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Variable active and reactive power control using OLTC in the power network

Article  in  Water and Energy International · March 2019

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 VARIABLE ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL USING OLTC IN THE
POWER NETWORK
Ajay krishnan Nilakantan Dr.Karsten Viereck Dr. Axel Krämer
Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen GmbH Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen GmbH Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen
A.Nilakantan@reinhausen.com K.Viereck@reinhausen.com A.Kraemer@reinhausen.com
Germany Germany Germany

ABSTRACT
Renewable energy integration has introduced different challenges in the different stages in the power
network, namely transmission and distribution. On the one hand, there is the voltage control through
reactive power compensation and on the other hand, the need to avoid congestion as well as optimizing the
utilization of the existing infrastructures due to large inflow of generated power. Therefore, it revolves
around the balance of power control – be it reactive and active. With the variability in generation, variability
in the control of active and reactive power is also required. This paper focusses on the Variable Shunt
Reactor (VSR) and the Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) where the variability achieved by the use of On-
Load Tap-Changers (OLTC).

The focus is on the extended regulation range offered by OLTC for variable shunt reactor along with the
design challenges of the reactor. For the phase shifting transformer, the basic principle of phase angle
regulation, the design and its applications will be discussed. As the OLTC plays an important role in PST,
its selection depends on many factors, which will be detailed in the subsequent sections. To summarize, the
advantages to the utilities through the use of OLTC’s in these equipment, are discussed.

Keywords: Variable Shunt Reactor, Phase Shifting Transformer, On-Load Tap-Changer

1. INTRODUCTION
From the starting point of the boom in the in generation of clean and sustainable renewable power the emphasis
was more on tapping the maximum power from the equipment. The need to contribute to system reliability,
efficiency in grid operation and stability, and the lack of a structure for incentives and standards for system services
especially if the operation was not in coordination with rest of the system, was neglected. With the interconnection
standards being developed, the focus is slowly shifting from the humungous magnitude of additional installed and
planned renewable capacity towards efficient, economical and reliable integration into power system operation.

Nevertheless, the question arises: Given the ageing infrastructure, the financial situation of Distribution Companies
(DISCOMs) and the volatility of renewable generation, how can renewable energy integration be directed towards
a reliable, economical and coordinated operation of grids? From the utilities’ perspective, interconnection of
various generating resources is a common practice to increase the reliability of the system. However, with the
interconnections, the power flows in the network are mostly uncontrolled through certain segments of the network.
Uncontrolled power flow in the networks is attributed to various reasons, including the impedances of parallel
transmission lines, the addition of new lines, the addition of new generating stations, and the variation of loads
and its phase angles. With the de-regularization of the power industry, the grid operator requires tools to ensure
control on the power flows in the network. Moreover, efficient utilization of the existing transmission assets is
required for economical operation of the grid. The PST, which is a power flow control device, will address the
above problems in the operation of the network. PST’s are extensively used to control or regulate power flows in
power system networks worldwide. It alters or controls the power flow in the network by creating a specified phase
shift, the magnitude of which is altered through an on-load tap-changer. PST’s can be used to control the active
power flow in a meshed power transmission network, due to the possibility of providing a well-defined phase shift
between the primary and the secondary terminals. The demand for this type of transformer application is growing
in HV and EHV networks, as PST is an attractive device to improve transmission networks flexibility and
increasing the net transfer capacity between different network zones by preventing bottlenecks in Inter State
Transmission Systems.

As more renewable energy sources are integrated in the distribution grid, economics in DISCOM operation needs
to be supported by technologies that help in maintaining the voltage profile of the system as well as ensure savings
from penalties. Coordinated switching operation of transformers and variability in reactive power compensation
at the transmission levels would strengthen the grid reliability. In this regard, balanced reactive power in the power
grids is an important factor in network operations to minimize losses and to avoid over-voltages in networks.
Reduction of transmission losses and load-independent voltage stabilization are decisive factors for optimal

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network operation. This paper focuses on one such a reactive power compensating equipment – the Variable Shunt
Reactor, a shunt reactor whose inductance is varied dynamically using an OLTC.

2. APPLICATIONS OF THE SHUNT REACTOR AND THE NEED FOR A VARIABLE

SHUNT REACTOR

Shunt reactors are used to compensate the capacitance per unit length of the transmission line at low- or no-load.
Particularly in the case of long open-circuit high-voltage lines and cable routes, an increase in voltage at the
receiving of the network occurs due to the Ferranti effect. The capacitive charging currents also cause losses in
lines and equipment. The aforementioned effects depend on the load status of the transmission network. These
unwanted effects can be reduced with the help of shunt reactors and ideally compensated completely. Another
significant application of the shunt reactor is when the transmission system starts up after a power failure, the so-
called black start. In this case, the reactive power is not regulated by generators. In this case the shunt reactors are
used to compensate the capacitive charging currents of the transmission grids. [2]

Reactive power compensation of long power lines or high voltage cable applications is ordinarily achieved by
switching in or out, depending on the actual load situation. By default, this is done with circuit breakers and the
number of operations depends on the load changes during the day. A circuit breaker is capable of approximately
10’000 operations before maintenance, therefore the wear of the circuit breaker might become extensive for such
applications. The disadvantage in the use of circuit breakers lies in the switching in or out of the full reactive power
of the shunt reactor. In order to optimize losses more smoothly, discrete steps of reactive power are more useful.
This can be achieved efficiently by the use of an on-load tap-changer (OLTC) to tune the reactive power of the
shunt reactor. [1]

3. VARIABLE SHUNT REACTOR WITH ON-LOAD TAP-CHANGER [4]

In a variable shunt reactor, the inductance is adjusted by changing the number of turns by an OLTC, as the
inductance (and therefore the reactive power) varies approximately inverse to the square of the amount of turns.
Hence, variable shunt reactors with OLTCs need a tap winding (regulating winding) in addition to the main
winding. From regulated power transformers three basic regulation schemes are known, which need different
winding arrangements.

3.1. REGULATION SCHEME WITHOUT CHANGE-OVER SELECTOR (LINEAR REGULATION)

[4]

If there is no need for a very wide regulation range, a regulation where steps are simply added to the main winding
can be used. With this concept, there are two ways possible to design the steps: either the number of turns per step
can be kept constant, which allows for a somewhat larger regulation range, or the change of reactive power per
step can be kept constant.
power line Reactive Power
- Linear Selector (constant steps)
100,00%
100%

90,00%
98%

80,00%
variable shunt reactor with
OLTC and linear regulation 70,00%
Power, %
Reactive

68%

60,00%
66%

50,00%

40,00%

30,00%

20,00%

10,00%

0,00%
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
min. turns Tap position max. turns
Fig.1: Variable shunt reactor with one OLTC and constant power steps
In case of constant number of turns between each tap, the highest step voltage occurs in the maximum reactive
power position (min. turn position). On the contrary, aiming for constant change of reactive power with each tap-
changing operation (see Fig. 1), the number of turns between each tap position has to be adjusted in a way to get
the highest step voltage in the minimum reactive power position (max. turn position). However, this decreases the
possible regulation range quite a bit.

3.2. EXTENDED REGULATION RANGE DUE TO REGULATION SCHEME WITH CHANGE-

OVER SELECTOR[4]

An extended regulation range can be obtained by using the tap winding in conjunction with an OLTC with
reversing change-over selector. This measure can keep the effort for a larger regulation range to a minimum. A
reversing change-over selector allows the tap winding to be connected in vectorial addition or subtraction to the
main winding [3]. The benefit of this solution is that no additional windings or connection leads between the OLTC
and the regulation winding are necessary with respect to the linear regulation scheme. Using a coarse-fine winding
arrangement, the same regulation range as with the reversing winding arrangement can be achieved (see Fig. 2).
Due to an extra coarse winding in addition to the fine winding, but with reduced number of turns in the main

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winding, the variable shunt reactor gets more complicated. More space for the windings is needed and the assembly
process becomes more complex. Both solutions with change-over-selector do not allow for constant power steps.
power line Reactive Power - Coarse change-over-selector (variable power steps)

100,00%

100,00%
96,55%
- 90,00%

0 variable shunt reactor with 80,00%

+ K OLTC and coarse fine regulation
70,00%

Reactive Power, %
60,00%

50,00%

40,00%

40,95%
40,00%
30,00%

20,00%

10,00%

0,00%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Tap position
min. turns max. turns

Fig. 2: Variable shunt reactor with one OLTC and variable power steps

Losses of a variable shunt reactor depend on the design of the reactor and the position of the OLTC. Usually total
losses are given in relation to reactive compensation power by

PV/Q = 0.17…0.3%
PV
[VA]
When comparing different winding arrangements in variable shunt reactors,
a coarse-fine regulation shows lower losses than a reversing regulation,
depending on tap position. The highest current is flowing in the maximum
power position and in reversing regulating schemes also the highest winding
resistance occurs. In contrast, in a coarse-fine arrangement in the maximum
power position the lowest winding resistance occurs. With increasing
regulation range the difference of losses between these two regulating
schemes increase. The qualitative correlation between losses and tap-
position is given in Fig 3. In practice most applications are realized with one
three-phase OLTC with a coarse-fine winding arrangement. The higher
N
[effective turns]
initial costs for the coarse-fine winding arrangement in comparison to the
coarse-fine regulation
reversing regulation
reversing winding arrangement are compensated during operation with
lower losses at maximum power tap position.
Fig. 3: Comparison of losses

3.3. ADVANCED OLTC DESIGN FOR VARIABLE SHUNT REACTORS WITH EXTENDED
REGULATION RANGE [4]

Using three OLTCs with three tap-selectors solves the problem of the phase to phase distances within one single
three-phase tap-selector. Now, having only one phase per tap-selector opens up the opportunity to optimize the
inner insulation distances “a” (from the beginning to the end of the coarse winding) and “c1” (if change-over
selector in “+” position the distance from the
“-“ contact of the change-over selector to the
power line

-
take-off terminal) in case of extended
0 1 regulation ranges. In addition, two sectors of
+ K
one OLTC diverter switch can be used in
3 1
series connection by connecting the diverter
switches at the take-off terminal. Due to the
2
2
mechanical design they are operated at the
4
3 same time, which gives the advantage to
4
double the step voltage.
5
+ K 5

0
-

1 one diverter switch insert with two sectors

2, 4 tap selector part for one regulation winding branch
3, 5 change-over selector

Fig. 4: Advanced OLTC design with two diverter switch sectors and optimized tap-selector

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Fig. 4 shows the advanced OLTC design with the diverter switch and a tap selector optimized for this application.
Both diverter switch sectors are operated simultaneously, consequently, switching two steps (one from each
regulation winding) at the same time. Therefore, the number of tap positions doesn’t change compared to the
design as shown in Fig.3. The tap selector has four decks, two
(one for the odd and one for the even taps) for each fine
regulating winding. In consequence, the reactor has to be
designed with one main, two coarse and two fine windings.

This advanced design overcomes today’s limitation of the on-

load tap-changer concerning the step voltage by switching two
steps at the same time and increasing the effective step voltage.
With the advanced design of on-load tap-changers, a regulation
range of 80% is practicable for 420kV applications as shown in
one of the installations in Fig 5. For 800kV, grids regulation
ranges of up to 60% seem to be feasible. Fig.5:Variable Shunt Reactor installation, Source:Siemens

A compensation concept with a variable shunt reactor with on-load tap-changer is beneficial in other aspects as
well. Some compensation systems need huge amounts of energy for the regulation itself; sometimes this energy is
in the range of megawatts. A variable shunt reactor with an OLTC needs only approximately 2500 watt seconds
when the motor drive is operated to move the OLTC into the next position. Even during auxiliary power outage,
the OLTC can be operated by hand crank and compensation is still active.

4. CHALLENGES IN REACTOR DESIGN APPLYING ADVANCED REGULATION

RANGE [4]

The maximum regulation range of a 400 kV reactor will be limited to 60% using the conventional OLTC regulation
solution. Considering the demanded maximum power of 250 Mvar at 400kV voltage, this will result in a minimum
power of 100 Mvar at maximum tap position.

The main restrictions of the regulation range controlled by an OLTC are the inner insulation of the tap changer
itself and the maximum permissible step voltage, as described in previous chapters. Consequently, a regulation
range above 60% of the maximum reactive power could only be realized by other products using different
regulation concepts in the past (e.g. switched arrays of fixed reactors, thyristor-controlled or DC-biased reactors).
Disadvantages of some alternative concepts could be higher losses, a significant higher mass and bigger footprint
of the reactor compared to a unit controlled by an OLTC. In addition, noise emission could be an issue depending
on requirements on site.

Since these restrictions have been overcome with the development of a tap-changer described in section 3.3, a
reactor with the needed regulation range can be designed. The favourite regulation is the coarse-fine regulation
scheme due to better loss behaviour. The number of turns per step is chosen equal in order to achieve the maximum
possible regulation range. As a result, the apparent power difference per step is not equal. The overall number of
tap positions does not change, but each tap position consists of twice the number of wounded steps and turns
compared to the conventional solution. As a result the number of leads is increased, which is challenging the
mechanical design of the reactor considering transportation restrictions. A measure to reduce the distances is the
use of ZnO-varistors along the regulation windings. This leads to reduced voltage stresses along winding during
lightning impulse test.

A further challenge is the stray flux control at the reactor during continuous operation. Furthermore, the leakage
impedance of the coarse-fine winding arrangement has to be within the limits given by the tap-changer
manufacturer. This also influences the operating point of the reactor as well as a suitable winding arrangement,
which has to satisfy also the other challenges mentioned previously.

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PHASE ANGLE REGULATION

Phase-shift transformers can influence the load flow via an overhead line by introducing a phase shifted voltage,
for example a transverse voltage (90° phase shift to the system voltage) or a skew voltage (60 ° phase shift to the
system voltage). When the sending end and receiving end voltage vectors are twisted together, active power and
reactive power can be transmitted across the line. If the two voltages are equal in phase but different in amplitude,
then almost only reactive power is transmitted. The active power share can be neglected. If one is able to shift the
angle between the voltages at the beginning of the line and at the end of the line, the load flow can be controlled.

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 6. APPLICATIONS AND DESIGN OF PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS

There are several applications for PST’s. The classic application is the load flow control via two parallel overhead
lines. If two overhead lines are operated in parallel to transmit higher power, the load distribution on the two lines
depends on the length of the cables and their cross sectional areas. A natural load flow across both lines occurs
according to their line impedances. By using a PST that applies a transverse voltage to one of the two lines, the
load flow can be changed as shown in figure 6a. It is therefore possible to optimize the load flow over both lines
in order to achieve full utilization of both lines.

Fig 6a: Application of PST to control load flows between parallel lines

Fig 6b: Application of PST as a valve [8]

Another application is the use of a PST to restrict the flow of energy through an overhead line that connects two
networks together as shown in figure 6b. This gives the operator the opportunity to control the energy flow even
if he has no influence on the generation. If two networks are coupled having the same frequency but different
positions of the phases, these can be coupled using a PST. When rebuilding a network, this can play a role when
individual networks have to be connected together.

Essentially, a phase-shifting transformer consists of an iron core, multiple copper windings, oil-paper insulation,
a tank, bushings and auxiliaries, as with normal power transformers. The main difference to power transformers
is the connection of the individual windings. Since the regulation in these cases is not about the voltage level but
about the relation of the voltage vector to each
other, the control range is specified in angular
degrees and not in a percentage voltage control of
the rated voltage.

The different types in the design of Phase shifting

transformers are single core design asymmetrical,
single core design symmetrical, single core design
- delta hexagonal, single core design - wye
connection, dual core design asymmetrical, dual
core design symmetrical, dual core design in
autotransformer configuration and dual core
design with phase angle / in-phase voltage
regulation as shown in figure 8a-h [10].

Fig 7: PST installation, Source: Areva

The chosen design depends on the following major factors, namely: Throughput-power and phase-shift angle
requirements, rated voltage, short-circuit capability of the connected system, shipping limitations, OLTC
performance requirements, and the type and design of transformer.

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 Fig 8a : Single core design assymmetrical Fig 8b: Single core design symmetrical

Fig 8c : Single core design – Delta hexagonal Fig 8d: Single core design – Wye connection

Fig 8e: Two core design asymmetrical Fig 8f: Two core design symmetrical

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Fig 8g: Two core design – Autotransformer configuration Fig 8h: Two core design – Phase angle / in-phase voltage regulation

7. SELECTION OF OLTC’s IN PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS

Phase shifting transformers can be built to provide discrete phase angle shift, continuous variable phase angle shift
or a combination of both. If a variable phase shift is desired, an OLTC is necessary. Two typical types of regulation
with OLTCs are used. One involves regulation at the line end (single-core design) and the other involves a series
and an exciting unit (two-core design). The appropriate selection of OLTCs is of great importance for the optimal
design of OLTCs. [3]

The maintenance interval of OLTCs is not only determined by the number of switching operations, but also by
high load variations, which can cause considerable contact wear differences between switching and transition
contacts. The vacuum type tap-changers have an extremely low contact wear and are not affected by those
influences. Therefore, the use of vacuum type tap-changers can be advantageous. [3]

The maximum through-current and the maximum step voltage must be considered for the selection of an OLTC.
Irrespective of the type of PST design, the maximum phase shift is defined under no-load conditions and is usually
symmetrical. When using coarse / fine tap winding arrangements, the leakage inductance of the arrangement has
to be considered. Apart from these, the following factors needs to be considered during the designing stage of PST:
[5]

7.1. Recovery Voltage at the change-over selector of OLTC [5]

The operation of the change-over selector only takes place in a certain position of the OLTC. During this operation,
the load current is not flowing through the tap winding. The change-over selector temporarily disconnects the tap
winding from the main winding and the potential of the tap winding floats. The floating potential during contact
separation is determined by the capacitive coupling to the adjacent winding(s) and/or other adjacent parts of the
transformer. Usually, the floating potential is different from the potential of the tap winding when connected to
the main winding. After contact separation one contact of the change-over selector is still connected to the main
winding, the other one is connected to the floating tap winding and discharges occur. The breaking stresses are
determined by the current flowing before the contacts open (currents through the coupling capacitors) and the
voltage which arises when the arc extinguishes (recovery voltage).

7.2. Short-circuit impedance [5]

When the PST is serving in an intertie between two networks, the short-circuit impedance of the PST should be
well taken into account. Tap winding(s) is the sole impedance between source and load side. Therefore, the PST
will not contribute to a short-circuit impedance and herewith the limitation of fault currents. Although the fault
current is not flowing through the tap winding at zero phase shift (zero short-circuit impedance), the OLTC is still

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in the circuit and the fault current is flowing through the OLTC. But the OLTC has only a limited short-circuit
current carrying capability and, therefore, additional fault current limiting devices such as current limiting reactors
have to be considered very well.

7.3. Breaking capacity[5]

The rated step voltage will define the required minimum value of the transition resistor of the OLTC to limit the
circulating current in the mid-position of the diverter switch to a permissible value concerning the switching
capacity of the transition contacts. The voltage drop at the transition resistor caused by the through-current forms
the recovery voltage of the main switching contact. Therefore, the switching capacity of this contact limits the
maximum permissible value of the transition resistor for a specified overload to be switched. For the selection of
the transition resistor, it is always necessary to find a balance between the effects of the step voltage and the
through-current. Therefore and for switching capability reasons, the “rated through-current” of an OLTC is
assigned to a specified rated step voltage. In PST-applications, where a load and OLTC-position dependent range
of step voltages has to be handled, sometimes it is not possible to find a transition resistor dimensioning, which is
suitable for the rated step voltage (maximum value of step voltage appearing under any specified switching
condition) as well as for twice the rated load current. If the overload requirements in those applications are not
based on a breaking capacity of twice but for example of only 1.5 times the rated load current, it should be proven,
if an OLTC with reduced rated through-current can be used to enable a more economical OLTC solution.
Figure 9 shows the step voltage limits (switching diagram) as function of the rated through-current as well as of
twice the rated through-current of any OLTC. Load
point (1) represents the operating point of any PST-
application at 1 p.u. Load point (2) represents the
operating point of this PST-application under
overload condition (here 1.5 times the rated load
current). Point (3) represents that pair of variates,
for which the OLTC transition resistors have to be
dimensioned. It is obvious that this point is beyond
the limits. With the abdication for an overload
switching capability of twice the rated load current
and with the knowledge that the dimensioning of the
transition resistors is carried out considering mainly
the overload, now it becomes possible to adjust the
transition resistors to the operating point (4).
Fig. 9: Step voltage limits at rated and twice the rated through-current
of any OLTC[5]

This procedure is only possible, if

1. The rated load current of the application is less than the maximum rated through-current of the OLTC
and
2. The load point (2) under the required overload to be switched is inside the limit of the rated step voltage at twice
the rated through-current of the OLTC.

7.4. Paralleling of PSTs[5]

When connecting two (or more) PSTs equipped with OLTCs in parallel an “out-of-step” condition temporarily
occurs due to the non-synchronous operation of the different OLTCs. The voltage difference of one tap in the
parallel circuits during this “out-of-step” condition will lead to different loadings of the transformers and the
OLTCs, which are no longer proportionally to the rated power of the transformers. Under certain conditions the
magnitude of this circulating current may reach the order of one third of the load current. This has to be checked
in every case with respect to the switching capability of the OLTC. The paralleling of PSTs in single core design
is not possible with respect to the OLTC, because in the “0°-position” there is no transformer impedance effective.
Consequently, the OLTC switching secondly has to break, in addition to the load current, a circulating current
which is in the range of a short-circuit current.

8. ADVANTAGE TO THE UTILITIES FOR USING VSR AND PST

Variable shunt reactors are a compact and cost-effective solution to improving network stability and for continuous
voltage regulation in low-load operation or no-load operation of the lines. The phase shifting transformer on the
other hand deals with relieving the congestion to the heavily loaded lines. The individual advantages to the utilities
are explained in detail below.

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Improved voltage profile
Variable shunt reactors significantly reduce the voltage spikes in the network, particularly for networks with weak
short-circuit capacity. If the capacitive current remains constant,
then the node voltage in a network with a low short-circuit capacity
(large impedance) is considerably higher than the node voltage in
a network with a high short-circuit capacity (small impedance). It
is therefore particularly advisable to use variable shunt reactors in
networks with a low short-circuit capacity which will significantly
improve the voltage quality. [2]

Phase shifting transformers prevent congestion of lines in rerouting

power flows. Hence the loading of the lines and the voltage profile
of the lines are improved

Higher network reliability and voltage quality

By switching a non-variable shunt reactor, the voltage is changed
significantly and abruptly depending on the installed power. This
can lead to potential operational malfunctions. Gradually adjusting
the adapted voltage using a variable shunt reactor, leads to
significantly greater system safety [2]. This comparison is illustrated
schematically in Figure 10. The OLTC in the PST’s allow smoother
changeover of phase regulation and does not load a line
continuously to the limits
Fig. 10: Voltage curve with a switchable/variable shunt reactor [2]

Complying with the permissible band

Switching over the non-variable shunt reactor may lead to possible breaching of the voltage band. The use of
variable shunt reactors for such networks is an effective and cost-efficient solution to maintain the voltage band.
The band in the case of PST’s are the thermal loading of lines, which are optimally used

Reducing the line losses

Transmission of the unnecessary reactive power is greatly reduced as a result and the network losses decrease
accordingly. This is also valid for I2R losses in the line with heavily loaded lines approaching their thermal limits.

Reduction of costs
The area and components required for a VSR compared to a fixed shunt reactor is greatly reduced (shown in Table
1) and hence, the costs. The payback period for
a VSR is estimated to be less than 3 years and
even upto 1 year in some cases. The PST helps
the utility in preventing unnecessary investment
in infrastructure of new lines and associated
substations by utilizing the existing power
infrastructures. Another financial benefit to the
utility will be to redirect power flows based on
the markets of the power producers. This could
lead to healthy development of the power
market.
Table 1 Reduced number of system components & maintenance

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Generation at different voltage levels due to the integration of renewable energy sources has altered the landscape
of power flows in the network. Thus, a balance of power flow control is necessary. Due to dynamic power
generation, power flow control is a requisite. This aspect was the basis this paper. Two important pieces of
equipment, which focused on the variability in the active and reactive components of power with the use of
OLTC’s, are Phase Shifting Transformers and Variable Shunt Reactors respectively.

The application of both these devices along with the advantages to the utilities were summarized. The sections on
the VSR focused on the wide regulation ranges with the use of OLTC’s as well as the challenges in the design of
the reactor. The PST sections focused on basic principles of phase angle regulation along with the design
components and types followed by the factors that influence the selection of OLTC’s.

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 REFERENCES

[1] Dr. Karsten Viereck, Variable shunt reactor, TRANSFORM Conference, Abu Dhabi, 2013

[2] Dr. Karsten Viereck, Dr. Dieter Dohnal, Alexei Babizki, Dr. Haijun Feng (2014), “Variable shunt reactors in
actual operating conditions in smart grid environment”, CEPSI JEJU Korea

[3] Dr.Axel Krämer, (2014), “On-Load Tap-Changers for Power Transformers: Operations, Principles,
Applications and Selections”, Kerschensteiner Verlag GmbH, Germany

[4] Laurenc Kirchner, Dr. Dieter Dohnal, Dr. Axel Krämer, et.al (2016),” Advanced designs of variable shunt
reactors with on-load tap-changers for wider regulation range”, CIGRE Paris

[5] A. KRÄMER, D. DOHNAL, B. HERRMANN (2006) , “Special Considerations on the Selection of On-load
Tap-changers for Phase-shifting Transformers”, CIGRE Paris

[6] ANSI IEEE C57 135: IEEE guide for the application, specification and testing of phase shifting transformers

[7] SVN Jithin Sundar, Yuvaraju A, C Radhakrishna, Manoj Kumar, S Sachdeva (2014), “Design, Testing and
commissioning of first phase shifting transformer in Indian network”, CIGRE Paris

[8] Roman Korab, Robert Owczarek (2015), “Application of phase shifting transformers in the tie-lines of
interconnected power systems”, PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY

[9] Jody Verboomen, Dirk Van Hertem, Pieter H Schavemaker, Wil L Kling, Ronnie Belmans (2005), “Phase
Shifting Transformers: Principles and applications”, IEEE

[10] Dr. Axel Krämer (2014), “Phase Shifting Transformer Applications”, Germany

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