
kinds of adjective, only once. But, some of us have a tendency, especially in speaking; we do make
such kinds of errors. There are big-big shops. There are small-small children running all over; OK,
avoid that. You see, once you practice speaking and you speak well, it will automatically get reflected
in your writing.
514
And, it is the other way works as well. So, try to use as correct a model of spoken and written English
as possible. You have heard him many times, isn't it? Now, this is an error of question tag. You see the
tag at the end of the sentence isn't it; that is a tag. Now, if the main verb is of course, main verb is heard
but have is the model here; the model verb here. So, you have heard him and the tag will follow the
model verb here, so it is haven't you; it is not isn't it. She is pretty, isn't she? This is huge, isn't it? That
is the way we make our tags. They lost their luggages at the airport. Again, the problem is of the use of
plural. Certain nouns do not use a plural. For example, we have already done equipment, jewelry,
scenery, they always remain in plural. So, no matter how many pieces of luggage you have, it remains
luggage.
I am going to my native today; a very common error. No, native is rather archaic, no longer used in
standard form of English; a better use would be, I am going to my hometown today. And, of course,
you may always argue that, many of us use it all the time, but you are doing this course in order to
improve your English. And, whenever you have such kinds of doubts that, I have been using this
structure or this kind of vocabulary all my life, so what is so wrong with it, people understand me fine.
People understand you, because they do not know what is the correct usage and therefore, you have
taken the course. So, if you feel that, you have been using it throughout your life, and that is the way
you intend to use, I give you your choice for it. This is the correct way. You can always look up the net,
and find out. I have already given you several links. So, you can look at countable and uncountable
nouns all over. You can look at topics like question tags all over, and there, they will give you immense
amount of practice; several examples, where these kinds of doubts will be cleared.
515
Here is a list of words. Please look at it and correct their spellings; very common spelling errors.
Govenment, questionaire, millionnaire, millenium, ocassion, usefull. Please look up your dictionaries,
find the correct meaning and the correct spelling, of course. Exercise is correct the spelling; so, find the
correct spellings of these words. Do not always depend on your spell-check to help you. Have some
kind of control over your writing; good vocabulary, good usage and some control over the way you
spell your words will give you lot of confidence.
We have been doing so much of writing and I am encouraging you now, to write a paper, hopefully, of
publishable quality and here, is a list of topics. Please look at the slide. Write a research article, that
means, do some research, do some background reading, do some case studies and try to write an article
on alternative sources of energy, the growth of supermarket in our country and supermarkets in our
country, and managing traffic conditions in our country. All these areas have tremendous amount and
scope of research, and publication. However, it completely depends on your area of interest. Here is a
good starting point and a good area or good topic to practice; and then later on of course, I am sure you
will publish a lot.
Now, let us look at this wonderful short story.
516
Let us look at the slide. This is True Love by Isaac Asimov, another great scientist writer. The story is
True Love and let me read out the story, I just an excerpt from the story; let us look at it.
‘My name is Joe. That is what my colleague, Milton Davidson, calls me. He is a programmer and I am
a computer program. I am part of the Multivac-complex and am connected with other parts, all over the
world. I know everything. Almost everything’.
Look at the style, ok; but, all of us are not Isaac Asimov. So, let us go easy on this kind of technique
and style, when we are just beginning to write. And, of course, this is a short story, a creative piece of
writing, little bit difficult; the style is little different from the way you write your academic essays. But,
given the fact that, it is a short story, it is a brilliant, brilliantly told short story.
I am Milton’s private program. His Joe. He understands more about programming, than anyone in the
world, and I am his experimental model. He has made me speak better than any other computer can.
“It is just a matter of matching sounds to symbols Joe”, he told me. “That’s is the way it works
in the human brain, even though, we still don't know what symbols there are in the brain. I know the
symbols in yours, and I can match them to words, one to one’’. So, I talk. I don't think I talk as well as I
think, but Milton says, I talk very well. Milton has never married, though he is nearly 40 years old. He
517
has never found the right woman, he told me. One day he said, “I’ll find her yet, Joe. I’m am going to
find the best. I’m am going to have true love and you’re are going to help me. I’m am tired of
improving you, in order to solve the problems of the world. Solve my problem, and find me true love”.
I said, “What is true love?”
“Never mind. That is abstract. Just find me the ideal girl. You are connected to the Multivac-
complex. So, you can reach the data banks of every human being in the world. We’ll will eliminate
them all, by groups and classes, until we’re are left with only one person. The perfect person. She will
be for me”.
I said, “I am ready.”
He said, “Eliminate all men first.”
It was easy. His words activated symbols in my molecular valves. I could reach out to make
contact with the accumulated data on every human being in the world. At his words, I withdrew from
so many men. I kept contact with so many women.
He said, “Eliminate all younger than twenty-five; or all older than 40. Then, eliminate with an
IQ under 120; all with a height under 150 centimeters, and over 175 centimeters.”
Alright, so if you are further interested in this story, I would like you to look this up; True Love by
Isaac Asimov, a very entertaining story. And, here is your exercise, what I want you to do. I want you to
attempt an essay. Now, this is not a publishable essay, but an essay that, I want you to discuss with your
friends. Sit in a group and write. Let us put a word limit to it, 500 words, on men’s relationship to
machines in modern society; men’s relationship to machines in modern society. Now, I want you to
take you to another area. It is called compound nouns.
518
Look at words like water tank, diesel engine. Observe the way we are bringing two nouns together;
filter paper. These are called compound nouns. Just few examples, motorcycle, policeman, dining table,
all these are examples of compound nouns.
What are compound nouns? A compound noun, a word that is a compound noun, consists of two or
more things joined together. They normally have two parts. The first part tells us what kind of object,
or person it is, or what the purpose is. The second part identifies the object or person in question. So,
tank, water tank, engine, what kind of engine?, diesel engine, paper, what kind of paper?, filter paper,
not writing paper. Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different, or more specific than the
two separate words. So, water has another meaning, tank has another meaning; when they are brought
together, they form another meaning. Remember, as scientists and as a technocrats, you will be using or
you will be making frequent use of compound nouns in your scientific and technical writing, because
they bring about a sense of conciseness and precision. If you look carefully, you will find that,
scientific journals contain more compound nouns, than any other kind of writing. Please look at the
slide and this is your exercise.
519
A battery car AND A car battery; I want you to give definitions of this. A race-horse AND A horse race;
satellite communication AND a communication satellite; a garden flower AND a flower garden; a
fishing boat AND boat fishing; see how different the meanings are. You just have to reverse the order
of the words.
And, here is another exercise for you; please look at the slide.
520
I want you to make compound nouns from this or from these phrases. The box for the tools; wire made
of copper; plugs with two pins; wire for fuse; a factory for making small cars. What should be the
compound nouns?
521
And, here is your reference. Please look at the slide. And, do a lot of practice; go to these links here.
Make optimum use of these references.
Tags
Reading English, English for Engineers, English words, English Exercise, Exercises in English,
Grammar usage, English Grammar, vocabulary, words and phrases, spoken communication, written
communication, English writing, English speaking, scientific English, report writing, CV, formal letter,
Speech-Preposition, Noun Phrases, Countable and uncountable nouns, singular, plural, Modals and
Voice, Tenses, Effective Speaking
Essay writing, word categories, word formation, formal tone, paragraph writing, tone in writing,
speaking tone, signal words, Letter writing, understanding essays, Mechanics of Essays, publishable
essays, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, propositions, determiners, linking words, 'be' form,
linking words, reading, listening, sentence, Subject, Verb, Object, Articles, comparatives, passive voice,
Dictionary skills, Presentation, Punctuation, collocation
522
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
Lecture - 33
Publishable Essays and Usage
We will continue with our discussion of writing publishable papers, academic essays. So,
I will be doing a mix of all this, along with my usual talk on correct usage. So, this is
what we are going to see today, Publishable Essays and more on that we have done
something last time, publishable papers and essays and usage. So, instead of publishable
essays, you can also consider publishable (Refer Time: 00:48), publishable papers,
essays.
So, academic essays and publishable papers, this is what we are going to talk about
today. In my previous lecture, I told you about this punctuation joke eat, shoots and
leaves, the panda joke, if you remember and eat, shoots and leaves. So, what is the
difference? Perhaps, it needs a little more elaboration. Now, when you insert a comma,
he eats, he shoots and he leaves, that is how it becomes; you know a mix of let us say, it
is a compound sentence. He eats, he shoots and he leaves. Every clause, stands on its
523
own; so, it is a compound sentence.
So, in this sense, shooting means killing; but without a comma, eats shoots and leaves
and the entire thing is a noun phrase, alright. So, this is a simple sentence now, without a
comma. So, see the difference the comma makes; in the category as well as in the
meaning of the sentence. So, without a comma shoots and leaves, that become you know,
what he eats; and with a comma, that means he kills; the shooting is meant or taken as in
the sense of killing. A comma makes all the difference in the meaning. If you look it up,
there are several examples on the internet that can tell you about comma and the
insertion of comma, the lack of comma, what a great deal of difference it can make.
Now, we will continue with our discussion on publishable papers and let me take you to
this particular slide; please look at the slide here.
And, I want you to identify the keywords. At the bottom of it, I have given you the full
text of the reference; however, before you go to the reference, try to identify the key
words given in this passage. So, what is it about?
‘This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and the
strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro. Newspaper editors and their
524
journals, helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by
involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is
apparent in Emperor Pedro's, the Pedro the firsts’ gradual loss of control over the
mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the
Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the
newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all
available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and
their editors were leading forces in the efforts to remove power from the hands of the
ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers
helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil’. Very
interestingly written passage and as we can see, this is an abstract from a dissertation. So,
what are the key words?
Obviously, Brazil should be a keyword right; and then, newspapers and political power.
So, these are the key words here.
525
So, these are the reference; take a look at, because this is what we have been talking
about and references to understand how to plan an essay and also, how to write abstracts.
So, these are some good links for you to consult. Always remember, in a good paragraph,
in a good abstract, you need to have at least 3 to 4 keywords. Now, let us move on to this
exercise.
526
Please look and read this slide. I would like you to complete the introduction. I have
given you some kind of a passage and I will like you to complete the last line. ‘As we all
know, Britain is a multicultural society. In the 1960s, many thousands of immigrants
came to the country, mostly setting up home in the major cities. The majority of these
immigrants came from the West Indies, India and Pakistan and Hong Kong. Racism has
always been a problem, with the various groups of immigrants seen as stereotypes’.
What is a stereotype? Stereotype is something, when we start generalizing about certain

kind of people. In films, we often find certain kinds of nationalities and linguistic groups
and racists or religious communities, being associated with particular trades. So, if you,
this person comes from this country, he has to act and speak in such a way. You must
watch a series called “Mind your Language” and that will give you a good indication of
how racists and nationalities can be stereotyped. Although it is a good series for
practicing elementary English, but it has also been critiqued for the misleading and
rather, over the board kind of stereotyping.
So, ‘although, over the years there has been increasing integration into British society,
particularly by the children of immigrant families. This is reflected in the mass media.
Twenty years ago, black people were rarely seen on television and very few held jobs in
the press. However, nowadays…’
And my question to you is what you should fill? What sentence should be appropriate
here? So, there is no absolutely wrong, absolutely right sentence, but, try to come as
close as possible, to what should go into this. I am just helping you practice writing an
abstract. Please look at the slide here.
527
Full text is available here. You can tally your answer with the link given here.
Now, look at the exercise here. This, I have taken from the body of a particular essay and
I would like you to fill in the blanks using the words given below: defined, focus,
demonstrating, overview and prior.
528
‘In dash studies, research based spin-off companies have been dash as new ventures,
based on the transfer of technology or academic knowledge developed by public research
organisations, with a dash on the commercialization of the research results. In this
context, spin-offs are discussed from various perspectives, that is, from the university or
firm level, for instance. Despite the increasing attention paid to the spin off process and
activities, however, most authors do not give a strict and clear definition of a research
based spin-off, thus making it difficult to compare the results of different studies. Table
provides an dash of the definitions of the spin off phenomenon and indicates how authors
clarify the concept in several ways, including, similarities and differences. Researchers
have used a broad variety of terms, such as, spin off or spin out companies; university,
academic and research based spin-offs; new technology-based ventures or hightech start-
ups, thus dash the plurality of definitions in the field’.
Take a moment to look at it. The answers is, it may look little complicated, but it is very
easy if you know your subject verb agreement and by now you should be knowing and it
is also very easy to solve this exercise, if you are very comfortable with a usage of
articles. So, wherever it is an, you know that the word begins with a e i o u, the vowels.
Of course, there are exceptions and you know the exceptions. And, look at the first
blank; I am just doing it for you; in dash studies.
Now, try to look at all these words below. It cannot be defined studies or focus studies or
demonstrating or overview. So, It has to be prior studies. So, prior sort of qualifies
studies here. So, using such kind of clues, we have been doing a lot of reading also, you
should be able to now infer what goes or what comes next; you know, predict what
comes next.
529
And, here are your answers; please take a look. Prior, defined, focus, overview,
demonstrating.
Full text is available at this site. Please take a look at the link.
530
Now, here is another exercise, where I would want you to fill in the blanks in discussion.
This is the discussion part of a research paper and how these things are done, how it is
done. Please focus on the language, as well as on the way the paragraph has been
organized, the organization within the paragraph.
‘The present study tested the dash that people who have greater hepatic and pancreatic
secretion output would report more negative attitudes toward small furry animals and be
more likely to demonstrate phobic responses to small furry animals. Dash support the
hypothesis that hepatic secretions are associated with small furry animal phobia.
However, little dash was obtained for the hypothesis that pancreatic secretions are
associated with fur related phobias. This dash result can be interpreted in several ways. It
may be that there truly is no link between insulin production and fear of small furry
animals. Alternately, it may be that there is an association, but the present study's design
was not sensitive enough to identify the association, due to a variety of dash actors.
First, these findings may reflect sample problems. That is, the present study's focus on a
college population severely dash the generalization of the results. It may be that other,
more stratified samples would show the dash insulin fur phobia link. Also, it has been
noted that unique eating and drinking habits of college students can influence measures
531
of insulin production.
Second, the present study's use of nocturnal pancreatic emissions may not have been
appropriate. It has been noted that metabolization of sugar is lowest during the sleeping
hours. Use of daytime pancreatic secretions would be need to adequately test this
hypothesis. Third, neither the RABITrabbit, nor the Pit Sweat paradigm have been dash
using other measures of a small animal phobias. While they appear to have face validity,
it may be that these dash only tap select aspects of fur phobia. This is important to the
present study in that several researchers have noted that some animal phobics tend to
show erratic and inconsistent phobic responses to the same stimulus. Such periodicity in
phobic behavior may dash the periodicity of pancreatic secretions. The dash of the
presence study does not allow for the testing of this hypothesis’.
And, I would like you to use the following words here. Please look at this list and use the
following words and fill in the blanks. Again, hint is, follow the subject verb agreement
rules. Limits, measures, design, reflect, potential, validated, result, predicted, support,
unexpected, hypothesis. So, using these words fill in the blanks there.
532
Now, this is the full text here, available at this link; please look at it.
Now, what is we have been talking about abstract introduction, looking at various so
called body discussion, etcetera, of a publishable essay and dissertations. Now, let us
move on to one of the most important parts, that is the conclusion and what is the role of
a conclusion in a good essay. Now, conclusion should reassert the importance of the
thesis statement. You said something in the abstract and in the introduction, then there
should be a link between that and what you have already stated in the thesis statement. It
should have some bearings on the research gaps, whether you have been able to fill in or
not.
Remember, conclusion should give a distinct impression of ending in the essay or paper.
It should not look like it has come to an abrupt ending. It should be a clearly defined and
articulated ending; and, it should never have a new idea, but it should rather tie up all the
ideas that you have been talking about, particularly let me repeat, in the introduction and
the body of the text.
Here is an example, please look at the slide, a sample conclusion.
533
Look at it. It is a sample; I do not want you to do anything. I just want you to pay
attention and read it carefully.
‘The problem of teen gang violence can be eliminated. It will, however, take time,
money, and a combined effort on the part of many people. Organized, free, after-school
programs, such as: sports teams and games; art, music, and drama activities; internships
in local area businesses and professional organizations; and interesting volunteer
activities in the community, would help engage teens in worthwhile pursuits outside of
school hours. More job opportunities for teens, especially those funded by state and local
programs, would offer income for teens, as well as productive work for the community.
Outreach to families through schools, community organizations, and places of worship,
would help promote inter- generational activities that could improve family closeness,
helping teens to work on their problems at the family level, instead of taking them to the
streets. If these programs can be implemented, we will surely see a decrease in teen gang
activity and safer streets and neighborhood for us all’.
So, what is the activity now? I would like you to write the introduction, the thesis
statement, for this kind of an essay. You may discuss your responses with your mentor or
your other fellow students. I will repeat my question, please write a thesis statement,
534
what could be the thesis statement or the research problem in this kind of an essay.
Now, let us move on to look at this slide.
Please take a look at this slide. Let us read it and my question to you is what is wrong
with this conclusion? ‘I have done my best to show in this essay that the mass media and
particularly television, strengthens the various stereotypes in society, although at times in
very subtle, implicit ways. Several examples have been analysed, although one or two of
these were somewhat out of date. The essay also suggested ways of overcoming this
problem, although it is not clear, if it is the media which creates these stereotypes, or if it
is merely reflecting the way society already sees itself. The media is of course, a part of
society as a whole. The question of positive discrimination was discussed and it was
decided that in the long run this has a negative effect. Things will change, but only
slowly’.
535
Please look at this slide here. So, this portion has been analyzed very satisfactorily at the
source link. So, for full text and analysis, please go to the following link. Before doing
that please try to come up with your own answers that what could be possibly wrong
with this sort of conclusion. Now, look at this exercise. Delete 20 words from the
passage. Now, when I ask you to delete 20 words from the passage, sometimes we
overwrite certain things. We do not know, we do not realize that we have been writing
and repeating ourselves too much while writing. So, if you delete 20 words from this
passage, would it make such a big difference? Try doing this exercise and see, if the
quality of your paper improves or not.
536
The exercise is deleting any 20 words. There are no compulsions; any 20 words; whether
nouns or pronouns or adjectives or adverbs. Feel free to delete any 20 words from the
passage. Compare your answers with your classmates or friends.
‘Microsoft previously teamed up its facial recognition and artificial intelligence teams to
figure out, how old the people are, (with varying results). The firm's latest app, on the
other hand, aims to show off its machine learning chops by discerning your dog's breed.
Microsoft's experimental lab Garage has today launched Fetch, an app that’s is powered
by the company's Project Oxford A1 platform and machine learning system that can
determine the breed of a canine from a photo on your phone's camera roll or a new snap.
The breed-recognition technology, which was first developed 2 years ago has been
turned into an app, to show that object recognition could be "extraordinary, fun and
surprising."
"We wanted to show that object recognition is something anyone could understand and
interact with," said a Microsoft research development director and project leader Mitch
Goldberg, in a blog post.
537
Fetch! won't get it right every time; - it confused my cat for a miniature schnauzer,
because of the way she was sitting. But the app is impressive in that it guesses the
percentage of the breed match, too, as well as providing information on the breed type.
But perhaps, more fun is that it will also guess the type of a dog a person would be, if
you snap a picture of yourself, your friends or family.
Fetch!, which is currently available for iOS, is the latest in a range of apps and
experiments coming out of Microsoft Garage and Project Oxford. Just last month,
Microsoft launched the playful alarm app, Mimic, for android, that was also developed
through Garage and used to show off some of Project Oxford's machine learning a APIs.
What are the words you would like to delete? This is a, rather tough exercise; the full
text is available at the link given.
Look at this slide and here is an activity for you. I would like you to rewrite the
paragraph, using the verbs. I will show you the list of the verbs in a moment; please look
at it. Look at the paragraph.
538
‘The plans for the new building dash in the immediate future. But certain facts dash. An
entirely new road dash and the distance between the two dash by 15 kilometers. Perhaps
a number of existing makeshift shops dash. The road dash to carry up to 1500 vehicles an
hour and it dash a width of 19 meters. The total cost dash to go beyond 25 million
rupees. The plans dash to state that only indigenously available building materials dash’.
Now, I am giving you the list of verbs that you should be using.
Please look at the slide. So, use the following verbs: will have, will be taken, is designed,
will have to be demolished, are expected, are well known, are to be used, will be
decreased, is estimated. Pay attention to the fact that all these are the passive
constructions. So, many a time, I am asked that how to write numbers in formal essays.
So, remember, in formal essays, because you will be writing now publishable essays,
reports etcetera. Remember that number should be written as words, if they consist of
only one or two words; otherwise, you use figures. Now, here are some examples; look at
the slides here.
539
1 or 2 words; so, Twenty five rupees, two hundred students, but 25000 voters; you do not
write twenty and five and thousand; and then you write 700 faculty members, you know,
when you are talking about a large numbers; and then, how to express time? You say
3.30 am or pm, but you should not write it in running words. And then, 6'o clock and not
6'o clock pm. Perhaps, you do not do these things, but many a time students have a
tendency to make such kinds of errors.
540
Now, here is an exercise for you; please look at this slide. I would want you to make
plurals of the following and please pay attention to the fact that some of the words end in
y, some in f and some in os. And, how do you do this? So, there are certain rules here,
associated with; if you go to a good link or reference site, which can help you in
mastering the art of spelling. Please remember, do not always depend on your spell-
check, in your computers; it may not always be extremely reliable; so, lorry, monkey,
dwarf, roof, relief, photo, tomato.
My question is where will you use 2 words ending in ys; so, do you need to use just an s
or i e s? And, which word should take that form of a spelling? Please look at that; revise
your spellings. Sometimes, you may have to write hand-written essays and therefore,
these things become extremely problematic for students. Now, let us look at the slide and
I want you to do some exercise based on the sample given here.
541
This is an introduction and I want you to write the advantages and disadvantages of mass
tourism. So, what is mass tourism is given and I want you to write 2 paragraphs on
advantages and disadvantages. Remember, I do not want you to write bullet points or
numbers, but paragraphs, in describing what could be the advantages and disadvantages
of mass tourism. So, ‘Mass tourism is a form of tourism that involves tens of thousands
of people’. Now remember, it is tens of thousands. Therefore, we do not write it in
figure. If it was 10000, then perhaps, it would have been better, but number is not too
specific; it is approximately.
Now, ‘people going to the same resort often at the same time of year. It is the most
popular form of tourism, as it is often the cheapest way to holiday and is often sold as a
package deal. A package deal is one in which all of the tourists’ needs are catered for by
one company, these needs include travel and or flights, activities, accommodation and
sometimes, food, (called full board, when all meals are included, half board includes two
meals a day, whilst self-catering means, you cook for yourself). These types of holiday
are often the opposite of or opposite to sustainable tourism, extreme tourism and
ecological tourism’.
Now, if you are interested in these things, please look up these terms. Now, ‘There are
542
many types of mass tourism, including skiing in the mountains, sunbathing on a beach,
visiting a theme park, (example, Euro Disney near Paris) or taking a cruise. Governments
and local people, often support mass tourism, because it generates a lot of income for
local areas’. Now, what could be the advantages and disadvantages of mass tourism
please write and discuss in groups or pairs.
The full text is available at this link.
Thank you very much and we will continue with our discussion on good writing in our
subsequent classes, along with good usage.
Tags
543
writing, fossilized error, understanding essays, Mechanics of Essays, publishable essays,
compound noun
Letter writing, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, propositions, determiners,

linking words, 'be' form, reading, listening, sentence, Subject, Verb, Object, Articles,
comparatives, passive voice, Dictionary skills, Presentation, Punctuation, Suffix, prefix
544
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 34
Reports
What is a Report?
If I ask you define a report, what would you tell me? Now, I would like you to formulate
your answer against the backdrop of whatever we have been doing so far. We have, in
writing we have done describing, email writing, formal letter writing and academic
essays, publishable essays, describing processes and experiments. So, a vast array of
writing activities and we have been through almost all of them.
Now, these are the last couple of sessions, for this course and I thought it is prudent to
save report writing, because after all there has to be some kind of a structure. So, we
started with the basics of what is a word and what are the various parts of speech; do
recall what we have been doing so far. So, from there we have made a long journey or
rather, a reasonably long journey and we have arrived to a point where we can talk about
545
writing academic reports.
Now, we are basically talking about writing in academic situations and a report that you
can submit for your project. So, first of all, let us define a report. Report is not a story; it
is not a narrative; it is not an exploratory kind of writing. Remember, all these things, it
is not an argument. It is a sharp and concise document. It is written for a particular
purpose, and remember it has to have a definite and specific audience. A report sets out
what are the objectives; it sets out and analyses a situation or problem, often making
recommendation for future action and discussing its findings. A report is an out and out
factual process. It needs to be again, clarity cannot be stressed enough. You have to be
very clear and concise and specific, to the point.
A report needs to have several sections and a particular kind of structuring, that we will
look at it. And remember that, when we talk about sections, then, headers should be
carefully articulated, so that information stays organized and can be easily accessed.
Why do we need to write a report at all? Remember that, a science project, when it is
written it is beneficial because not only it gives the students the confidence to plan and
conduct the project properly, but it also leads to a better understanding of the project. So,
before project, comes the report, right? Before you start, it is better that you construct or
formulate a report. It will give you some basic ideas or perhaps, let us call it a road map,
a kind of a guide to the project.
Now, talking about the structuring of a report, remember there has to be a clearly spelt
out objective while writing a report. So, formulate your set of objectives very clearly and
precisely. Remember to keep your target audience in and while planning a report. So,
you have to keep your target audience in your mind, while planning a report. Every
audience has a different understanding of the subject and different concerns. So, you
have to understand, who are you writing that report for; if it is for a longer project or
long term project then think about the funding agency and the audience it is catering to;
so, what are you, who are you addressing, basically. So, understanding the subject, most
important and equally important understanding the audience who is it meant for. The title
of a report; so, there are several.
546
Now, if you talk about structuring a report, we have to remember the title, of course. You
go, or you read something based on the title. If the title is there of and if a title is of
interest to you, it is worth exploring. So, the title should indicate the subject matter
clearly. It should be followed by an abstract. We have done plenty of abstracts,
remember. You have to remember, again, I am reiterating, abstract is generally a one
paragraph summary of the report and it typically runs into 150 to 200 words.
But, always gauge the mood for the person you are writing the report for; how much
does he or she expect the report, or the abstract to be. But, there is a word limit. You
cannot go on and on in an abstract. You would also remember how to identify the key
words. So, the abstract should state the purpose of the project and also some indication it
should give some indication about, or of the methods and procedures that are followed. If
possible, try to bring in the principle, findings and conclusions also. Half a page abstract
is ideal, and always keep an eye on the word limit. 200 words are very good; 250 to 300
words are of moderate length. So, keep in mind all these things, but abstract has to have
a decent length; that is what I am trying to stress on.
So, in abstract, again give the outline of course, you are going to flesh out the details
later. And then, of course, you have your introduction and we have been talking about
introduction for quite a while. So, what does an introduction do? Do you remember, why
we write an introduction? It sets the tone of the report and it explains in detail, the aims
and objectives of the report. Remember that, you have to identify the problems or
limitations, in the scope of the report in your introduction and if possible, if necessary,
add the background history of this particular topic. What goes, what are the, what is the
kind of work that has already gone in to making of this kind of subject matter? So, that is
what I mean by background. And, always describe the research methods and parameters
of research.
Now, what is background information? Now, this is always clubbed along or generally
clubbed along with the introduction. Some people may give separate introduction and
separate background; that is also acceptable, but then you have to talk to your instructor
and your supervisor. So, remember that, in background you have to give an overview of
the history and importance of the problem. Now, if you are talking about automobile
547
industry in your particular town, or region, or city and you are talking about the present
scenario; let us say, the topic deals with the present situation of the automobile industry
in your region, in your town or city.
Now, it is always good to give some kind of background information. I mean, I am not
talking about going back thousands of years ago, but how did automobile industry start
making their presence, felt in your town and what were the trends and developments
before you started your project. I mean, before this, the particular topic that you are
talking about, that came into being. So, the idea is that, things have already been there
and I am giving you example of an automobile industry. So, it has always been there.
What were the major trends and developments in the automobile industry in your region,
let us say, a couple of decades back. So, that is what I mean by your background. This
background section should also provide the readers with previous findings by other
researchers on the topic, related problems along with, why you want to do this project;
just because you do not have any other idea, that is not good enough reason to embark on
a research project. So, you have to always give, you have to find something that
motivates you, interests you and that motivation should come across. There is also a
thing called research gap; you have to, now look into that also, in consultation with your
supervisors. So, these are the things that need to go into your background and your, in
your introduction.
We then, we go on to state the problem. Now, let us, suppose that your project is based
on the study of a specific problem; in this case, you are required to define that problem.
You remember we have been talking about the high rate of school dropouts. So, that is a
problem. We define that problem. What do you mean by high rate of dropping out? So, it
is not going to be all that easy; you have to understand, why it is a problem. You have to
be very well defined and very articulate about stating that problem. You should be clear
about what hypothesis you are testing, or putting forward a theory; sometimes, it may
also happen that a report is all about communicating certain observations made under
certain specific conditions. So, it is a descriptive report; so, various kinds of reports.
There is a section called procedures. Now here, you will have to talk about list of
548
equipment used. What are the things or the tools you used in this, while conducting this
report, before starting the project? And then, of course, you know reports can also be
submitted after the completion of a project. So, those are different kinds of reports. Then,
you have to talk about explanations or procedures followed. So, that is something that, it
can happen before and it can have after also; when you write before completion of a
project, you have to talk about the anticipated procedures that you are going to find out
or you are going to follow; if you have already completed your project, then you have to
talk about it, in how you are going to do it; and how you did it, at the end of it.
Then, you are also going to talk about the sources and methods of preparation of the
materials used in the study. Also, talk about reference to problems faced and resultant
procedural changes, if you have conducted a kind of preliminary study. So, it is always a
good to talk about the problems faced and remember your experiment should be open to
repetition by anyone. So, you must describe in detail, the equipment and any relevant
condition, such as temperature or pressure etcetera. I am talking now about lab reports;
in case, I am not talking about writing reports on car industry, or automobile industry.
There you will of course, rely a lot on your field work; but, if you are talking about lab
reports, then again, you have to talk about list of equipment used, procedures followed.
So, remember simple past tense; simple past tense, description; go back to all those
lectures that we have already done. This is about laboratory report, which has already
been conducted.
Then again, you will talk about sources and the methods of preparation of the materials
used in the study; you will again talk about, what are the problems that can happen; you
have to write the equations well. In your field of study, writing equations and formulas is
so important. So and it is also necessary that, in case you are asked to repeat your
experiment, you should give everything in detail. So, very important to preserve and
state your procedures well. And also, it is always ethical to state, if some procedures
failed, so that, others do not repeat them; or perhaps, others might get interested in that,
that perhaps, it is a failure for one, but not, someone else can succeed. So, always be
open to these kinds of eventualities. We will talk about how to write the analysis. You
need to clearly interpret your data, your graph, your equations, your diagrams and any
other visual depiction of your data, to convey your analysis. This is extremely important.
549
You have to make notes on the facts and evidences gathered. So, that is your analysis.
You have to relate your findings to the problem posed. It is always necessary; one thing
leads to another; cause and effect relationship. This happened, therefore, this happened.
And then, you draw your conclusion. Again, look out for some kind of contradictions,
some kind of road blocks, some kinds of limitations.
Now, look at the slide here. I am giving you one example of discussion and analysis. Let
us read this particular slide. The full text is given; the link is given at the bottom of the
text. ‘There may be strong linkage disequilibrium between QTLs and a genome-wide
association study will be conducted to test the linkage disequilibrium in the future. Our
results and those reported in the previous studies, identified certain chromosomal regions
that should be analyzed further. These regions may represent targets, for marker assisted
selection of maize cultivars, with low As concentrations.
In maize, kernels are the main edible parts for humans and animals. In this study, the
kernels contained the lowest As concentration, while the main biomass products,
including the leaves, bracts, stems and axes had relatively high As concentrations’.
Now, look at the slide and look at this passage and look at some of the important words.
550
So, conducted, linkage, reported, identified, previous studies; you remember, the other
day, we were talking about prior studies; so, previous studies. So, this is the way, you
have to talk about; you always give reference to things that have already been done;
identification, analyze, analysis, analyzed, represent. And then, this research is
something about the disequilibrium between QTLs and genome-wide association studies
and the basic idea is the selection of maize cultivars with low As concentration. So, it
should even if a layman person, someone who is not into agriculture and not into these
kinds of domains of study that they should also understand what the report is all about.
Of course, it is a report which is meant for people who are extremely specialized in this
area. It is an article taken from The Nature magazine. I am sure; you are all familiar with
this journal.
So, the things that we are expected to remember while doing our discussion, that most
importantly remember that facts and evidence that are gathered should be discussed with
specific reference to the initial problem. This is the main body of the report discussion. It
is lengthy, it should be lengthy and it should be divided into headings and subheadings,
for clear understanding, alright. Generally, in good writing, in formal essays, we do not
encourage numbering and writing bullet points. However, in scientific reports, it is all
right to use bullet points and numberings. Always check with your supervisor about the
format and layout.
And of course, I cannot stress enough on originality; all sources should be properly
acknowledged and correctly referenced. Always run your work through a plagiarizing, or
plagiarism (Refer Time: 20:18). Now, generally, a title page of a report, when we are
talking about the title, the first page, it should contain or it should consist of your; the
title of your work, of course, it should have your name, it should have your date and to
whom the report is written for. It is always advisable that you state on the title page, you
give a brief and explicit statement on the purpose of the report; if it is not clearly stated
from the abstract.
So, having then your introduction and your discussion and some talk about your findings,
we always come to the summary. So, summary should again describe the contents of the
report. You should always talk about what was found and what if any action is called for
551
and make it as clear as possible. Once you have finished with, with your first draft of the
report, edit it thoroughly. Remember, in your table of contents, you should give list of
different chapters and headings, together with the page numbers. So, it has to be done
very clearly; number each chapter headings and subheadings, in addition to providing
page references. And, numbering should be consistent; pay attention to that. Very often,
students, in their hurry for submitting the report on time, they do not follow this.
Remember, results of a report should be clearly articulated. All the necessary diagrams,
graphs or tables on the data gathered, they all lead to supporting your results. So, be
careful about that. The result should be presented in the section, in a logical order and
without comments. Do not give your personal comments on that. It is not a narrative.
And, any comments, discussions and elaborations should be included in the next section
that is your recommendation, conclusion; that should show the overall significance of the
contents in the report. They should reiterate the main arguments and highlight the major
findings. Always list your recommendations; what do you want to be done. It is always
good to mention something about road blocks also, what are the possible problems you
faced, or anyone else who is going to embark on a similar study, what is he or she going
to face.
Remember, in conclusion, we do not include anything new. There is also something to be

said about the appendix or if you have more than one, then appendices. Appendices
include all the supporting information that should not go in the main body of the report.
And, this generally includes lot of information about tables, graphs, questionnaires,
service, transcripts, even photographs. And, these materials can be constantly referred to
in the body of the report. Appendices give more clarity and some kind of additional
information about your work.
What is a bibliography? We have been talking about bibliography, if you may recall. We
have, I showed you a good, standard, kind of a bibliography also. So, you have to
remember, how to list, or how to construct a bibliography. It generally goes in
alphabetical order, by author, published sources, referred to in the report. And then,
remember that, background readings can be listed separately in bibliography to
acknowledge the works that are not really referred to in your report, but they are
552
extremely relevant, anyway. And then, remember to talk about acknowledgments.
Acknowledgment should be pleasant. Generally, people talk about, I have seen that.
Generally, people are inclined towards discussing, or acknowledging only good things
that they have faced and that is the way it should be. There are some exceptional cases,
where we also find that, people talk about the stress they have been through, or the
problems they have faced. But, all that is not within the scope of this section.
Acknowledgment is always done to express some kind of gratitude towards people, who
you met during the course of your research, writing your report and you are appreciating
them. So, remember the assistance of people or organizations that provided information,
advice or help. Be positive here.
There is another section called the Glossary. Now, glossary of technical terms is
important in your field of study. Remember that, you should always provide an
alphabetic list of technical terms which is used in the report, along with brief, clear
description of the term. Many a time there may be some kind of a term, technical term
which experts from other domain, may not be too familiar with. We give glossary for
such kind of people. Remember to include acronyms, abbreviations and standard units,
with that you have used in the text and all these things can go in your glossary of
technical terms.
We should be able to understand the report brief; understand the purpose of the report, as
described in the instructions, or the report brief. Remember, who your audiences are and
what is expected. Clarify any part of the instruction that you do not grasp, before setting
out to write the report. Remember that, you have to gather and select information. So, for
this purpose, read relevant literature. It is very important that you read relevant literature,
associated with your report and with your research. You should use tools, such as
questionnaire, surveys and experiments. You should select the gathered information
according to its relevance to the report. And, if something is not really relevant, you
should leave it out. So, how you organize your material is important. Always group
together the points that are related. You have to form sections and chapters, according to
logical continuity, and these sections should be ordered in a manner that is logically
comprehensible and easy to understand.
553
See, we have been talking a lot about writing academic essays. Report is somewhat
different from essays, but the core is always similar. Good organization, good
background research and grouping of the ideas, it goes in all kinds of good writing. So, I
may be repeating myself, but I am repeating myself because these are different categories
of writings; however, there are lots of overlap. So, please refer to the earlier lectures, on
what I mean when I say form sections and subheadings and insist on logical continuity. I
can give you more information about logical continuity, numbering and transitioning
from one paragraph to another; we have been through it all. So, remember, you have to
now link it all with the previous lectures.
Remember that, while you are writing your very first draft in a report it is ideal to write
the summary, contents and introduction after finishing the main body. And remember, of
course, that everything whether it is the e chapter, section, paragraph, they all are well
structured. Remember to introduce the main idea well; elaborate and expand it, by
defining the key terms; present evidence that is key to support your point. I am talking
about good paragraphing, you have done this. And then, you have to discuss each piece
of evidence in detail to show how it relates to your main idea. Always show the
relevance, to the rest of the report. Make every effort to make good transition to the next
section of the report.
First draft is over, but your work is not. You have to review and redraft. So, reread the
first draft, after its completion, from the perspective of the potential reader. Look for the
structural clarity and logical continuity of the arguments. Make sure that, arguments are
well supported by relevant evidence and then, redraft the report accordingly. Redrafting
is extremely important. And, of course, you have to check for grammatical errors; you
have to check the consistency in numbering each chapters, sections and subsections and
make sure that you have acknowledged and referenced appropriately.
Now, here is a sample introduction.
554
Take a look at the slide. It is just a sample, I would like you to read it; look at the way
things are introduced and constructed. I know that we have done several examples
earlier, but let us talk, let us do one more in order to get things clearer.
‘SIP, systematic investment plan works on the principle of regular investments. It is like
your recurring deposit, where you put in a small amount every month. It allows you to
invest in an MF, by making smaller, periodic investments, monthly, or quarterly, in place
of a heavy one-time investment’. Please note that, it is; in an MF, because m has that
kind of eh sound, right. So, here is a typo, please correct it. It is, in an MF; in the next
line it is corrected. So, ‘in place of a heavy one-time investment, that is, SIP allows you
to pay 10 periodic investments of rupees 500 each, in place of a one-time investment of
rupees 5000 in an MF. Thus you can invest in an MF, without altering your other
financial liabilities. It is imperative to understand the concept of rupee cost averaging
and the power of compounding, to better appreciate the workings of, working of SIPs.
SIP has brought mutual funds within the reach of an average person, as it enables even
those with tight budgets to invest rupees 500 or rupees 1000 on a regular basis in place of
making a heavy, one-time investment’.
555
So, what are we being introduced to? SIP. So, this can go very well in a background, if
you want to introduce the concept of mutual funds in your region or your town; just an
example. So, what I want you to do now for the next exercise, I want you to listen or
read the next slide, but before that please take down the questions that I want you to do.
We are going to look at something; I want you to give a title of this passage. I want you
to give the, predict the audience who is the target audience and then, write one or two
objectives for the report. And, this is very important to remember.
What are objectives? Objectives are the tangible goals that you have set out to achieve.
Objectives are different from aim. Aim is extremely broader in concept. Objective is
something achievable. I want you to just predict that who are the audiences, for whom is
this following report written and then, what could be the possible objectives for this
report? This is a complex activity I am giving to you; please work in pairs.
Let us now move on and look at the passage, look at the exercise.
Let us read it and look at the slide. There are a total of 2550 minerals that are far more
rare and pricey than diamonds. But, while their rarity would theoretically make them the
most precious of minerals, many of these rocks just would not work on a ring or in a
556
necklace. In fact, several of the minerals are prone to melt, evaporate, or dehydrate and
several gradually decompose, when exposed to sunlight.
So, why are these minerals even valuable? They tell researchers about the sub-surface
conditions and elements that created them, as well as insights, into the planet’s past
biological upheavals. In fact, rare minerals represent Earth’s truest distinctions, from all
other planets.
“Diamonds, ruby, emerald and other precious gems are found at numerous localities and
are sold in commercial quantities and thus, are not rare in the sense used in this
contribution”, said the authors of a new paper, describing the minerals in a news release.
“Uses of the word ‘rare’, in the context of ‘rare earth elements’, or ‘rare metals’, are
similarly misleading, as many thousands of tons of these commodities, or product, are
produced annually”.
Now, keep looking at the slide and look at some of the interesting words here. Of course,
I have already given you your task. What are you supposed to do? You have to give a
title, predict the audience and write one or two objectives. If you are writing a report like
this, what could be the objective; you have to just do some kind of intelligent predictions.
But, while we are doing this, look at some of the interesting uses. Now, look at rare and
pricey; pricey is a good word to have in your repertoire. Pricey is a very well accepted
adjective. We do not commonly use it, but it is a good word. So, remember, some good
words and good vocabulary here; rare and pricey; rarity. Then, look at the way rare,
which is an adjective, has turned into rarity that is a noun. Then, look at an adverb like
theoretically; it is defining or adding something to make. Then, you have to look at other
adverbs like gradually.
Later on, we also come across some other interesting uses of adverb, like the last word,
annually, occurring on an annual basis. So, I was also posed a query by one of you, the
difference between said and told. Look at the way said, the authors. We do not say this
statement and after that, said the authors of a new paper describing the minerals.
So, we do not say told the authors; told always requires an object; told to, we do not say,
557
my father told me to do this. So, me is an object remember that, there has to be. But, said
the authors, they made an, they made a statement, said the authors and said, you do not
need to really bother about, or be concerned about who they said this to. But, told has to
necessarily have an object; he told, you cannot say, they told, the authors told. Then, you
have to say, told whom. This is the difference; these are very subtle differences, but you
have to keep in mind. If you want to learn more about the difference between said and
tell, or said and told, then please, look it up. You just have to type in ‘the difference
between said and tell’, or ‘say and tell’, ‘said and told’, any of these combinations and I
am very sure that, you will get numerous explanations for the differences. But, there is a
difference, which I am telling you, told demands an object, the presence of an object.
We have been talking so much about a report. So, let us talk about what is the style of
our scientific report. Remember that, you use past tense, except when referring to
established facts. Otherwise, everything goes in the past. But, established facts like water
boils at 100 degree, that is an established and a universal fact. So, you do not have to say
the water boiled at 100 degree centigrade. That is an accepted fact. Otherwise, you write
your report in past tense unless and until, as I previously already mentioned, that is, you
are about to embark on something then you can say, we will be doing this. But, that is a
rare occurrence.
Generally, we talk about reports, that, some work has already been done and these are the
results. Remember, you have to organize and how you have to make one major point,
one main idea with each paragraph. Remember that, you have to present background
information only as needed in order to support a position. Reader does not need to know
everything that you know. So, carefully sift through your information and then, in a very
academic way, state the hypothesis and objectives. Do not over-simplify. Remember, as
always, to pay attention to the tone. It is a serious academic endeavor; be serious about it.
Do not try to insert smileys and wings there. Be attentive to your grammar, vocabulary,
spellings and appropriateness of sentences and phrases.
Now, I am going to give you some reading and we are going to compare the
introductions of three essays; 3 different introductions to the same topic, working
mothers. So, working mothers is our topic. And, I want you to look at 3 introductions
558
taken from various sources. I want you to tell me, I want you to discuss and arrive at
some conclusion that which reads better and why. So, this is an activity that you have to
do with your friends, with your classmates. Before you do that, there is a pre-reading
activity for you and this is a discussion kind of activity that leads to some speaking. I
want you to work in pairs and tell your partner, whether it is a good idea for young
mothers to have a career. I will repeat, you work in pairs and tell your partner whether it
is a good idea for young mothers to have a career.
Now, if I use, it just occurred to me that this is a career. So, how do you pronounce it? It
is career and this is a carrier. What is the difference? A carrier is someone who carries
something; cycle carrier. But, a career is your job, your profession. Many a time,
especially in our part of the world, people get terribly confused in spellings as well as in
pronunciation; more in pronunciation than in spelling. So, please be very careful about
that.
Now, here is your introduction, sample one.
559
Please look at the slide. ‘Every mom is a working mom, but some work outside of the
house as well. They say, with great rewards comes great responsibilities and to bring up
their children in an ideal environment, mothers work to support the family with finances.
The reason behind working is not merely finances. There can be a number of other
reasons for why women work’. And here is the link for your full text. Now, I am not
commenting, you have to comment. You have done enough reading and writing so far.
560
Sample two. ‘In the past, in a traditional family, the man was responsible for all the
financial matters and expenses and the woman, for the raising of the children and all the
housework. But, society has changed and along with it, the family structure too. On
many occasions today, the women help their husbands with the financial burden by
working. But, helping out is not the only reason today’s women work.
Today, women are more independent and educated than they were in the past and they
share equal rights and responsibilities as men. But, when women that work decide to get
married and have children too and decide to continue working, then they must struggle to
balance their domestic and professional roles’. And, I have given you the source also. So,
look at the introductions first.
And now, I am going to give you the third sample.
561
‘Working women generally make better mothers, according to a report today. However,
men complained that their wives were so busy earning money and caring for children,
that it left little time for them as a couple. Research by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation
found that both parents thought the mother’s paid employment had a "positive impact"
by and large on family relationships. Men were particularly grateful for the money their
wives earned, saying it meant they were able to share the financial burden’.
Now, why are we interested in all these? I want you to compare that, the three kinds of
introduction and see which works best and how would you rework it. So, if you feel you
can do something better, your exercise is and I am giving you a writing task, you rewrite
an introduction. You can take points from these three samples and come up with your
original introduction to this particular topic.
Now, let us look at this slide.
562
We are doing some Usage now, good usage and correct usage. Let us read it. ‘The Y2K
bug was a computer flaw, or bug, that may have caused problems when dealing with
dates beyond December 31, 1999. The flaw faced by computer programmers and users
all over the world on January 1, 2000 is also known as the "millennium bug". The letter
K, which stands for kilo, a unit of 1000, is commonly used to represent the number 1000.
So, Y2K stands for year 2000.
When complicated computer programs were being written during the 1960s through the
1980s, computer engineers used a two digit code for the year. The "19" was left out.
Instead of a date reading 1970, it read 70. Engineers shortened the date, because data
storage in computers was costly and took up a lot of space. As the year 2000 approached,
computer programmers realized that computers might not interpret 00 as 2000, but as
1900, 1 9 0 0. Activities that were programmed on a daily or yearly basis would be
damaged or flawed. As December 31, 1999 turned into January 1, 2000, computers might
interpret December 31, 1999 turning into January 1 or January first 1900’.
563
Let me give you the exercise. I want you to find any 3 adjectives and 2 adverbs. Please
revise your adjectives and adverbs. Next question is, find the meanings of flawed, data
storage and complicated; how you use these words. And then, I want you to form words
from the following words: storage, space, daily and interpret. Remember, how you form
words, make a noun out of verb and an adverb and adjective as well. This is what I want
you to do here. So, practice your word formation and expand your vocabulary, alright.
Now, let us look at this slide and I want you to correct the following.
564
He is no more working here. I can able to do this project. The seminar was preponed due
to bad weather. Do you live in T Nagar side? I am simply sitting here. We used to go to
cinema every evening nowadays. Last date for the updation of student records is
tomorrow.
What is wrong with these sentences? Let us look at the sentences. Look at the slide. He is
no more working here. Better way would be; he is not working here anymore. I can able
to do this project. I am able to do this project or alternatively you can say; I am able to do
this project or I can do this project. The seminar was preponed; again, this is not an
acceptable word. We may use it but we do not, it is not a correct usage. The seminar was
advanced due to bad weather. So, you postpone or you advance; you do not prepone.
Opposite of postpone is advance. Do you live in T Nagar side? Side is not necessary; do
you live in T Nagar is more than sufficient. I am simply sitting here. Now, simply is an
odd word here; I am sitting here or you can say, doing nothing; but simply sitting here is
a very ambiguous kind of a sentence.
We used to go to cinema every evening nowadays. Remember, 'used to' is used only
when something has ceased to take place, is no longer happening. If you are doing it
nowadays, you are going for a walk every day, or going to cinema every day. Then, you
565
cannot use the word or the verb 'used to'. So, I go to cinema everyday nowadays. Last
date for the updation of student records; updation is a wrong usage. We do not say
upgradation and updation; you upgrade or you update; you do not force a noun there.
Look at the slide, it will give you more examples and more explanation on about when to
use can and when to use able.
566
Now, look at this slide and this is another activity, a revision of what we have been doing
so far. I want you to fill in the blanks using the auxiliaries: be, do and have forms. Look
at the sentences. And I am not going to give you the answers. Please discuss in pairs.
What time dash she get home every day? When dash you going to finish your
graduation? Sam dash arriving on the 8'o clock flight tomorrow evening. A clear glass
capillary tube dash fixed in a beaker to start the experiment. The water dash already
boiled for 20 minutes. The examinations dash not begun yet. Alaska dash a lower
average temperature than Delhi. Remember the exercise, your auxiliaries, please revise
and fill in the blanks appropriately. Discuss the answer with your classmate.
Now, here is a useful slide for you, please look at it.
567
Here is a list of references for report writing.
Tags
compound noun
568
569
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture - 35
Everyday Usage
Hello friends. So, as we near the fag end of this course, I hope that there has been lot of
learning taking place. We are also responding to all your queries and your e-mails. We
are also looking into your feedback. We know that some of you have faced difficulties
regarding uploading and submission of your assignments, and we have been giving you
responses and suggestions and various kinds of guidelines about that also.
Now, we are going to soon have the final exams and I hope you are preparing well for
your certification. Now, the thing or the topic that I wanted to discuss with you today is
not going to be as specific or as focused as what I have been doing so far. So far, we have
done plenty of exercises and looking at specific categories and kinds of writing and also
other skills. I thought, today, because we are anyway going to end the course very soon,
why not today’s session get focused on something that you may use in everyday usage or
everyday speech or writings. So, that is what we are going to talk about, Everyday
Usage.
That does not mean that is not academic; all this can be very well placed in the broader
scheme of things, whatever we have been doing so far. But, I just thought that there may
be certain things which you may not need, as all of you are in technical fields, at least
most of you are. Perhaps, you may not require specifically some things, but at least as
educated users of the English language, there are certain elements that you should be
very comfortable with. That is what I thought, that I will revise with you today. So, I will
be revising some grammatical elements with you today that something that we have been
doing so far. There will be revision; also, there will be some inclusion of couple of new
things that you may not exactly need to include in your essays or paragraphs or
description of experiments and processes, but nevertheless, I would suggest that get
familiar with these kinds of or these aspects of the language as well.
570
So, I thought it wise to start with something called direct and indirect speech. Direct and
Indirect speech; now, if you know what is direct speech, it is something that quotes the
exact words spoken. Let me repeat, something that quotes exact words spoken. When we
use direct speech in writing, you know that we place the words spoken between
quotation marks.
Now, that is what I meant, that as engineers you may not need to do too much of these.
So, these are the quotation marks. And then, you should know that you are quoting
someone, there cannot be change in these words. We are actually reporting something
that is being said now for example, a telephone conversation or telling someone about a
previous conversation, when we write; we need to do this. In novels and even in poems
you must have come across these quotation marks; that means, directly quoting; there is
no scope for changing even a word there.
But, indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past. So, we normally change the
tense of the words spoken. Now, we do not need to use these quotation marks here. So,
we say; he said that do this; otherwise, I will say, he say, he said, comma, inverted
commas or quotation marks, do this, but he said, do that, you remember. So, this
becomes that. So, we have to remember that reporting words are, when you use in
571
indirect speech, things like or words like say, tell, ask, and we may use the word that
remember, to introduce the reported words. Again, we do not use inverted commas.
Suppose, I tell you, he says, “The report is good”, good or bad or long or short. So, he
said, but when I want to make it indirect speech, he said that and observe, no inverted
comma; the report is good or bad or long or short or unreadable or badly written,
whatever. Observe the way, direct becomes into indirect speech. He asked, where is Ravi
a question mark. But in reported or indirect speech, you say; he asked where Ravi was.
Look at the inversion also, of the 'was'. You know, where was Ravi; no, where Ravi was.
So, these are the mechanics of grammar that you need to practice and master. So,
remember, while you are reporting something or changing something into, direct into
indirect, this will become that; do this, he said, do that he said. Remove this beaker from
here; how are you going to turn it or change it into reported or indirect speech? He told
me to remove that beaker from there; that beaker; this is that; here is there; these change
into those.
Remove these furniture. Remember, furniture is also one of those nouns that cannot be
used with plural; however, whatever is the number of furniture around. So, furniture, like
equipment, like jewelry, like scenery, it is always furniture, plural and furniture, again in
singular and plural. So, there is no such thing as 'furnitures'. We may use it, but it is
incorrect. Again now; so he said, remove these furniture. So, indirect, he asked me to, he
told me to remove those furniture; not these furniture; we are talking about past tense
now. The change now becomes then; we have already done that; and then, what happens
to today? He asked me or he said.
“Make sure that the report goes today”. In indirect speech, I would say, he told me to
make sure that the report went that day. So, look at the change in tenses and in the
pronouns. You have to and also adverb of time. So, yesterday, he asked me to do it
yesterday. So, finish it yesterday; it should have been done yesterday; he said that the
work should have been finished the day before. So, yesterday is changed into day before.
These are the mechanics. It will take some time and practice. If you know all this, it is
very good. However, if you do not know that know these things, please look up some
572
good references, some good websites that explain you in greater detail, how to change
direct into indirect and vice versa, in speech.
Now, look at this slide and this is an exercise for you. He asked, “Where is my book?”
She asked, “Did the man come?” He said, “It has to be done now”. I said, “You must
remove the furniture today”. He showed me around the house and said, “We used to live
here through the nineties”. So, what are we doing here? He asked that where his book
was. She asked if the man came. Look at the change in tense. He said that that had to be
done then or it had to be done then, has will become had, now will become then.
I said to him or I told him that he must remove or I told her that she must remove the
furniture that day. He showed me around the house and said that they used to live there
through the 90s; they, we becomes they used to live there, through there. (Refer Time:
11:31), also note the use of used to; always in the past. You do not say, I used to go for
movies every day nowadays or every evening nowadays. That is wrong; used to is
always in the past. It is over. Now, from there let us move on to correct some very
common errors.
Please look at the slide.
573
I told my professor, it should be my professor, to excuse me for missing the deadline for
submission. He said me to go. He is troubling his juniors. My tooth is paining. He loosed
his work. Open the light. Now, do we all not, sometime or the other use these sentences?
Make such kinds of mistakes and they have become so ingrained or so fossilized in us
that we do not even realize and we feel terribly offended when someone corrects us.
But, the fact remains that we do not use terms such as, they passed out in 1996. It has to
be, they completed their studies or they graduated in 1996; do not say passed out. Passed
out has a different meaning. I have earlier asked you to look it up. The meaning is lost
consciousness or almost fainted. So, coming back to our exercise, please look at the
slide. I told my professor. Now, you do not tell your professor; it is not very polite thing.
So, I asked my professor to excuse me. So, told is asked here. He said me to go; said
does not need an object like me. He said, he asked me to go; he told me to go. So, said
does not go with this kind of construction. He told me to go. He asked me to go. He said
go; indirect speech; that is ok. He is troubling his juniors; very common; very commonly
used. Better construction would be, he is giving trouble to his juniors; he is ill-treating
his juniors.
My tooth is paining. This is a problem of vocabulary, choosing the inappropriate word.
574
My tooth is aching. I have a terrible ache in my joints that is the way we use. He loosed
his work. Now, again, loosed and choosed are very common mistakes; loosed, choosed.
So, you need to revise the past tense. We have been talking about, how to use past
perfect, and simple past. So, please revise all those things. I also gave you once a list of
some very common verbs and how to change them into past perfect, simple past and past
perfect. So, the word is, loose and choose and lose.
Now, when you say, he loosed his work, actually you mean this lose and what you are
trying to say is 'he', the correct usage in the past tense is, he lost his work. This loose is,
you know, you loosen your tie, it is very tight. So, it is the opposite of that this is the
difference of one extra o. Open the light; again, very common misuse. You do not say
open the light; you say, switch on the light or turn on the light.
Now, here is another slide for you to look at, another exercise. Look at these sentences.
He is very good at physics or in physics. To succeed in life, one has to give up (Refer
Time: 16:07) the exercises, the question is choose the better preposition in this, these
sentences. He is very good at physics, in physics. To succeed in life one has to give up or
in, many pleasures. I stopped writing - to write, to listen, to listen to the radio, not the
radio. I was surprised at or of, how she responded to the situation. Always remember,
575
editing - to edit your report.
Which is their best form? He is very good at physics. You are good at something, not in.
To succeed in life, one has to give up, not give in, many pleasures. I stopped writing, to
listen to the radio; so stopped writing, not to write. I was surprised at how she responded
to the situation. Always remember, editing your report or to edit, which is correct?
Always remember, editing or to edit your report? Always remember to edit your report.
This will come with more practice. So, you can always look up, something like to and
-ing form, which goes where; what is the mechanics of this. Please look it up. Google, do
some, your own self-study. From prepositions, let us move on to look at some tenses.
Now, I am going to give you some kind of reading that I think would be useful for you in
your work.
So, please look at the slide here. And, let us identify some of the simple past tenses; that
is your job here; that is what I want you to do. Look at the passage. ‘As its name
suggests’, please also look at, at 'its' there is no apostrophe. We have gone through all
these things earlier. I t s, its name suggests, not it apostrophe s and that and then, it will
be become it is name suggests, which is wrong.
576
‘As its name suggests, a generator generates electricity. Michael Faraday’s discovery of
electromagnetic induction demonstrated a way to construct a simple generator, but there
was little need for such a device, until commercial technologies that used electricity, such
as lights, appeared. The earliest commercial uses of electricity, such as telegraphy, arc
lighting systems and metal electroplating, used batteries as their power source. This was
a very expensive way of generating electricity. In the 1860s and 1870s, many inventors
sought ways of using Faraday’s induction principle to generate electricity mechanically.
Two kinds of generators emerged. The first type was a generator of direct current, (DC)
electricity. The second type was a generator of alternating current, (AC) electricity’.
Now, look at the way simple past has been used, throughout, in order to describe how
early generators work and how they were invented and how they function. So, please pay
attention to these things and identify Five examples of simple tense. And, let us move on
to do this exercise; please look at the slide.
I want you to do some thinking on how some of the major inventions were invented and
or what they looked like. So, using past tense, that is what the exercise is all about. Then,
you please compare your answers with your friends and your classmates. Early
television, fill in the blank; what it was, how it was or how it was; just a one line, just
577
one line. The first radio sets dash. The first light bulb dash. Early experiments to measure
atmospheric pressure dash. Early approaches to measure temperature dash. Using past
tense, complete the sentence. Now, here is another exercise, just for you to check your
understanding of simple past tense; please look at the slide.
‘To achieve a solid foundation for the Brooklyn bridge, workers dash the riverbed in
massive wooden boxes called caissons. These airtight chambers dash to the river’s floor
by enormous granite blocks. Pressurized air dash pumped into keep water and debris out.
Workers known as 'sandhogs' - many of them immigrants earning about 2 dollars a day -
dash shovels and dynamite to clear away the mud and boulders at the bottom of the river.
Each week the caissons dash closer to the bedrock. When they dash’ and using reach,
make a simple past, ‘a sufficient depth, 44 feet on the Brooklyn side and 78 feet on the
Manhattan side, they dash laying granite, working their way back up to the surface’.
And, what are you going to do? To achieve a solid foundation for the Brooklyn bridge,
workers excavated the riverbed in massive wooden boxes called caissons. These airtight
chambers were pinned to the river’s floor, by enormous granite blocks. Pressurized air
was pumped in to keep water and debris out. Workers, known as sandhogs, many of them
immigrants earning about 2 dollars a day, used shovels and dynamite to clear away the
578
mud and boulders at the bottom of the river. Each week, the caissons inched closer to the
bedrock. When they reached a sufficient depth, 44 feet on the Brooklyn side and 78 feet
on the Manhattan side, they began laying granite, working their way back up to the
surface. So, please keep revising your past, simple past and other tenses.
Now, here is another activity for you. Please take a look at the slide. I want you to write
simple definitions of these: electromagnetism, rotor, armature, flux, stator, solenoid,
dynamo, torque, using your dictionary or any glossary that you may prefer to use. Now, I
was also talking about how to write or talk, about everyday matters. Films; all of us
watch and enjoy films. So, I am giving you some sample reviews of two very popular
films and then, I will give you an exercise, which is quite similar to this.
579
So, please look at this slide and this is sample review of the movie Matrix. Now, this is a
review taken from the New York Times; excerpt taken from the New York Times. And let
us see, what the reviewer has to say about this.
‘With enough visual bravado to sustain a steady element of, “The Matrix” makes
particular virtues out of eerily inhuman lighting effects, lightning fast virtual scene
changes, (as when Neo wishes for guns and thousands of them suddenly appear) and the
martial arts stunts that are its single strongest selling point. As supervised by Yuen Wo
Ping, these airborne sequences bring Hong Kong action style home to audiences in a
mainstream American adventure, with big prospects as a cult classic and, with the future
very much in mind. “The Matrix” is rated R – (Under 17 requires accompanying parent
or adult guardian). It includes strange, unreal forms of violence and occasional gore.
Look at the adjectives used; visual bravado, steady element, eerily inhuman lighting
effects; all these are very advanced level terms that you can use or you should aspire to
use, in your written and spoken language; single strongest selling points, airborne
sequences, prospects of a cult classic. So, pay attention to the way language is used and
perhaps, some of you who are interested in writing for your college magazine or even to
something, you know, beyond the scope of your usual regular academics may look at
580
this.
Look at this Another example; again, New York Times excerpt, review of Interstellar. ‘It
is in the nature of science fiction to aspire to more, to ascend fearlessly towards the
sublime. You could think of “Interstellar”, which has a lot to say about gravity, as the
anti-"Gravity." That movie, which would fit inside this one twice, it stripped away the
usual sci-fi metaphysics, presenting space travel as an occasion for quiet wonder and
noisy crisis management. Mr. Nolan takes the universe and eternity itself as his subject
and his canvas, brilliantly exploiting cinema's ability to shift backward and sideways in
time (through flashbacks and cross cuts) even as it moves relentlessly forward.
But "Gravity" and "Interstellar" are both ultimately about the longing for home, about
voyages into the unknown that become odysseys of return. And, “Interstellar” may take
its place in the pantheon of space movies because it answers an acute earthly need, a
desire not only for adventure and novelty but also, in the end, for comfort’.
Look at the language, look at the tone. It is a very serious tone and also, look at, some
ability to understand science fiction movies and the kind of very objective review, that
the reviewer I mean, you may differ from me, that it is not very objective, but a review
581
can never be extremely objective. Personal elements, subjective elements, always find
their way into that. But, here is an example of a movie or a review that has been given lot
of thought. So now your exercise is, I would like you to do some writing, write a short
review of a film, which you have recently watched and look at this slide, now.
I would like you to use some of these or try to use some or most of these words. I am
very sure all these words will not fit in, but try to use and these words can bring in some
amount of variety in your language; drama, thriller, sitcom, series, authentic, lively,
sentimental, irritating, annoying, boring. So, try to write a review of a film, any film that
you have watched and discuss your answer with your classmate.
So, before we end, I wanted you to become familiar with this very interesting poem. It is
called “A Martian sends a Postcard Home”. It is by Craig Raine.
582
Please look at the slide and let us read the poem together. And then, I will give you some
exercise.
Caxton's are mechanical birds with many wings and some are treasured for their
markings - they cause the eyes to melt or the body to shriek without pain. I have never
seen one fly, but sometimes they perch on the hand. Mist is when the sky is tired of flight
and rests its soft machine on the ground; then the world is dim and bookish, like
engravings under tissue paper. Rain is when the earth is television. It has the properties
of making colors darker. Model T is a room with the lock inside - a key is turned to free
the world. For movement, so quick, there is a film to watch, for anything missed. But
time is tied to the wrist or kept in a box, ticking with impatience. In homes, a haunted
apparatus sleeps, that snores when you pick it up.
If the ghost cries, they carry it to their lips and soothe it to sleep, with sounds. And yet,
they wake it up deliberately, by tickling it with a finger. Only the adults are allowed to
suffer openly. Adults go to a punishment room with water, but nothing to eat. They lock
the door and suffer the noises, alone. No one is exempt, but everyone's pain has a
different smell. At night, when all the colors die, they hide in pairs and read about
themselves, in color with their eyelids shut.
583
Now, I want you to do some exercise. What does the Martian say about telephone, cars
and nature of human beings? There are certain things discussed, which are so familiar to
us, but through a Martian or through an alien’s eyes, they will, they appear something
very strange. So, discuss this and then, I also want you to do some writing. I want you to
write this poem in a paragraph form. The poem does not really have lot of meter or
rhyme. It can be very well written in a paragraph. So, just say, what is the Martian trying
to say; report it in indirect speech. So, that is your exercise. Please continue these kinds
of practices. They will, eventually, help you a lot, you will find in the long run.
Tags
compound noun

584
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 36
Writing a Statement of Purpose
So, what is a statement of purpose? The statement of purpose is required at the time of
applying to grad schools, or graduate schools, from where you want pursue another
Masters, or PhDs, or some higher degrees. It is also called an application essay. While
applying to universities abroad you call it a cover letter, and where you are supposed to
write your objective for pursuing higher studies, in an international university.
SOP is one obstacle that can be very tricky. Your first SOP has every chance to go wrong.
Here, I will just give you some tips on how things can improve, if you follow a few basic
guidelines. Remember, SOP is your personal chance to impress the reader. And here who
is the target reader? The person who is going to look at your funding, and your
fellowship and also, basically, who is going to give you grant to admission in the
university. And therefore, you must take care to craft the best possible SOP.
Remember that, you should know the audience and their intentions. SOP is the answer to
a few questions; one major question is that, why do you wish to study at this particular
school. Perhaps, you want to go to the University of British Columbia in Canada, then,
you would, the funding agency, the committee that gives admission to students, to
foreign students particularly, they would want to know that, why of all the places have
you applied at UBC, that is University of British Columbia. So, that is something that
you have to state very clearly, why do you wish to take a particular course? Perhaps, you
want to follow, to pursue a higher degree in some, a specialized branch of electrical
engineering. So, why do you want to do that particular course? What is your previous
expertise is this field that is very important. Remember, only if you do very well at your
under graduate level, only then you will be even considered or even be in the running, to
apply to these higher level institutes.
And then, what do you hope to do after the course. Once the course is over, how you are
going to apply it to your other branch, or level of academics. So, what is the idea? What
586
is the purpose? And how is it going to be useful in your later life? More importantly,
what good is that degree going to be in your, if you want to make any contribution to the
field of academia. The application committee, remember may be looking for someone
who has clear answers for all these questions, why you want to be there? Why you want
to follow that course? What makes you the best person to give admission to? Therefore,
one must choose your words carefully to express your interest in the chosen field. SOP
should not be cluttered, or vague, and all over the place. You should know how to give
direct and substantiated answers.
Remember, when you do SOPs, they are looking for a hardworking student, who can
also make a kind of a contribution, to the research that takes place at their institute. They
do not want a frivolous person coming their way. So, Remember, they do not want the
trivial pursuits you have been engaged in. So, do not try to be extra clever, or be an
entertainer for them. Remember that, the committee is going to look for the details that
make you a good grad student. List your experiences in academics and research. You
should remember that, you have to make your SOP unique by adding interesting, but
relevant information. For example, write about the intellectual and academic discovery
of your research interests, how and why you want to do this kind of a research.
Remember, this would make your SOP one of its kind without losing any focus, if you
choose to talk about and if you are able to talk about, how you zeroed in on this
particular area.
The admission committee will be convinced of your interest in the field, if you tell them
something more about what makes you so interested in this field. Always remember, like
any other good instance of writing, before you send it out to the admission committee,
revise the first draft with inputs from your professors, or seniors, people who have
successfully gained admission to international universities. Always proof read for
grammar and spell check; never do these things in a hurry. Always look for people who
can give you some good pieces of advice.
So, one important section of writing an SOP is writing the introduction. So, introduce
yourself, who you are, what are your interests and what sparked your desire for graduate
study; and this part should be short and to the point.
587
Let us take a look this slide.
Let us read it together, and This is a sample introduction. Tell me if it is a good one or
not so good one. ‘I am motivated to study abroad in order to broaden my international
outlook, while simultaneously strengthening my professional abilities. I am especially
eager to become acquainted with different design styles and techniques. By collaborating
with the students and instructors from diverse backgrounds, I will be exposed to a wide
range of ideas and styles; this, in itself, will be extremely valuable for my future career.
Each country has something unique to offer in the field of architecture, and there are
diverse styles and characteristics in the buildings, rooms and decorations; from the
general appearance to the smallest details, an integrated, international society, such as
that in your university, is ideal for gaining inspiration and acquiring sound training’.
Now, this is not exactly an introduction of the first paragraph, but he is trying to tell you,
what are those factors that helped him broaden his outlook and why he wants to gain
admission in this particular university. So, look at the choice of words; grammatically it
is quite a well-written passage. See, if the ideas are connecting and flowing
appropriately. Another guideline would be that, you summarize your education history.
Remember to include something about any kind of research you have conducted, a
588
project that you have done; do not forget to mention who your guide was, along with his
or hers title, and job responsibilities.
Write about the outcome of your research as well. Remember that, you should write
technically, as the purpose of the SOP is to assert your academic potential. If you have,
then, It is always good to mention papers that you have published, with journal names. If
you have completed relevant project, mention that too. Such works, outside your regular
curriculum vitae, they establish your passion for research and academics. Also, if
possible, if you have done some internship, any work experience, which has relation to
the field you have chosen to, or you have chosen to study at the grad school, all these
things are important.
Look at this sample, and look at the way this person has given details about himself. ‘My
schedule at engineering college was filled with intense study and focused work, for
research and a variety of technical projects. I was active on many other fronts too. I am
an active member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. I have also been a part of the
Electrical and Electronics Student Association of my college. As an active member, I was
involved in organizing the EESA inaugural, as well as the EESA week, which consisted
of seminars, presentations, and various quiz competitions. I was also an active member
589
of the team responsible for organizing ‘The India Room’ at the college festival, during
the second year of my engineering degree’.
So, this person is talking about the various activities, which are relevant. Remember, he
is not talking about that, he aced the dance competition or he was an ace guitarist at the
university. Those things may help, if you are specifically asked for extracurricular
activities. SOP is not about that; definitely not about highlighting those aspects of life.
Always remember to indicate your current status, whether you are working or not. If
working, what has experience taught you? What do you have, that gives you an edge?
And how has it helped your research interests? Remember always, to elaborate on your
academic interests and indicate, what you would like to study in graduate school in
enough detail, to convince the faculty there that, you understand the scope of research in
the discipline and are engaged with current research themes and practices.
Always remember to keep in mind that the admission committee will read between the
lines of your SOP, for self motivation, competence, potential, as a graduate student. So,
remember to write in an active voice, with a positive perception of things. Remember,
here is one instance, where you would be expected to use the active voice. This is not a
report writing or description. So, you do not have to use the passive voice here.
Remember that, self motivation and competence, and things like that; they come so
positive, be positive and communicate positivity. Always show something, if you want to
show that, or tell them that, you are a very good student, a very bright student then what
have you got there to show.
Give examples to prove your commitment to research and academics. For that, you have
to start building your career, right now. You have to go for internships, for academic
seminars, conferences, publish papers at, in the college news letter and news paper. So, if
you give examples like these, then it reflects that you are the academic sort. Always
remember that, there should be continuity between paragraphs and maintaining focus
throughout the SOP, and this is required in about 500 to 1000 good words, well selected,
well chosen words, better than more words, where there is very poor organization.
590
Now, let us do this exercise here, and I would like you to take a look at this example
from an SOP, and why this person wants to do his research at this university. I want you
to fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
‘If we look through various databases available to dash association between population
increase/emigration and rate of increase in the number of vehicles, rush hour syndrome,
current and upcoming major business areas, etcetera, we can find a connection among all
these, which will enable us find dash to our traffic woes, like building intelligent traffic
control systems, or innovative routes, that can ease traffic congestion, reduce fuel dash,
and cut down emission. Corporate initiatives like IBM’s smarter cities are using data
mining principles to help give authorities the tools to analyze current problems, or dash
future ones, from available data and find solutions pro actively. I want to study data
mining, to work with such research companies, and address some of the challenges most
developing countries are facing today. University dash research group is conducting dash
studies in data mining, and would give me exceptional opportunities to develop my
skills. I am especially interested in the fact that, dash emphasizes areas that are
sometimes in dash outside of computer science. Similarly, I want to use my data mining
knowledge in solving some real time problems that cross boundaries. I would be excited
591
to work under Prof. ’, whatever name, what you do not need a blank word here, ‘because
my objective of tackling real world problems is in accordance to his research interests’.
Now, fill in the blanks using these words: usage, domains, anticipate, disciplinary,
solutions, analyze, cutting edge. And, here are your answers, in this order: analyze,
solutions, usage, anticipate, cutting edge, domains, disciplinary.
592
The full text of this essay or this SOP is available at this link; please take a look.
Also, look at this slide. Here, I have given you a list of sources. Various kinds of SOPs,
for various domains, some examples are available on these links.
Now, let us move on to do something else now, some usage and grammar. And I would
like to talk to you about using, where to use to with verb and where to use the -ing form
of verb. By -ing, I do not mean that, I am doing or redoing your continuous tense, but it
is what generally we call it the gerund form of a verb.
So, 'to' when we use 'to' with a verb, remember, you have to distinguish between where it
is a preposition phrase, and where it is an infinitive. So, remember 'to' is used to express
a purpose, like I went to see my mother; ‘to see’ so ‘to see’ here, is not a preposition
phrase. When 'to is also used, when it is used in accordance with complement of a verb;
he loves to sing. Again, it is not a preposition phrase, but is complement of a verb. You
remember, subject, verb, complement. Please revise those aspects also. Many a time,
instead of ‘to sing’, people use, people may say; he loves singing or he loves to sing; he
went to see his mother; he went seeing his mother. I have come across such sentences.
So, he loves singing, may be correct, but he loves to sing, is also correct; but you should
know the reasons, why these sentences and what these sentences are; the basic
mechanics of these sentences.
594
We also use to plus a verb, in a situation where it is used qualify a noun. For example,
this is not the time to play. So, time is a noun; time to play; this is not the time to waste;
this is not the way to work; this is not the approach to work. -ing form or gerund, is a
noun made form a verb by adding -ing. The gerund form of the word, for example, read
is reading. We can use a gerund as a subject as a complement or object, of a sentence.
For example, he is fond of traveling. Now, traveling is your -ing form of verb. We do not
say, he is fond to travel. Let us see, seeing is believing. So, seeing is to believe; there is
no such thing like that. The year, let us say, for another example, the year was spent in
researching for the project. We cannot say, the year was spent to research for the project;
in researching is infinitely better construction.
Now, here is an exercise for you, where to use to and -ing form of verb. Please take a
look. There was nothing left, but dash. She was tired of dash. My wish is dash a PhD in
electrical engineering. He preferred dash to study medicine to engineering. The scientist
had dash carry out this research with very limited support. He cannot go on dash nothing.
He refused dash believe his professor.
Now, where will you say to, and where –ing; there was nothing left, but to fight. You are
not going to say, there was nothing left, but fighting. She was tired of waiting. My wish
595
is to do a PhD in electrical engineering. He preferred studying medicine to engineering.
See, just try to replace, he preferred to study medicine to engineering. The sentence does
not really, make much grammatical sense. So, he preferred studying medicine to
engineering. The scientist had to carry out his or this research with very limited support.
He cannot go on doing nothing. He refused to believe his professor. So, to and -ing
forms, very important aspects of grammar; please take a more detailed look at these
links. Take a look at the slide.
All your doubts and all your queries will be solved here, if you look at some and try to
attempt some of the exercises given here.
Thank you very much and we will soon meet for our last session, perhaps next week and
that would be how to write a good CV and cover letter.
596
Tags
compound noun

comparatives, passive voice, Dictionary skills, Presentation, Punctuation, Suffix, prefix,
Statement of Purpose
597
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 37
CV/Resume and Cover Letter
So, as we reach the end of our course, I thought it would be very apt to end it with how
to build up your CV or as we call it resume.
What is the difference between CV and resume? I let you know in a moment. Remember
it comes with an accent; we pronounce it as resume and even write it. Of course, now it
is an acceptable form to write it and pronounce it as resume, which is not very accurate.
So, coming back to what we are going to do today. We are going to see how we construct
and structure, our CV or resume; how to write a cover letter. Cover letter can be for job
purposes or even for applying to universities abroad. We have already seen how to do
these things in one of our early lectures. We have seen how to apply to foreign
universities recommend; ask for letters of recommendation and ask for – request for PhD
supervision. So, all those kinds of letters are formal letters; so is a cover letter.
598
CV or resume can be categorized into types – chronological and functional CV. Also, we
have how to write your cover letter. So, you have to remember how to write the address;
how to write salutation, introduction, the body and conclusion. So, consider and go back
to your recent lectures on essay writing and even the various kinds of letters that we have
been doing. And, remember that, it is always a three paragraph format; if not always,
then mostly to be on the safe side; and then, conclusion, signing off and signature. So,
those are the silent features of a cover letter. CV and resume that can be chronological or
functional we will see, what is the difference.
Now, what does a CV do? What does a CV do? CV presents your education and work;
qualifications or rather work experience – the places where you have been working. So,
CV in other words is a record a document of your education and your work experience. It
also tells the reader your potential employers that, what skills do you possess; I mean
you always pitch your CV according to the news and requirements of a particular job.
So, remember it is very good to keep a ready structured CV, but always be willing to
make it flexible for various kinds of jobs.
So, every job may have a different requirement; be flexible. So, construct/revisit your
CV accordingly. Remember CV is usually done in a structured or in a chronological way,
that is, and what do you we mean by chronological? The dates are mentioned clearly. So,
for example, you did your B Tech – 2003 to 2008; and then, you did your M Tech – 2009
perhaps to 2011. So, it could be like 2003 to 2007, 2008 to 2010 and whatever way you
feel that you want to project your CV. So, we are giving the dates; in other words, the
years of your achievements, the years of your qualifications and your degrees.
599
Here is a sample chronological CV. Please take a look at this. Please read the slide. See
how chronological CV is constructed. Look at the way education, there is a separate
column. It is good to give your CGPA, rank and percentage those kinds of things against
every qualification. Then, look at the details of employment and the designation. And,
below that in a few lines, what are the responsibilities and then, also look at – go below
and then you will see the person has also given us the previous experience. So, before
doing his present job, what was he doing? He was working as an international student
liaison officer. And, what were the responsibilities; all right? So, this is an ideal
chronological CV. It gives you as much information as necessary and it also gives the
reader some sense of what your interests are and how you can be used in a company or in
an organization.
Now, as I said that, I will give you the distinction between CV and resume; that
distinction is of British and American language. British English calls it CV, while resume
is more American English. On an American resume, you may or may not include your
date of birth, marital status etcetera. American style also starts with the most recent
qualification and work experience in a backward order. So, that is a distinction. This is
the CV that I just showed you is British. And, conventional CV always uses a date of
600
birth and also marital status. We also give our address; of course, address has to be there,
whether you are following the American or the British pattern.
Now, think of or let us talk about functional CV. Now, this kind of CV is organized by
skills and qualities – what are you willing to do and what are your primary or basic
skills. If your experience is in HR for example, the function could be – you are good at
presenting the company image; you have an expertise in communication; and, you
manage employee relations, etcetera. So, those are that is the functional CV. And, under
ease of heading, you can give details of a specific experience. So, that is functional.
What are the advantages of a functional CV? Now, you want to change to a broad new
area of work perhaps and show your relevant skills and experience. So, you want from
one company to another company; you want to move to from one company to another
country. So, you want to show your relevant experience or skills.
Perhaps you have got gaps in your employment history; you have been taking breaks
that, you do not want to discuss at least on CV. Then, what should you do? Follow the
functional style; you are not giving the year, but you are rather talking about your skills
and qualities that may be of use in that sector. Perhaps you have had a lot of jobs and you
want to describe the experience you have got as a whole. So, that is also one good
example rather than saying 6 months I worked as a PR here and 8 months I worked as an
HR there; rather talk about your skills as a whole. These things happen; is not that?
Perhaps not desirable, but these things do happen and companies may still want a person
who has had a variety or a broad range of experiences; and how that person can be put to
use.
Again a functional CV helps you to highlight the skills you have gained in previous jobs.
But, that you are for some reason not able to use in your current or most recent jobs. So,
it gives you a nice way to project or showcase your skills. Remember that, the employer
who is looking for applicants with particular skill will find the functional CV more
helpful than the chronological one, because he or she is looking for a set of skills and not
interested in or, may not be to bother about the kinds of breaks you have been taking in
your career. And of course, there is a huge disadvantage also. This kind of CV may not,
601
may clear important periods of employment and career highlights. So, that is one
disadvantage. So, it is up to you how you want to project yourself.
Let us look at the sample. Please read the slide. This is a sample functional CV. This
person has given a list of his IT skills, computer-based skills. And then, look at the way
he has given sub headings, functional and what are things, specifics that he can
contribute to. Look at the verbs here and look at the consistency in verbs. He is not
saying in first bullet points, managing; and then, in second bullet point I can Define.
Look at the consistency, managing, next defining, next designing, developing, testing;
next managing, then providing, cooperating, managing, communicating, delivering,
defining, interacting, identifying. Look at the wide array of verbs available.
This is the way you should be using verbs in your written documents, which are of such
formal nature. And, that plays such an important role; you see the way you project
yourself in your CV, that is what is going to interest the potential employer in you. So,
this is something that requires great deal of practice and a skill. And, I would suggest
always keep a good CV ready and alter it or tailor it according to the needs of the place
you are applying.
602
Please look at this slide. The full text of this functional CV is available here. Now, I want
you to take down a list of words, most of which you can use in constructing your CV as
well as your cover letter. Here exercise is use these words in sentences of your own while
constructing your CV and your cover letter. So, take down the words – accurate,
adaptable, managing, ability to work under pressure, cooperative, loyal, logical – loyal,
logical; alright.
603
Now look at this cover letter. Pay attention to this one; look at the slide. Now, the full
text is available somewhere; I have given you the link there at the bottom; but, I am
interested in the structure of this letter. I read your advertisement for a marketing
manager with great interest. Of course, remember you have to begin with writing your
address – not your address, writing the address of the company that you are applying to;
perhaps to the HR manager or to the manager or to the CEO or to the president of the
company so whatever, but address. Give the designation; and, below that give the
address of that company. You can write the date also there.
And then, next you go on to write, dear sir or madam. If you know the HR person or the
person who you are addressing the letter to is a male, say dear sir; if it is a woman, dear
madam. If you are not too sure whether it is currently it is a male head or a female head;
then, you can always write dear sir slash madam; that is the conventional use or the
conventional form of writing a cover letter.
And then, you write the subject or the objective. It is also very conventional, traditional
way of mentioning a subject or of the letter what you want from that person maybe
applying for the job advertised; and then, you move on to the body. I read your
advertisement for a marketing manager with great interest. If you are seeking to augment
604
your leadership team with an experienced and accomplished marketing professional
known for breakthrough results, please consider my enclosed resume. As a dash
company's marketing manager since 2008, I direct all phases of both the creative and
technical elements of marketing initiatives including data mining, brand creation, print
and web collateral development, lead generation, channel partner, cultivation, customer
segmentation – profiling as well as CRM and acquisition strategies.
Perhaps most importantly, I offer a history of proven results as evidenced by the

following marketing accomplishments for my current employer. And, here is a list of
accomplishments. So, also that person has given 'For' due to lack of space, I have
removed that, but the full text is available. You can look at the full construction. I would
welcome the chance to discuss the market. So, look at the way conclusion has come
across. It is very effective. I would welcome the chance to discuss your marketing
objectives and ways I can help you attain them. Feel free to call me at whatever number
to arrange a meeting. I look forward to speaking with you. Sincerely dash enclosure
resume. So, look at the way.
Now, look at the first paragraph; the person is building up the introduction, how he got to
know about this advertisement. Secondly, what and how he can contribute; you know
second and third paragraphs, and then, lastly conclusion. So, it is brief, concise, and
precise, to the point. So, always remember what are the elements of an effective cover
letter. You should talk about which job you are applying for and how you learnt about it;
in case of which company, a software professional and which exactly what designation.
Then, second paragraph should give you a brief overview of your relevant qualifications
and experience. Of course, you are attaching your CV; so, you do not have to repeat
yourself, but give a brief overview. And, third paragraph should be about why you are
interested in the job and what makes you a suitable candidate; what is your USP you
know, unique selling point. And, last paragraph should be the conclusion you look
forward to meeting this person; you are ready for an interview between this date and that
date; perhaps you are available. Mention your availability. Perhaps you are not available
in town right away; you should be very clear about it. And then, be very polite and say
that you would look forward to hear from that person.
605
And then, of course, you have to remember, signing off is always important; yours
faithfully, yours sincerely and then your name. Always do these things. So, in order to
understand the mechanics of a cover letter, remember that you should write the address,
name, position of the person you are writing to; use sir and madam. We use to whom it
may concern if we do not know the name of the person we are writing to. Remember you
should always, what we have been talking about in essays applies here also. Always
avoid contracted forms like don’t and aren't and shouldn’t; those are not very formal; and
especially in letters which carry so much of importance for your career.
Remember you should always round off with yours sincerely, yours faithfully; I have
already recommended advanced learner dictionary to you, that is Oxford ALD. So, there
is a detailed and very nice description of how to write cover letters and CVs. So, if you
want more information, please look it up. Remember you should never write your name
at the top of your cover letter, but always at the signing off and signature stage.
Now, let me give you a speaking exercise. This is something that you can do in pairs.
Tell your partner what are the highlights of your cover letter. Use phrases and
expressions such as native language; here you should talk about what is your native
language. Then, near native command of some other language; perhaps you have near
native command of Hindi or Gujarati or Marathi or French or Italian; include all that.
Proficiency in English; this is important. In times of globalization, your proficiency in
English needs to be highlighted; high school qualifications, graduation, qualifications
details about that; then, skills that you can bring to the table and references, who are your
referees. Remember potential employees always try to contact people who know you;
which is very logical. There is a reason for doing that. Someone should vouch for you.
So, therefore, it is important that you have your referees right, alright.
606
Now, let us move on and look at this exercise. I want you to fill in the blanks. I will give
you the list of words that you can use, but look at the passage first.
Please find dash my CV in application for the post advertised in the dash on 30th
November. The nature of my degree course has prepared me for this dash. It involved a
great deal of independent research, requiring initiative, dash and a wide range of skills.
For one course, an understanding of the dash industry was essential. Please note that,
wherever I have inserted xxx, we do not need to fill in any blank here; I am just covering
that exact names and proper nouns here. Industry was essential. I found this subject very
stimulating. I am a fast and accurate writer with a keen eye for dash. I and I should be
very grateful for the opportunity to progress to market reporting. I am able to take on the
dash of this position immediately and have the enthusiasm and determination to dash that
I make a success of it. Thank you for taking the time to dash this application and I look
forward to hearing from you in the near future.
607
Use the following words: self-motivation, ensure, consider, responsibility, detail,

position, enclosed. So, for example look at this first line, please find enclosed my CV in
application for the post advertised in so and so newspaper. And, the nature of my degree
course has prepared me for this? What should be the next word? Please use referred to
that list and come back to it.
608
The full text is available on this slide. You can tell tally your answers here, all right.
Now, please take a look at this. These are the references for your cover letters, for your
resumes and CVs.
609
Now, let us practice some grammar. Look at this slide. This is just a practice text. We are
going to practice our simple present tense. And then, I will give you exercise once we
finish reading the text.
Rooftop gardens, also called living roofs or green roofs, have many advantages,
including providing more space for agriculture, adding beauty to the cityscape and
increasing air quality. During photosynthesis, plants remove carbon dioxide from the air
and release oxygen that we need to breathe.
On hot summer days, rooftop gardens may also keep buildings cooler than traditional
roofs–especially larger buildings that often have tar and gravel roof surfaces. Because
they sit in the direct sunlight for many hours, the temperature of traditional rooftops
tends to rise above the actual air temperature. That heat radiates back into the
environment, making urban areas much warmer than rural and suburban ones. If you live
in a big city or have visited a shopping center with a lot of concrete and buildings during
warm months, you might have noticed the temperature difference. When heat is radiated
back into the environment from rooftops, an area with many buildings like a city can
experience an increase in local air temperatures by as much as 5 to 7 degrees Fahrenheit.
This phenomenon is called the urban heat island effect.
Now, your exercise here is; I want you to identify any five instances of present tense;
also identify any two complex sentences. Please keep going back to your sentences
structure – simple, complex, compound; remember the distinction. We have done that in
lot of detail in some of the earlier classes. And, your third exercise is to identify any three
connecting or linking words. So, even when you write your cover letter, you need all
these; you need to use present tense, you need to use a mix of sentences, you need to use
or have some command of linking words make good transition, use the hooks and signal
words. Go back to the earlier lectures and you will understand what I am talking about.
610
Now, let us read this passage. Look at the slide. And then, I will give you some questions
based on this.
‘Living in a new culture can be exhilarating, personally rewarding, and intellectually

stimulating. It can also be frustrating. It is one thing to visit a country, moving on when
you have seen enough, and it is quite another to live there and function according to a
different, and sometimes, mysterious set of norms. Participation in your chosen abroad
program provides a rare opportunity for you to begin to know another society from
within. But, it involves certain responsibilities. The most obvious one is to adapt one’s
behavior to the customs and expectations of the host country. This is not to deny one’s
own culture, but to respect that of others. Another, even more subtle, responsibility you
have is to remain open in order to become aware of similarities and differences, to learn
rather than to judge. This can be the most rewarding experience in your education’.
Now, my question to you is what is the passage all about? Talk, work in a pair, and talk
to your neighbor; what is the passage all about.
611
Now, look at the slide. And, I am giving you the exercises. First, I want you to change
the following sentence into his past form. The most obvious one is to adapt one’s
behavior to the customs and expectations of the host country. Second question, I want
you to find the meanings of these words – exhilarating, stimulating, and subtle. And,
third, I want you to change into adverbs – certain, rare, culture.
Now, give a suitable title also to this passage. Let us have some speaking based on this
exercise. Work in pairs and discuss the problems that one can face or one may face when
people go abroad. I want you to talk about the cultural difficulties people face when they
travel to foreign countries. You should cover talking about food, clothes, language and
the weather. So, use all these terms; cover all these points. And then, discuss it with your
partner, neighbor or your classmate that, what are the problems one may face when we
travel abroad. So, the passage you might have guessed is about culture shock and
adaptation to foreign cultures.
612
Please look at this slide. The full text is available here.
Now, let us read this one. Let us read this, the given passage. Look at the slide. And then,
we will do exercise based on this. ‘No one has ever explained space, in all its
bewildering glory, as well as Sagan did’. This is a passage about the great Carl Sagan.
613
‘He’s has been gone now for nearly two decades, but people old enough to remember
him will easily be able to summon his voice, his fondness for the word “billions” and his
boyish enthusiasm for understanding the universe we’re are so lucky to live in.
He led a feverish existence, with multiple careers tumbling over one another, as if he
knew he wouldn’t not live to an old age. Among other things, he served as an astronomy
professor at Cornell, wrote more than a dozen books, worked at on NASA robotic
missions, edited the scientific journal Icarus and somehow found time to park himself,
repeatedly, arguably compulsively, in front of TV cameras. He was the house astronomer,
basically, on Johnny Carson’s "Tonight Show." Then, in an astonishing burst of energy in
his mid-40s, he co-created and hosted a 13-part PBS television series, "Cosmos". It aired
in the fall of 1980 and ultimately reached hundreds of millions of people worldwide.
Sagan was the most famous scientist in America – the face of science itself.
Now, let us look at some of the vocabulary and words here; bewildering glory. I am not
going to give you the meanings. By now, you should know how to infer meanings from
the context itself. And then, you look at summon his voice, boyish enthusiasm, feverish
existence, multiple careers tumbling over one another, park himself, arguably
compulsively. And then, I would also want you to look up what is Johnny Carson's
Tonight Show. See these are the ways we understand other cultures. So, Tonight Show
was a very popular show at one point; though I would want you to look at some of these
very popular television series and programs that have been an important part of the
culture especially in English speaking countries.
614
Now, let us look at the exercises. I want you to give a suitable title to the extract. Please
look at the slide. I want you to make sentences from the words – bewildering,
astonishing and multiple. And, give antonyms you know, opposites – boyish, fondness,
arguably.
You may use your dictionary for this purpose, all right. And, I would also want you to do
this activity that will definitely help you in your scientific career as well in cultural
adaptation and also developing your language, and especially the way to develop your
pronunciation and vocabulary. So, I would want you to watch an episode of Carl Sagan's
TV series Cosmos. And, discuss the show with your friends. It is freely available on the
net.
615
Look at this link. And, the full text of this passage is available here.
Now, before we wind up, I want you to do this exercise. Choose the correct word. Please
look at the slide here. All were there except – accept Ravi. Because of excess – access of
a stress, the students are unable to do justice to their projects. There is a good shop for
616
accessories – accessary in the city center. The accused got a bail and bale and is currently
out of prison.
So, you know the answers. All were there and the first one, except Ravi. Because of
excess, the first one of a stress; there is a good shop for accessories, accessories you
know things that we use for example, for women you can say a hair clip or shoes or even
a hand bag; they are accessories – clips, things like that; they are accessories for men,
perhaps a wallet, perhaps a belt you know those are accessories. There is a difference
between accessories and accessory. The second one is an example of an accomplish, you
and your accessory. And, the last one of course, is also the first one – b a i l; the accused
got a bail. So, all first words are the correct words.
Now, let us look at this slide; second one. Do ensure that you submit the report on time;
ensure or insure. There was a lecture on the effects of thunder and lightning and lighting
on electric circuits. The house has an iron grille or grill in the balcony. A systemic or
systematic disease is the one that invades the blood stream. Look at all these sentences;
of course, all the correct answers are the first words. But, look at the difference and how
often, when we are writing, we get confused.
617
Now, before we wind up, I want you to practice your word formation. Here is a list of
prefixes. Please look at the slide. We make two words each using these prefixes – audio,
bio, cyber, e-, radio and uber.
618
And then, next is I want you to practice suffixes. Form words using, two words each.
Using suffix as -aholic, -loving, -mania, -phile, -like and -minded.
Thank you very much. Our next class is going to be our last class as well.
Tags
compound noun

619
Prof. Aysha Iqbal
Lecture – 38
Conclusion
Hello friends. So, we reached the final stage of our journey. Today is our last class, that
is, our Conclusion. I am going to wind up and I am going to sort of give you an overview
of what we have been doing all along. So, please take this class also very seriously,
because you will be revising a lot of what we have already done. And, perhaps you may
learn something new or perhaps you may be able to have clarification of some concepts.
So, reading, writing, speaking grammar particularly with reference to passive voice,
tenses, auxiliaries, will do a vocabulary, word formation and the kind of scientific
vocabulary that we have been doing all these hours, all these weeks over a period of
seven and half weeks.
So, last time if you remember, we did something called film review and we were talking
about films such as Interstellar and Matrix. And, I am very sure those are some of your
favorite films. In the same line, you can also think of writing a book review. I am sure
that you all read books at least your text books or books related to your domain scientific
and technical domain. So remember, what a book review is; again like a movie, if you
read books like a movie text, then book is also analyzed on the basis of plot characters,
style and content. Remember the way you review a movie; a book reviews also an
opinion piece; it reflects, it mirrors your personality, your taste, your style.
620
So, let me show you this excellent book review. Take a look at the slide. Here we go. ‘In
Neuromancer, William Gibson popularized the idea of cyberspace: a “consensual
hallucination” created by millions of connected computers. This network can be “jacked”
into, while in the real world characters flit from Tokyo to the Sprawl, an urban
agglomeration running down the east coast of the US. Gritty urban clinics carry out
horrendous sounding plastic surgery. A junkie-hacker, Case, is coaxed into hacking the
system of a major corporation. What once seemed impossibly futuristic is now eerily
familiar’. Look at the variety of word formation popularized. You get this word from
popular movie; popular book is an adjective. But, popularized it becomes your verb. So,
why I am doing all these things today? So that I refresh whatever you have been doing so
far.
Look at the variety of the vocabulary here. I have highlighted some of the words for you.
And, I would like you to look up their word category whether they are verbs or nouns or
adverbs, etcetera. And also, look up their meanings. So, flit from Tokyo to the Sprawl –
urban agglomeration. Gritty, what is gritty and when do we use gritty? So, do not use
words like gritty and agglomeration or flitting just like that.
There is a tendency amongst the students especially when they think they are writing a
621
formal piece of work. Then, they could use big words and impress the reader, which is so
not true; you have to use the right kind of vocabulary whether a common word or rare
word or something and something that is less common, maybe more collocational. So,
try to use the right word at the right time. Now, look words like gritty urban clinics,
junkie-hacker; they fit so well in this kind of a passage, which is all about science fiction.
And then, impossibly futuristic look at collocation; futuristic is an adverb; and
impossibly is an adverb; futuristic is an adjective; so, impossibly, futuristic, bringing,
collocating – bringing together of an adverb and an adjective; eerily familiar. Look at the
way the entire thing works, eerily familiar; so, adverb and adjective coming together.
Now, I would like you to do an exercise based on what you have read just now. In pairs,
discuss what science fiction is. I want you to talk, practice among yourself what is
science fiction; and, give reasons for the popularity of science fiction. Remember you
will have to talk in various situations, academic or semi formal. And then, you should be
able to express your views. This is one activity where you can practice these things. Also
I would like you to discuss your favorite science fiction book and use some of the words
that I am going to give you.
Please take them down, note them down. I am going to give you some list of positives as
well as a list of negatives. And, you can use whatever you want. So, positives are superb,
striking, sensational, surprising, charming and negatives are it lacks conventional, run of
the mill, some of us may regret; regret what? You have to fill in. I will repeat, positives
are superb, striking, sensational, surprising, charming; negatives are it lacks
conventional, run of the mill, some of us may regret etcetera.
Now, I will take you to another exercise. And, here you will be reading two book reviews
of the same book. The book is the Andromeda Strain. It is by a Michael Crichton; maybe
some of you are familiar with it. I want you to compare the two reviews in terms of their
tone; secondly, style and language and vocabulary. And, see if you read the book whether
your opinions do they match these writers opinions. So, let us look at this.
622
‘An up-front confession: Michael Crichton is one of my favorite authors. I love how
realistic his science is, and he writes suspense quite well. I was therefore excited to read
his first book. Unfortunately, Andromeda Strain did not live up to these expectations.
The suspense is killed right off the bat’. Now, look at this very interesting use of the
language; right off the bat (Refer Time: 08:03) just you know is like you are out at the
first ball of a cricket match. So, it is like at the outset itself suspense is killed, ‘with the
narration style. The story is told as if it is a report being written up by someone after
event. This means that we not only know that some of the humanity survives this
impending doom, but that society is still held together enough to want a report. If I’m
sure that everything is going to turn out hunky dory in the end, I’m just not going to be
all that concerned throughout the book. Similarly, the characters aren’t not fleshed out as
well as in later books. They are basically their careers. Here’s is the bacteriologist. Here’s
is the professor. Here’s is the surgeon. They don’t not come across as real, rounded
people, So, I completely failed to care about them at all. This isn’t not good for suspense,
because if I don’t not care about the characters, I’m not going to worry about them too
much’. Observe the tone, the language and style and vocabulary. It is very first person;
reviewer is telling upfront what he or she enjoys. First person narrative "I", first person
singular – this is writer’s opinion.
623
Look at the second sample, same novel, same book reviewed by some other person.
‘The Andromeda Strain reads more like a scientific review than a novel. It contains many
diagrams, screenshots, and technical computer printouts that (at least try to) convince the
reader of the scientific seriousness of the issue. A detailed explanation accompanies
almost every printout, and paragraphs quoted from actual research papers explain each
idea presented. In the late 60s, computers were still novel devices, so Crichton even
bothers to include an explanation about converting decimal numbers to binary. But,
perhaps the most obvious indication about the author’s frame of mind comes from the
fact that a detailed list of references is appended to the book – an uncommon sight in
novels’.
So, let us see. And, I would like you to do this exercise among yourselves that, which is a
better review and why. Discuss it among yourselves. Now, here I am going to give you
one exercise, write a book review of your favorite book; practice writing. You should
cover who was your favorite character and why did the character feel real to you; did the
story keep you guessing; and, what was the favorite part of the book and why; and, what
did the book finally make you do. You want to learn something more about that idea or
area or something whatever the content or subject matter of the book is. And, you want
624
to learn more about it and did the story or did the book did it grip you and did it keep you
turning the pages. So, that is the quality hallmark of a book; otherwise, you should be
able to say that, you know the book was just not interesting enough, not griping enough
to hold my interest. So, this is what you should do in order to develop your writing and
speaking better and more clearly.
Here is a slide. Please look at this slide. Here are some references for book review.
Now, I am going to give you something to read, but prereading exercise. Before I show
you the slide, I want you to do something in groups of pair, discuss who your favorite
cartoonist is. And, you should be able to talk about some of the memorable cartoon
characters and situations that this person has created. I will repeat, who is your favorite
cartoonist; and you should be able to talk about some of the memorable cartoon
characters and situations this person has created.
And, let us now look at the slide.
625
I am giving you this excise. At the same time, I have also highlighted simple past tense
verbs. So, please look at that also.
‘RK Laxman had the common touch, which appealed to the common man’. Now, please
note 'had appealed' all these are past tense. And, this is a passage about the great
cartoonist RK Laxman. ‘And, not surprisingly, he created his own Common Man. The
character caught the publics at imagination through the length and breadth of India to
become a national icon. Laxman’s draughtsmanship was impeccable – his knowledge of
anatomy, eye for detail while drawing background, and dexterous brushwork rendered
his art world-class.
He was never a stylist- his work was founded on realism without fancy abstractions.
He was inspired in part by David Low, one of Britain’s greatest cartoonists. But, low
used fewer lines and less details and that painstaking elimination of unnecessary detail
gave’, so 'gave' is also an example of past; ‘his work its simplicity and strength.
However, it was, (again a past tense) Laxman’s pocket cartoon that made him and his
common man national icons. There was a time when all the maddening everyday
626
inconvenience is caused by the city administration were, (past tense of 'is' or 'are' is
were) so, caught brilliantly by Laxman to empathise with the woes of the ordinary
citizen.
India learnt to wake up with morning tea and a rueful laugh; (you know rueful is painful,
sorrowful) over the Common Man’s travails. The Common Man became a habit, later an
addiction. The Times of India fully exploited Laxman’s popularity and both the
newspaper and cartoonist jointly thrived’. Now, this is a revision of past tense.
And now, I am going to give you some exercises. Based on that, please look at the slide.
And, the highlighted words of course, they are not past tense. Look at the words. I want
you to look at these words and then from the text give synonyms. So, synonyms of the
highlighted words and pick them from the text. Here I am just giving you the meanings
of the words that you find in the text. So, practice your vocabulary here.
Her garments are known for their skillful embroidery. So, let us solve them. In the
previous text, we have seen dexterous brushwork. So, it is dexterous – skillful. He has
travelled across the country, across. So, the length and breadth of the country it is the
pass, the word is given there. M S Subbulaxmi is a legendary singer from India. So, you
627
have RK Laxman a national icon and legendary singer MS Subbulaxmi; so, iconic
singer; iconic. No life is ever free of suffering travails Common Man and his travails his
problems, his suffering. His business has been flourishing over the last few years. So,
both the newspaper and the cartoonist thrived. So, flourishing is another word for
thrived, alright.
Now, we have also been doing lot of writing in our course and I would also like to revise
some aspects of that. So, if you remember, we did paragraph. You remember that, when
people defined paragraphs, I just want to revise it with you. So, when people defined
paragraphs, they visualize the appearance of a paragraph. You remember a paragraph is
like this. So, we need to recognize that paragraph is not just a visual icon or a symbol; it
is more than that. It is a unit that has a function; remember that.
And, the function what is it? It is to meet the needs of the readers by signaling the topic
and its development. You should know that a paragraph may introduce new ideas while
other develops previously stated ideas of present shift in space or direction. A salient
feature of a paragraph is that it is complete, it is unified and it is ordered, it has
coherence and it makes some sense to the readers. Now, I want you to read this
paragraph and identify the central idea; also suggest breaks in paragraph and identify all
the connectives. I will repeat, breaks - what is the central idea; what is and how would
you break the paragraph in different paragraphs and identify all the connectives.
628
Now, let us move on to look at the slide. Central idea, give a suitable title, break in
paragraph, connectives. I would not be giving you the answers. Now, you should be able
to discuss among yourselves.
‘In the developed world, audiences are seeking for amusement and leisure; the pop music
industry produces and packages pop music carefully in order to fulfill the consumers’
requirements. According to the economic and industrial geographer Yuko Aoyama, "just
as in any other industry, for a music genre to gain popularity, it necessitates an expansion
to an export market near and far." Today’s pop music industry developed as a mature
both social and economic system. The interaction of global pop music breaks down the
cultural and economic boundaries. In other words, globalization provides new
opportunities for the pop music industry to expand the world market and gain huge
profits. Furthermore, Baltzis mentions the word "Transculture" which refers to the
phenomenon that diverse a popular music transformed in different cultures and nations;
as a result, new music style is created. For example, Chinese musician combines pop
music with traditional Chinese opera and creates a new style of pop music called
"Chinese pop". This hybrid music style became popular among the nation and it also
attracted people from other countries to enjoy Chinese style pop music. Baltzis also just
suggests, "Given the new conditions created by the digitalization, visualization and the
629
internet, artists - at least in several developed countries - now have more possibilities to
communicate with their public, by passing several of these institutions." Social media is
a powerful cultural weapon increases the communication and interaction between pop
star and the public. People can get to know their icons’ life through television shows,
magazines and twitter. In this way, pop music fans feel closer to their idols; as a result,
they are more willing to support them because of this kind of understanding’.
Now, let us revise articles and let us look at the slide. You remember articles 'a' and 'the'.
So, let us see how articles work. Here, in The Truman Show, Jim Carrey has the role,
please keep looking at the slide; has the role of his career as Truman Burbank, the
unwitting star of a TV show; what is unwitting? that has trained 5,000 hidden cameras on
him since his birth thirty years ago. Everyone in Truman's life – parents, lovers, best
friend, wife – is an actor. Truman’s seemingly idyllic world on the island of Seahaven is
really a giant, dome-encased studio controlled by I Christof, a beret-wearing director
who has made his name as a I televisionary by invading Truman’s privacy seven days a
week, twenty-four hours a day. Thanks to the global audience that hangs on Truman’s
every move, his life is a cruel joke, with Truman the only one not in on it.
Look at this use of phrasal verb also and idiom; not to be, not in on it. Now, I would like
630
you to find the meanings of unwitting, idyllic or idyllic, dome-encased, cruel joke, beret
and to hang on every word. I will repeat - unwitting, idyllic, dome-encased, cruel joke,
beret and to hang on every word.
Now, look at this exercise; look at slide. And, I want you to fill in the blanks with
suitable articles. Soak dash small quantity of wool in water. Set dash candle alight and
put dash upside down jar over it. Mercury is dash smallest of dash major planets. Weight
is dash force of dash attraction of the earth on dash given mass. Dash diesel engine is
more efficient than dash steam engine. I want you to fill in the appropriate articles.
Please work it out in pairs.
631
Now, let us move on to do another exercise. And, this is an example of the passive. The
orange was dash in three equal parts. The beaker was dash into several pieces. The litmus
paper was dash in the acid. The experiment has been dash in the lab. The project had cost
the company almost 30 million dollars.
So, what would you say? The orange was cut in three equal parts. Remember there is no
cutted; you revise your regular and irregular verbs. The breaker was broken. The litmus
paper was placed. The experiment has been setup. The project has cost; so, it is not
costed; it is not cutted; it is not putted; it is not kepted. Please remember all these and
keep revising whatever we have been doing all this while, all these weeks.
632
Now, let us move on and I want you to fill in the blanks. Look at this exercise. Fill in the
blanks using did, do, done, does, doing. He dash not go to the office today. The food was
dash to perfection; the meaning should be cooked thoroughly. This is a dash it yourself
exercise. They dash not come here often. The whole thing dash have a familiar ring. This
is your own dash.
Now, he did not go to the office; we do not say he did not went; he did not go to the
office or he did not eat his lunch today, but not did not ate. So, that is a rule. The food
was done to perfection, not did to perfection; done to perfection is an idiomatic use of the
language; done to perfection is to do something thoroughly. This is a do it yourself
exercise. They do not come here very often; I do not like this. So, do way of – this is the
way we do this. The whole thing does have a familiar ring. This is your own doing.
633
Now, let us move on. And, another set of auxiliaries if you remember 'has', 'have'. The
Indian Ocean dash a high level salt content. Why does diamond dash a high melting
point? A dam dash sometimes a length of over hundred kilometers. Copper dash a
reddish or orange color. The pipes dash a thickness of 7 centimeters.
So, where has and where have? Please discuss it among yourselves. Now, let us move on
to revise if clauses also known as conditionals. We remember conditionals describe the
result of something that might happen in the present or future or might have happen, but
did not actually happen. So, if I had been there, I could have done something; remember.
And, conditionals are made using different English verb tenses. If it rains, we will cancel
the picnic; that is the future. If I had been there, I would have prevented this situation;
that is past; but, I was not there. If you ask me I can do that; so, conditional.
634
Now, look at this slide. And, practice using conditionals. I will do the first one for you.
Metal is left in the sun. It becomes hot. How do we do this? If metal is left in the sun, it
becomes hot. There should be a comma in between. Glass falls on the floor. It breaks into
pieces. Boat is made of paper. It will sink in deeper waters. Roads are not surfaced with
tarmac. They cause damage to vehicles. Steel is coated with paint. It will resist corrosion.
How do we do this? So, if glass falls on the floor, it breaks into pieces. If boat is made of
paper, it will sink in deep waters. If roads are not surfaced with tarmac, they cause
damage to vehicles. If steel is coated with paint, it will resist corrosion. Practice your
clauses also similarly.
635
Now, look at this slide. And, I want you to practice your spellings. Look at environment.
Many a time we find students slipping in spellings; so, environment, government – look
how it uses both n and m. Gauge, gingham, hierarchy, hygienic, indiscriminate,
maintenance – is not maintains many a time I find students skipping the vowel e here. It
is not maintnance, it is maintenance. Millennium, look at the use of double l and double
n. Pronunciation, it is pronunciation; it is not pronounciation. We pronounce, but it is
called pronunciation.
636
Now, let us pronounce these words. Look at the slide. They are commonly
mispronounced words. Bicycle; it is not bi cycle. Chameleon, this is a sort of an animal
and we also say changing colors like cha meleon; it is not chameleon - chameleon.
Camouflage, it is not camo flag; it is a camouflage; conscious, counterfeit, endeavor.
Next word is entrepreneur. Extraordinary, it is not extra ordinary; extraordinary;
pharmaceutical. So, practice your pronunciation. I have already guided you towards the
book - Better English or Better Spoken English and Better English pronunciation. At the
beginning of this course, all these things have been discussed.
637
Please take a look at these links. During the course of English for or technical English for
engineers, we have been revising plenty of concepts. And, at the beginning itself, I told
you that, perhaps all these are familiar concepts. I am very sure that you have done
auxiliaries and nouns and tenses and word formation; all these things at some stage of
your schooling or your graduation. But, this course was meant to give you a better
understanding and refreshing the way English is used. And, one constant endeavor on my
part was to help you improve the quality of your reading.
Please remember and this is something that I must have told you earlier also and I am
telling you this again. If you do not read enough and you do not practice speaking, then
there is no way that you can write or understand things better. So, read a lot, watch; if
you want to improve your English language, then you have to watch programs in that
language. If you want to learn French for example, you have to watch French language
and you have to sort of immerse yourself in that language. So, this is the way. You have
come here to learn English. Please practice English; do not let this course be the end of
every attempt to learn English. Remember, with practice things only get better.
Thank you very much for being with me. And, I wish you all the best for your exam, the
final exam and also in all your career endeavors.
638
Thank you.
Tags
compound noun

639
THIS BOOK
IS NOT FOR
SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
(044) 2257 5905/08

nptel.ac.in
swayam.gov.in

Technical English For Engineers

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Technical English For Engineers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TECHNICAL

Prof. Aysha Iqbal Viswamohan

S.No Topic Page No.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)

We will also do a little bit of comparatives it is a short lecture on comparatives that is

(Refer Slide Time: 12:52)

Here is Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:10)

(Refer Slide Time: 15:12)

Better English Pronunciation by J. D. O Connor. Book provides a thorough introduction to

(Refer Slide Time: 05:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:48)

(Refer Slide Time: 19:03)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:18)

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:16)

(Refer Slide Time: 03:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 04:48)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:32)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:14)

(Refer Slide Time: 15:43)

Now a prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb. As an adjective, the

(Refer Slide Time: 17:51)

(Refer Slide Time: 19:43)

What is an adjective? An adjective is something that adds something to a noun. We had

(Refer Slide Time: 22:17)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:54)

(Refer Slide Time: 08:35)

(Refer Slide Time: 11:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:53)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:04)

(Refer Slide Time: 25:03)

(Refer Slide Time: 26:17)

Reading English, English for Engineers, English words, English Exercise,

Essay writing, word categories, word formation, formal tone, paragraph

(Refer Slide Time: 09:46)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:15)

Good morning. So, today's class is all about Sentence structure.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:52).

(Refer Slide Time: 13:50)

(Refer Slide Time: 19:20)

(Refer Slide Time: 21:24)

(Refer Slide Time: 25:41)

(Refer Slide Time: 27:44)

(Refer Slide Time: 03:49)

(Refer Slide Time: 06:14)

(Refer Slide Time: 08:54)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:54)

(Refer Slide Time: 18:16)

(Refer Slide Time: 25:27)

(Refer Slide Time: 26:45)

(Refer Slide Time: 28:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:48)

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:21)

Hi, so one important aspect of a sentence construction, sentence formation is adherence

(Refer Slide Time: 04:02)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:30)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 18:15)