Family Topic 3: Trends and Diversity

Cohabitation and Marriage

Sociological explanations for cohabitation increasing and marriage decreasing

 Impact of feminism:
In the past, women would have to marry to gain financial security. However, with the growing financial
independence that women have today and increasing options of education, employment and family life
females have much more choice with regards to their lives. Sue Sharpe’s study illustrates this. Impacts
marriage decreasing and supports the option of cohabitation as a choice. Evidence suggests that some
females view cohabitation as a trial run before marriage while others view it as an alternative Females in
cohabiting relationships are more likely to negotiate conjugal roles.
 Effective contraception:
From 1967 reliable contraception was made readily available to unmarried women with the passing of the
NHS (Family Planning) Act and Abortion Acts. For the first time, the possibility of unwanted pregnancy
was no longer a factor in the decision to have sexual intercourse. Effective contraception made it possible
for couples to cohabit with little fear of pregnancy.

 Fear of divorce:
Couples in where one or both partners have divorced are the most likely to cohabit. The rise in divorce
means that the view of marriage as a ‘union for life’ has less power. An ever-increasing number of people
have seen those around them getting a divorce. This will have put some off marriage, particularly if their
own parents went through a ‘messy’ divorce. Cohabitation is one ‘solution’ to avoiding divorce at a later
stage. Beck (1992) argue that this may lead many people to see cohabitation, without its binding legal ties,
as an attractive alternative to marriage that reduces the risk associated with marriage.

 Changing social attitudes

Cohabitation is seen by most people today as socially acceptable, it is very rarely criticised. The media
portrays cohabiting couples and married couples in the same way. In the UK, it is a norm for couples to
cohabit before marriage, or not to marry at all. The average cost of a marriage in the UK is now well over
£10,000- £18,000, cohabiting is cheaper option or it can allow couples to save up for a wedding.

 Changing expectations:
Allan and Crow (2001) argue that expectations of marriage have changed and the focus in a marriage is
now on the relationship. People expect emotional fulfilment from relationships known ‘confluent love’.
Increasing. Individualism and choice means that people will not settle for marriage or relationships that do
not meet their needs.

 Secularisation: A decline in the influence of religion.

Religious morality around marriage and cohabitation has lost its influence as people are less religious in the
UK today. They can cohabit and reject marriage without feeling they are ‘living in sin’. The church is less
likely to condemn people who cohabit. If people are not religious, there is no reason why they would not
cohabit. Trends from European countries where Roman Catholicism is practiced support this as they have
lower rates of cohabitation.
 Divorce
Key Trends

Main trend of Divorce since WW2 has gone up, but in the last few years, divorce rates have gone
down

The divorce rate refers to the number of divorces per thousand of the married population. In the
UK as in other Western societies, there has been a dramatic rise in divorcing during the 20 th
century.

Why do people
Who Divorces?
divorce?

Sociological reasons for the increase in divorce rates:

n Legal changes:

1. The Divorce Law Reform Act 1969, which came into effect in 1971. With this Act you no
longer had to prove one partner ‘guilty’ of a matrimonial offence. You just had to show that
the marriage had ‘irretrievably broken down’. If the couple had been separated for at least
two years, this demonstrated that the marriage had irretrievably broken down.

2. The Matrimonial and Family Proceedings Act 1984. This allowed couples to get a
divorce after only one year of marriage.

3. The Family Law Act 1996, which came into effect in 1999. This increased the amount of
time before a divorce could proceed to 18 months. It also introduced compulsory marriage
counselling sessions in an attempt to slow the divorce rate.
 4. Mediation 2011 was introduced to take the pressure off over-worked family courts.
Disputes were to be sorted out through mediation before couples resort to the courts.

 The impact of feminism

The changing role of women in education and employment means that they are no longer
financially dependent on males. In divorce cases family resources are now divided between the
couple. The welfare state also has provisions to help divorced women, particularly those with
children. Therefore, feminists argue that women have more freedom and choice and as a result
they will not to stay in unhappy marriages. National statistics support this as 7/10 divorces are
filed by women.

 Rising expectations of marriage

Functionalists such as Parsons and Fletcher argue that divorce has increased as people find
the reality of marriage disappointing. In the past people would often marry for economic
reasons, today most people marry ‘for love’ and happiness. Allan and Crow (2001) point out
that the focus in a marriage is now ‘confluent love’. This means that couples are together out of
choice not obligation and relationships are characterised by negotiation and mutual
satisfaction. Therefore, marriage is no longer ‘forever’ if the relationship isn’t working.
Increased life expectancy also impacts this as if you marry in your late twenties you can
expect to live for another 50 years. This may mean that people are more prepared to divorce if
they fall out of love or if the marriage is not meeting their expectations and demands.

 Secularisation
Secularisation is the decline of the influence of religion in society. Growing secularisation
means that people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when considering
marriage and divorce. Gibson (1994) argues that this has resulted in marriage becoming less
of a sacred, spiritual union and more of a practical commitment; which when not working, can
be ended with divorce. This is supported by the fact that only a third of marriages are
conducted as religious ceremonies, marriage is no longer viewed as a religious commitment.
Changing social attitudes has also contributed to this as divorce has lost its social stigma
partly because there is so much of it. In the past divorce was rare and seen as scandalous.
People see no point in preserving a damaged relationship. Beck-Gernstein (1995) argues that
rising divorce rates reflect a trend towards individualisation.

 Privatised nuclear family

Isolation from a wider supportive extended family can lead to lack of emotional support, advice
and temporary refuge when going through a rough time in marriage. This also means there is
less social control from extended kin to pressurise a couple into staying married. Lack
of/inability to have children may mean there is less to keep the couple together. Therefore
divorce may be an easier option.

Mini topic Summary:

 Fewer people are getting married overall.
 People are marrying later.
 More people are getting remarried.
 Divorce and cohabitation have increased.
 Sociologists have examined a wide range of reasons to understand these changes.
  The changes that have taken place can be seen positively or negatively, depending on
which theoretical approach is taken.

Family and household diversity

Statistics:
Over the last 70 years, there has been a movement away from nuclear family towards family diversity.
For this topic, understand what types of family diversity have increased, the reasons behind the
increases & what different sociological theories have to say about these changes.

Diversity refers to variations – that things are not all identical following the same pattern. It is
difficult to dispute the fact that families are diverse in contemporary UK. The areas you have
studied previously; birth rates, ageing population, migration, marriage, cohabitation and divorce
clearly highlight the variations and experiences of family life in the UK.

Prominent research on family diversity came in the late 1970s when the Rappoport’s work offered
five valuable insights into this then quite rare area of Sociology.

1) Structural Diversity:
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2) Domestic Diversity: (topic 4)

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3) Cultural Diversity:
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4) Social class diversity:

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5) Cohort diversity:
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Structural diversity
The nuclear family

Traditional nuclear family Changes to the nuclear family

 Neo conventional nuclear family:

Chester (1985) argues that the most
significant change in the past 50 years has been
women working, hence the term ‘neo-conventional’
family (‘Neo’ means new). A large part of the
nuclear family remains the same.

 Modern nuclear family:

Young and Wilmott (1973) argue that a
‘symmetrical nuclear family’ has emerged. The
roles of husbands and wives, although not
identical, are now much more similar:
 Women now go out to work, this may be part-
time or full-time.
 Men now help with housework and childcare.
 Couples now spend their leisure time together
instead of separately.

Extended family

Traditional extended family Modified extended family Beanpole extended family

Family of three generations or Research by Finch and A beanpole family is an

more living together. The
extended family was strongest
in working-class families. The
family was extended vertically
and horizontally.
Mason (1993) shows that
extended kinship ties are still
important for most people. The
impact of globalisation and
advances in technology have
made it easier to maintain
extended family connections.
extended family that is vertical
only. Brannen (2003) argues
that beanpole families have
increased as;
 Choices around family size
mean fewer children being
born
 There is longer life
expectancy

The relationship between

grandparents and
grandchildren becomes more
intense.
Reconstituted family

A reconstituted family is made up of an adult couple, married or unmarried, living with at least one child
from a previous relationship of one of the partners. It is also known as a step- or blended family. Many lone
parents find new partners and form new families.

Families are social groups with boundaries. These boundaries include some people (these are my family
members) and exclude others (these are not). Clear boundaries give families a definite sense of identity
and unity. Sometimes boundaries of reconstituted families are not clearly drawn. This may become fuzzy
when partners form the couple’s previous relationships become involved in the new family, especially if
the children maintain a close relationship with non-residential ‘natural’ parent. This may weaken the
boundaries of the reconstituted family and threaten its unity (Allan et al 2011).

If the parents are happy and committed to making to making the new family work, then the children are
likely to be happy too. Bedell (2002) argues that reconstituted families can provide new and rewarding
relationships for all concerned. The family expands over night with step-brothers and sisters, step-
cousins, step-parents and uncles and step-grandparents. However, being a step- parent can be a difficult
and delicate relationship. There are no clearly stated norms defining this role. For example, to what
degree should a step-parent be involved in disciplining the child? Things are made more difficult if the
child resents sharing the biological parent with a new partner and, in some cases, with other children.

Advantages of living in a reconstituted family Tensions associated with reconstituted families

Co-parenting refers to situations where children are cared for separately by each of the birth parents for
approximately half the time. This situation arises when parents separate. The arrangement could work on a
weekly basis, where children spend half the week with each parent, it could however, be split over the year,
with the children spending time in each family household, perhaps with a less even split in terms of time.
The children live in two homes and the structure for each family home can of course vary. For example
both of the parents could be lone-parent families or their mother and/or farther could have met a new
partner, possible one who also has children, thus forming a reconstituted family. Smart et al (2000)
researched children’s experience of co-parenting. They found that children valued both parents in their
lives. Children tried to treat their parents in a way that they saw fair too, such as spending time with each
parent, almost as if they were parents. Moving between houses was routine for these that had been doing it
from a young age. Those who found it a difficult way of living had parents who were hostile towards each
other. Some children were enthusiastic about having ‘two of everything’.

Task: list the advantages and disadvantages of co-parenting

Single-parent families

Single parent families or lone parent families are those headed by a mother or father living with their
dependent child(ren) without an adult partner. About a quarter of families with children are now lone-
parent families. Statistics show;

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Task: Why have single parent families increased?

Why are 91% of single parent families headed by women?

New Right views (criticism of single parent families):

The New Right hold the view that there is only one correct or normal family type. This is the
traditional or conventional nuclear family. Again like Functionalists, The New Right sees this
family as ‘natural’ and based on fundamental biological differences between men and women. In
their view this family is the cornerstone of society; a place of contentment, refuge and harmony.
Finally, the New Right argue that the decline of the traditional family and the growth of single
parent families are the cause of many social problems such as higher crime rates and declining
moral standards generally. New Right thinkers such as Murray (1989) believe that the introduction
of the welfare state led to a culture where people depend on hand-outs from the state and that
these encourage single parenting, which in turn, they argue leads to deviancy and a decline in
morality

Recap: Why do New Right prefer the nuclear family?

The Centre for justice report ‘Fractured Families’ (2013) found children raised by a lone mother are
more likely to

 Grow up in poorer housing

 Experience behavioural problems
 Underachieve in school and gain fewer qualifications
 Leave school and home young
 Become sexually active, parent, pregnant early
 Report higher rates of depression
 Higher chance of smoking, alcohol and drugs
Task: identify evidence from theories and studies that view single parent families positively

Cultural Diversity
Race:

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Religion:
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There are links between religion and family. Some religious people are more likely to have children living
with them than others. Religion can also influence the way that children are socialized in families. For
examples Catholic families reject the idea of divorce. Most religions support the ideology of traditional
family structures based on a heterosexual couple.

Ethnicity:

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The 2011 Census shows that in the UK, families of Asian and Chinese origin with dependent children living
with them are most likely to be married and least likely to be lone-parent families. Dual heritage, Black
Caribbean and White families with dependent children have the largest proportion of cohabiting-couples
families. Over 50% of Black Caribbean, Black African and mixed families were headed by a lone parent in
2011. Pakistani and Bangladeshi Asians have larger family sizes compared to black Caribbean’s and British
families. Asians couples are less likely to divorce.

These differences mean that children in these diverse families will be influenced by different role models in
the family during the process of socialisation.

Asian families
The stereotypical image here is that of the extended family. In reality, only about a quarter of Asian
households in the UK are extended. Although the nuclear family is the most typical family form, most
studies show that extended family ties remain strong in most Asian families, and many Asian families live
close to each other. Some marriages tend to be arranged. Divorce is uncommon. Relationships between
Asian parents and children tend to be different to white families. Asian families tend to be larger than
those of other ethnic groups. About three-quarters of Asian families include children, compared to about a
third of white families.
Research by Modood et al (1997) suggests that young south Asians born in the UK are experiencing a
cultural shift. They are more likely to adopt British attitudes and behaviours with regards to family size,
organisation, cohabitation, marriage and divorce. In other cases, they create hybrid cultures. However,
these changes are lowest in the Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities.
Hybrid cultures:

African-Caribbean families
African-Caribbean families are more likely to be single-parent - 50 per cent compared to 25 per cent in the
population as a whole. Reasons that have been suggested for the higher rate of black lone parents are as
follows:
1. A legacy of the slave trade when families were often split, and children stayed with the mother.
2. Black unemployment, which is linked to male underachievement at school. Females are more likely
to be employed.
3. Tradition, the woman is in charge of the household. Chamberlain and Gulbourne (1999) argue
African-Caribbean women choose to live independently from their child’s father.
4. There is extended kinship networks and support.

Berthoud (2003) argues that the attitudes of African-Caribbean females reflect ‘modern individualism’.
Marriage in Caribbean communities is relatively low. Mixed partnerships are very common and accepted;
half of black men who live with partners are white compared to a third of black women living with white
partners.

Diversity within ethnic groups.

There is a danger in talking about ‘typical ethnic families’ often there is as much family diversity within
ethnic groups as there is within White society. Furthermore, there is a danger of ignoring variations in
religion- Sikhs Muslims and Hindus- in countries of origin- India Pakistan and Bangladesh. Finally there is a
danger of exaggerating differences between ethnic and White families and of creating stereotypes in the
process- for example Asians live in extended families and their marriages are arranged.

Multicultural Families. Recent statistics suggest an increase in the number of partnerships between
people from different ethnic groups. Beck-Gershiem (2002) uses the term multicultural families for families
in which the partners come from different ethnic backgrounds. She recognizes that such couples will face
prejudice from their ethnic groups of origin, and conflict because they bring differing expectations of family
life to the relationship. However, she is optimistic about multicultural families as she believes they may
help to break down barriers between ethnic groups.
 Sexual Diversity
Sexual diversity refers to:

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Same-sex families increased in recent years. It is difficult to estimate the numbers of same-sex families as
until recently same-sex partnerships were not legally recognised, so records were not kept. Following the
Civil Partnership Act 2004 and more recently, Equal Marriage Act 2014 homosexual couples now have legal
recognition of their relationships.

Why have same-sex families increased?

Weeks et al (1999) argue practice, same sex partnerships tend to be more democratic than heterosexual
partnerships. Many gay and lesbian couples strive for a relationship based on negotiation and equality. A growing
number of these couples are choosing to have children too. Many use artificial insemination with sperm
donated by friends or anonymous donors. Others opt for adoption or surrogacy as in the high profile case
of Elton John and his partner David Furnish, who became parents to a son via a surrogate mother in
California. the traditional sense they are choosing to have a ‘family’. It’s worth noting that in the UK the
adoption route was closed to homosexual couples until 2002.

Most concerns about homosexual parenting are around the influence on a child’s gender identity and
sexual orientation. Most studies show that children raised by gay and lesbian parents are no different from
those raised by heterosexuals (Fitzgerald 1999) the evidence suggests that what matters is the parent-child
relationship rather than the sexual orientation of the parents.

Class Diversity
Social Class diversity refers to

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Many Sociologists argue that social class has an important influence on family life. They make the following
points:

 Income Equality: In general, the lower a person’s class position, the lower their income. Income
inequality leads to variations in living standards, housing quality and lifestyles. For example, low-
income families are more likely to live in overcrowded and substandard housing, and less likely to
own a car or afford a family holiday.

 Life Chances: These refer to a person’s chances of obtaining things defined as desirable- e.g. good
health and avoiding things defined as undesirable –e.g. poverty. Often there is a fairly close
 relationship between social class and life chances. For example, the higher the class position of a
child parents, the more likely the child is to attain high educational qualifications and a well-paid
high status job.

 Family Break up: as noted earlier the lower the class position of a married couple, the more likely
they are to divorce. High divorce rates are related to poverty- to low income and reliance on state
benefits (Kiernan & Mueller 1999)

 Family Structure: in the past working-class families tended to be extended particularly in low-
income urban areas. Today there is little difference in the structure of working-class and middle-
class families. Although middle-class families are more geographically mobile and working class
families are associated with modified extended family relations.

 Child Rearing Practices: there is a tendency for middle-class families to be more child-centred. This
could be because there is a tendency of middle-class work to be more flexible, but anti-social, thus
affecting relationships between parents and children.

 Conjugal Roles: Oakley’s (1974) research showed class to be a relevant factor in the division of
labour in the home. Her research showed class to be a factor with middle-class conjugal roles being
shared, but in neither class could they be defined as equal.
(Add additional notes to this from the wife swap video)

 Cultural Differences:

The children of the upper class/middle class acquire what the Marxist sociologist Bourdieu (1986) termed
‘cultural capital’. Their mannerisms and _____________________ are distinct from those of other social
classes. These mannerisms and values correspond with notions of what is positive when they go to school.
Upper-class children are also ________________________ into high culture. For example being taken to
opera and experiencing __________________ music at home. This contrasts with popular culture of the
working class, which might include celebrity television programmes, listening to pop music, a day out roller
skating or tenpin bowling and a ______________________ meal. The upper class learn to speak and
________________________ themselves differently, along with the middle classes; they learn to speak
with what is termed by Bernstein (1961) an ‘elaborated code’, in contrast to a working-class ‘restricted
code’.

Postmodernists would however be _________________ of such claims, arguing that there is much more
__________________ available to families, irrespective of their class background. They maintain that
people are no longer constrained by their class. At the other end of the scale is the underclass, comprising
people in very low –paid work or long-term unemployment. Some single parents also fall in this class.
Saunders (1996) is critical of the group whom he claims has a __________________-
_____________________ culture. Critics however, ____________________ him and point to the
difficulties faced by families trying to bring children up in conditions of ____________________.
 Contemporary trends in family diversity

Living apart together (LATS)

This is a new lifestyle choice that is growing and becoming
increasingly acceptable. It is thought that 1 in 10 people in Britain
are together in a relationship but are living apart. Duncan et al
(2013) found that 61% of LAT’s are under 35.

Example:

Reasons for
increase:

Single person households

A single person household or singleton is someone who lives by themselves. About 30% of all households
in the UK are single person. There are age and ethnic variations in the trends. For example, aged 65+ 68%
of single households are women however, twice as many men aged 25-44 live alone compared to women.
23% of African Caribbean’s and 16% of white Brits live alone compared to only 7% of British Indians and 4%
of British Pakistani’s.

Reasons for
increase:
Families of choice

Alternatives to the family setup

Communal living gives people the advantages (and disadvantages) of living with a group that is much larger
than the typical household. However, communal living is rare in Britain. Redfield is a small community in
Buckinghamshire. Members join individually or as families and live in a large house as one large
household, sharing tasks, meals, leisure activities and decision making. In Israel, kibbutz members worked
together on the land. Property was shared and members were given food and other necessities. In a
secular society, such as Britain, communal living can attract people seeking a religious life.

The sociology of personal life

Despite the changes in society another influence on family diversity is life cycle diversity. Hareven (2000)
argues that it is important to consider the family life cycle as it reflects the types of families, households
and experience an individual will encounter in their life time. Allan and Crow (2001) argue that the life
cycle in the past was very fixed with set stages of expectations for all. For example, young people would
grow up in a two parent family. They would then marry (heterosexually) leave home and create their own
two parent families and so on. However, today each of us will have a different life cycle, linked to when
and where we are born, our class, gender, ethnicity, and the choices we make throughout our lives. Life
course analysis therefore, reinforces the view that family life is constantly changing and there is no
universal family type or experience (See Nikki’s lifecycle below).
Smart (2007) recommends using the term ‘Sociology of personal life’ instead of family as the term family is
associated with judgments, stereotypes and preconceptions. Personal life denotes a more flexible and
neutral arrangement that reflects the choices and nature of diversity today.

Traditional life cycle: Contemporary life cycle:

The life cycle of ‘Nikki’ (born in 1990; died in 2090)

. .
. .
. nest family’ (age 47-78).
o Nikki is born into a nuclear family (age 0-13)
o Nikki’s parents’ divorce. Nikki stays with mother, and
experiences life in a single-parent family (age 13-18).
o Nikki goes to university and shares a flat. This is a
communal household (age 18-21).
o Nikki lives alone as a singleton (age 21-25).
o Nikki falls in love with Pete and they live as a cohabiting
couple (age 25-28).
o Nikki and Pete marry and have two children. Nikki is in a
nuclear family again (age 28-48).
o The children leave home and Pete and Nikki are an ‘empty
o Pete dies and Nikki lives alone again as a singleton (age 78-
100).