EQUATIONS DE MAXWELL

INTRODUCTION
Simultaneous developments in electronics, computer science and telecommunications have
exponentially increased the need for electromagnetic wave (EM wave) transmissions in various
fields such as telephony, television, public transport (rail, road, air). Equipment manufacturers
ensure the transport of electromagnetic energy, but also the transport of information. The
importance of the needs for wireless transmissions or using waveguides is found in the many
applications in several fields such as rail transport (wireless communications between vehicles and
the infrastructure, communications between vehicles, intra vehicles), internet and intranet
(communication by waveguides (fiber optics), wireless by satellite) to offer services such as
telephony, video (Zoom, skype, watsapp) services such as money transfer, transfer of television
data for the retransmission of images, radio broadcasts, radiography of the human body, remote
sensing, telemedicine, data transfer via smartphones (wifi, Bluetooth)…
A few definitions :
a) wave: a wave is a pattern generated in a medium when a disturbance (energy) moves from one
point to another.
No displacement of particles, the particles vibrate around their equilibrium position. Only energy is
transported.
We could say that: a wave is an oscillation or vibration accompanied by a transfer of energy that
propagates through a vacuum or a material medium.
b) EM wave s: waves created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a magnetic field.
In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic and electric fields.

Some properties: before going deeper, we can give some characteristic properties of
electromagnetic waves. The characteristics of a wave include a crest (highest point) and a trough
(lowest point).
Spatial period or wavelength: distance between two consecutive peaks or between two consecutive
troughs.

Height: distance between crests and valleys.

Time period or period: duration required for the wave to travel through a spatial period.
Velocity: ratio of wavelength to period.
Frequency: number of oscillations in one second.
Energy: let ν be the frequency of an EM wave. The energy E transported by the electromagnetic
wave is given by the relation E=hν where h is Planck's constant.
Electromagnetic field :

Fig. 1

Ploufandsplash/ wikimediacommons

Spectrum of EMs : The electromagnetic spectrum is the classification of EM waves by frequency,

wavelength in vacuum. An example of a spectrum is given in Fig. 2

http://son.nasa.gov/tass/content/electrospectrum.htm /wikimediacommons Fig. 2

Mastering, understanding, and designing and operating EM wave transmissions requires knowledge
of Maxwell's equations that governs EM waves propagation.
I. Fundamentals of EM waves : Maxwell’ equations
We note: (C) a closed line, (S) the surface which rests on the closed line (C), (V) a volume defined
⃗ , ⃗B, the electric and magnetic fields which depend on space and time. ρ
by the closed surface (S). E
represents the electric charge density, j the current density vector, 𝜇0 , 𝜀0 the vacuum permeability
and permittivity.

Local forms Integral forms

Maxwell-Gauss 𝝆 𝟏 𝐐𝐢𝐧𝐭
⃗)=
𝐝𝐢𝐯(𝐄 ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∯𝐄 𝐝𝐬 = ∭ 𝛒 𝐝𝐯 =
𝛆𝟎 (s) 𝛆𝟎 (V) 𝛆𝟎
Maxwell- ⃗ )=𝟎
𝐝𝐢𝐯(𝐁 ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∯ ⃗𝐁 𝐝𝐬 = 𝟎
Thomson (flux)
(s)
Maxwell-Faraday ⃗⃗
𝛛𝐁 𝒅
⃗)=−
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝐄
𝐫𝐨𝐭 ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐄 𝐝𝐥 = − ∯𝐁 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐬
𝛛𝐭 𝒅𝒕 (s)

Maxwell-Ampère ⃗
𝛛𝐄 ⃗
𝛛𝐄
⃗⃗ ) = 𝛍𝟎 (𝐣 + 𝛆𝟎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝐁
𝐫𝐨𝐭 ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
) ∮ ⃗𝐁 𝐝𝐥 = 𝛍𝟎 ∯ (𝐣 + 𝛆𝟎 ) ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐬
𝛛𝐭 𝛛𝐭
(c) (s)

Vaccum : (a) absence of electric charges ⃗

𝛒 = 𝟎, and (b) absence of current density 𝐣 = 𝟎
Physics interpretations of Maxwell equations:
⃗ . By
a) Maxwell-Gauss: the electric charges generate (are the source) the electric field E
application of the theorem of Green-Ostrogradski or the divergence theorem one obtains the
integral form.
b) Maxwell-Thomson: There is no magnetic charge, no magnetic monopole.
c) Maxwell-Faraday: the temporal variation of the magnetic field generates an electric field.
Application of Stokes' theorem to obtain the integral form. It's faraday's law.
d) Maxwell-Ampère: the temporal variation of the electric field generates a magnetic field.
Application of Stokes' theorem to obtain the integral form.
II. Continuity equation of the electric charge
It is necessary to add to the equations of Maxwell, the equation of conservation of the electric
charge. Consider a closed surface (S) defining a volume (V) containing the total charge q at time
t of the bulk density ρ. We can then write:

𝑞 = ∭V ρ dV (1).
The charge variation during an elementary duration dt is written as
dq d
= (∭V ρ dV) (2).
dt dt
On the other hand, the conservation of the electric charge imposes:
dq
⃗⃗⃗⃗
= − ∯(S) J ∙ ds ⃗⃗⃗⃗ the electric charge that flows out of the surface
(3) with − ∯(S) J ∙ ds
dt
(S) per unit time. (3) into (2) and application of the divergence theorem:
dq 𝜕
= (∭V ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∭ div(J)dV
ρ dV) == − ∯(S) J ∙ ds (4)
dt 𝜕𝑡 V

𝜕 𝝏
∭V (𝜕𝑡 ρ + div(J)) dV = 0, 𝛒 + 𝐝𝐢𝐯(𝐉) = ⃗𝟎 (5)
𝝏𝒕
Eq.(5) describes the conservation of the electric charge.
III. Propagation of electric and magnetic fields in vacuum

For a vector field f, one may write : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (f)) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rot (rot grad (div( f)) − ∇2 (f). Application to
Maxwell-Faraday equation reads:
∂B ⃗⃗ ∂ 2⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rot (rot ⃗ )) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E rot (− ) = − ⃗ )) = −μ0 ∂j − μ0 ε0 ∂ E2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (B
(rot (6)
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
𝜌
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
grad (div( E ⃗ ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ )) − ∇2 (E ⃗)
grad ( ) − ∇2 (E (7)
ε0
2 ⃗E
⃗ ) − μ 0 ε0 ∂
∇2 (E = μ0
∂j
+ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
grad ( )
𝜌
(8)
∂t2 ∂t ε 0

𝛛𝟐 𝐄
⃗
⃗ ) − 𝛍𝟎 𝛆 𝟎
𝛁 𝟐 (𝐄 = ⃗𝟎 (9)
𝛛𝐭 𝟐
in vacuum.
Proceeding in a similar way from the de Maxwell-Ampère equation :
∂ 2 ⃗B
⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (rot
rot ⃗ )) = μ0 rot
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (B ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (j) + μ0 ε0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E
(rot ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (j) − μ0 ε0 ∂
⃗ )) = μ0 rot (10)
∂t ∂t2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
grad (div( ⃗B)) − ∇ ⃗ ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ 2 (B ⃗ 2 (B
grad(0) − ∇ ⃗ ) = −∇
⃗ 2 (B
⃗) (11)

∂2 B
⃗⃗
⃗ ) − μ 0 ε0
∇2 (B ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (j)
= −μ0 rot (12)
∂t2
𝟐𝐁
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ) − 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎 𝛛
𝛁 𝟐 (𝐁 = ⃗𝟎 (13)
𝛛𝐭 𝟐
in vacuum.
 1
NB : μ0 ε0 = : c is the wave’s velocity in vacuum.
c2

IV. Scalar potential and potential vector of the electromagnetic field

From the Maxwell-flux equation div( ⃗B) = ⃗0, there is a vector field ⃗A such that 𝐁 𝐫𝐨𝐭(⃗⃗𝐀)
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ is the vector field from which the magnetic field 𝐁
(14). 𝐀 ⃗⃗ comes.
⃗⃗
From Maxwell-Faraday equation ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rot(E ⃗ ) = − ∂B (15), (14) into (15) yields :
∂t

∂ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rot(E ⃗)=− ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (A
(rot ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (∂A)
⃗ )) = −rot (16)
∂t ∂t
⃗⃗
thus rot ⃗ + ∂A) = ⃗0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (C)) = ⃗0 C being a scalar field, there exists a scalar
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (grad
(17) since rot
∂t
⃗⃗
∂A
field U such that rot ⃗ +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (U)),
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (−grad
) = rot
∂t
⃗
⃗ + 𝛛𝐀 = −𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝
𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝐔) (18).
𝛛𝐭

U is the scalar potential of the electromagntic field.

 Activity I : The electric field of a one dimensional sine wave that propagates in vacuum
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
along the (oz) direction has the form : 𝐄(𝐫, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐱 .
𝐭) = 𝐄𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳)𝐞
⃗⃗ associated to the electric field ?
1. What is the magnetic field 𝐁
2. Show that the compatibility between the wave field and the Maxwell equations
imposes a relationship between k et 𝛚.
IV.1 Gauge invariance

⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Let ∅ be a scalar field. From (14) and (18) : B rot(A ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (U) − ∂A⃗⃗. Replacing U et ⃗A
⃗ ), ⃗E = −grad
∂t
by two new potentials U’ et ⃗⃗⃗
A′ such that
∂∅
U ⟼ U′ = U − A′ = ⃗A + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
; ⃗A ⟼ ⃗⃗⃗ grad(∅). One may write :
∂t
⃗⃗⃗⃗′
⃗⃗⃗
E′ = −grad ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (U) − ∂A⃗⃗ +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (U ′ ) − ∂A = −grad ∂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (∅)) − ∂ (grad
(grad ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (∅)) = ⃗E (19)
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
B′ ⃗⃗⃗ ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rot (A′ rot (A⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
grad(∅)) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rot(A ⃗ ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (∅)) = B
rot (grad ⃗ (20)

A transformation that leaves the electromagnetic field invariant is called a gauge

transformation or gauge invariance of the electromagnetic field. For example, the above
transformation where one replaces U by U’ and 𝐀 ⃗ by ⃗⃗⃗
𝐀′ is a gauge transformation of the
electromagnetic field. In the above gauge transformation, the scalar field ∅ is arbitrary. This
shows that the potentials are defined up to a constant. There are then several scalar potentials
∅ so that the scalar potential of the electromagnetic field U is not unique; the same is true for
the vector potential of the electromagnetic field. Gauge invariance allows us to say that the
relationship between the scalar potential and the vector potential is by free choice. The gauge
or simply gauge condition imposes a relationship between the scalar and vector potentials.
 Activity II :
1. Use the Maxwell-Gauss equation to write the partial differential equation satisfied
by both the scalar and vector potentials and the electric charge density.
2. Use the Maxwell-Ampère equation to write the partial differential equation satisfied
by both the scalar and vector potentials and the density current vector. The Lorentz’s
gauge helps to decouple the two partial differential equations found above. What is
the Lorentz gauge ?
V. Electromagnetic plane waves
V.1 Definitions
a) Wavefront : locus of points that vibrate with the same phase. In other words, all the points
that belong to the same wavefront have covered the same distance from the wave’s source.
b) Plane wave : a wave for which wavefronts are planes (two dimensional surfaces).
c) Wave vector, Wavenumber, direction of propagation.
Let’s consider a plane wave written as
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
E ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 exp[𝑖(ωt − ⃗k ∙ r)])
u𝑦 cos(ωt − kx) = ℛ(u (21)
where r is the position vector, ℛ(∗) the real part of (∗). The second form is the general one.

wavenumber, wave vector : k ⃗ is the wave vector of the wave and its magnitude k is the
wavenumber. The wave described by the vector field ⃗E propagates along the direction of the
(ox) axis at its wave number is k.
V.2 Transversality of wave vector, electric field and magnetic field
Relation (21) represents a progressive plane wave. Assuming that (21) describes the electric
field, the associated magnetic field may be obtained from the Maxwell-Faraday equation,
using the complex notation
⃗
∂𝐵
rot ⃗ ∧ ⃗E = −𝑖k exp[𝑖(ωt − ⃗k ∙ r)]u
⃗ ) = −𝑖k
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E ⃗⃗⃗⃗z = − (22)
∂t
k
⃗ =
B ⃗ ∙ r)]u
exp[𝑖(ωt − k ⃗⃗⃗⃗z (23)
ω

V.2.1 Dispersion relation (relation between the wavenumber and the pulsation)
 𝟐𝐄
⃗
⃗ ) − 𝛍𝟎 𝛆 𝟎 𝛛
Inserting (21) into (9) 𝛁 𝟐 (𝐄 = ⃗𝟎 (9)
𝛛𝐭 𝟐

ω2 𝛚𝟐
Leads to : (−k 2 +
c2
) ⃗E = ⃗0, hence 𝐤𝟐 −
𝐜𝟐
=𝟎 (24)

Which is the dispersion relation.

V.2.2 Transversality of the wavenumber and the electric field
In vacuum, the maxwell-Gauss equation (21) in complex notation yields :
⃗ ) = −𝒊𝐤 ∙ 𝐄
𝐝𝐢𝐯(𝐄 ⃗
⃗ =𝟎 (25)
which shows that for plane waves, the electric field ⃗E is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave given by that of ⃗k. ⃗k and ⃗E are orthogonal.
The electric field is said to be transversal.
V.2.3 Transversalité entre le vecteur d’onde et le champ magnétique
Setting (23) = (24)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E
rot ⃗ ∧ ⃗E = − ∂𝐵⃗ = −𝑖𝜔𝐵
⃗ ) = −𝑖k ⃗ ∧ ⃗E = −𝑖𝜔𝐵
⃗ , hence −𝑖k ⃗.
∂t

⃗
⃗ = 𝐤∧𝐄
𝐁 (26).
𝛚
⃗ , ⃗E) thus to both vectors
Equation (26) means that the magnetic field is perpendicular to (k
⃗ and E
k ⃗.

The magnetic field of a plane wave electromagnetic field is said to be transversal.

ω
Using the dispersion relation (24), k = , and (26),
c
𝐄
𝐁= 𝐜
(27).

VI Energy density of the electromagnetic field, Poynting vector, energy propagation

Let’s consider an electromagnetic wave that propagates through a homogenous linear and
isotropic medium. Let (V) be a volume of the medium enclosed by a surface (S).
VI.1 Energy density of the electromagnetic field
The energy density of the electromagnetic field is due to two contributions : the energy
density of the electric field and the energy density of the magnetic field.
𝟏 𝟏
⃗𝟐+
𝐰 = 𝛆𝟎 𝐄 ⃗ 𝟐
𝐁 (28).
𝟐 𝟐𝛍𝟎
VI.2 Poynting vector
The electromagnetic energy contianed within a volume (V) is given by

W = ∭(V) w dV (29).

Let’s assume that within the volume (V) the energy increase during a small duration dt is dW.
The instantaneous power p1 within the volume (V) has the form
dW ∂W
p1 = dt
= ∭(V) 𝜕t
dV (30).

We want to convert (30) into a surface integral by applying the divergence theorem. We first
differentiate (29) :
∂W ∂ 1 1 ⃗ ⃗⃗
= ( ε0 ⃗E 2 + ⃗B2 ) = ε0 ⃗E ∙ ∂E + 1
⃗B ∙ ∂B (31).
𝜕t 𝜕t 2 2μ0 𝜕t μ0 𝜕t

From Maxwell-Faraday and Maxwell-Ampère equations we have in vacuum

⃗⃗
∂B ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗E) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −rot rot(B ⃗ ) = ε0 μ ∂E , ε0 ∂E = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ B
rot ( ), (31) becomes
𝜕t 0 𝜕t 𝜕t μ 0

∂W ⃗⃗
B 1
⃗ ∙ rot
=E ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) − ⃗ ∙ rot
B ⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E (32).
𝜕t μ0 μ0

⃗⃗
B
From the relation div(f ∧ g ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (f) − rot
⃗ ) = g⃗ ∙ rot ⃗ ,f ≡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (g⃗) ∙ f, setting g⃗ ≡ E , (32) becomes
μ0
∂W ⃗⃗
B
⃗ ∧
= −div (E ) (33),
𝜕t μ0

(33) into (30)

⃗⃗
⃗ ∧ B ) dV
p1 = − ∭(V) div (E (34).
μ 0

The instantaneous electromagnetic power that radiates out of the volume (V) is
⃗
⃗ ∧ 𝐁 ) 𝐝𝐕
−𝐩𝟏 = ∭(𝐕) 𝐝𝐢𝐯 (𝐄 (35).
𝛍 𝟎

From the divergence theorem, (35) takes the form

⃗⃗
B ⃗⃗
⃗ ∧
−p1 = ∭(V) div (E ⃗ ∧ B ) ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
) dV = ∬(S) (E ds = ∬(S) ⃗R ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ds (36).
μ0 μ 0

⃗
𝐑 ⃗ ∧𝐁
⃗⃗ = 𝐄 (37).
𝛍 𝟎
 ⃗𝐑
⃗ is the Poynting vector. The poynting vector is collinear to the wave vector, hence its
direction indicates at each point in space the direction of the flow of the electromagnetic
∂W
energy ( = −div(⃗R) from (33)). The flux of the Poynting vector through a close surface is
𝜕t
equal to the power of the electromagnetic wave that radiates out of the surface.
NB : The magnitude of the Poynting vector is a power per unit surface, est donc une
puissance par unité de surface, in other words an energy flux density.

 Activity III The electric field of a sine plane wave which propagates in vacuum is written
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
as : 𝐄(𝐫, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐲 .
𝐭) = 𝐄𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳)𝐞
1. What is the direction of propagation of the wave ?
2. Determine the electromagnetic energy density of the wave. Deduce the
instantaneous electromagnetic energy contained in:
2.1 a cube whose sides lengths are b.
2.2 a cylinder whose bases are circles of radius R and height H.
3. Compute the instantaneous power of the electromagnetic field in the volume :
3.1 a cube whose sides lengths are b.
3.2 a cylinder whose bases are circles of radius R and height H.
4.
4.1 Find the Poynting vector and its characteristics.
4.2 Use the Poynting vector to calculate the instantaneous power radiated out of: a
cube whose sides lengths are b and a cylinder whose bases are circles of radius
R and height H.
5. What is the mean value of the energy density ?
6. Compute the mean value of the instantaneous power computed in question 3.
7. Calculate the mean value of the Poynting vectors found in question 4.

VII. POLARIZATION OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

The polarization of the electromagnetic field is the orientation of the electromagnetic field,
i.e., the orientations of both the electric and magnetic fields. Usually, the electric field is taken as
the reference such that from the knowledge of the electric field polarization, one deduces that of
⃗
∂B
the electric field by application of the Maxwell-Faraday equation rot ⃗)=−
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (E . If we are dealing
𝜕t
⃗
𝐤∧𝐄
⃗
with plane waves, one may deduce the polarization of the magnetic field from (26) 𝐁 = .
𝛚
To determine the polarization of an electromagnetic monochromatic progressive sine plane
⃗ = 𝑘u
wave that moves along the (ox) direction, i.e., k ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 , one may write the electric field as
⃗ = 𝑬𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 + 𝝋𝟏 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄 𝐮𝒚 + 𝑬𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 + 𝝋𝟐 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐮𝒛 (38).
⃗ = − 𝑬𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 + 𝝋𝟏 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐁
𝑬
𝐮𝒚 + 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 + 𝝋𝟐 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐮𝒛 (39).
𝒄 𝒄

Fig. 3

VII. 1 Change of time reference

In (38), both the components of the electric field 𝑬𝒚 , 𝑬𝒛 , vibrate with the same phase, but
𝝋𝟏
do not necessary have the same origin of time. The transformation 𝒕 →𝒕− implies that
𝝎
𝝋𝟏
𝝎𝒕 → 𝝎 (𝒕 − 𝝎
) = 𝝎𝒕 − 𝝋𝟏 , components of (38) become

𝑬𝒚 = 𝑬𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) , 𝑬𝒛 = 𝑬𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 + 𝛗) (40).

VII. 2 General framework

From (40), one may rewrite
𝑬𝒚
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) (41),
𝑬𝟏
𝑬𝒛
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱)𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝋) − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝋)
𝑬𝟐
𝑬𝒛 𝑬𝒚
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝋) − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝋) (42),
𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟏

Multiplying (41) by 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝋), moving the first term of the right-hand side of (42) to the left,
𝑬𝒚
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝋) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱)𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝋) (43),
𝑬𝟏
𝑬𝒛 𝑬𝒚
− 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝋) = −𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝋) (44).
𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟏
Now squaring (43) and (44) then adding the left- and the right-hand sides yields

𝑬𝒚 𝟐 𝑬𝒛 𝟐 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛
( ) +( ) −𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝋) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝝋) (45).
𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐
From (45) the end of the arrow of the electric field describes an ellipse enclosed in a rectangle
whose side lengths are 2𝐸1 and 2𝐸2 as time varies.
VII. 2.1 Linear polarization

𝝋 = 𝒏𝝅, 𝒏𝝐ℤ,
cos(𝜑) = ±1, sin(𝜑) = 0, (45) becomes
𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛 𝑬𝒛 𝑬𝟐
± = 𝟎, ⟹ = (46).
𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝟏
(46) is the equation of a straight line. It means that the direction of the electric field remains
constant as time varies see Fig. 4 below. In other words, the angle between the (ox) axis and the
⃗ is a constant when time varies.
vector field 𝐄

Fig. 4
 VII. 2.2 Elliptic polarization

𝝋 ≠ 𝒏𝝅, 𝒏𝝐ℤ,
In this case (45) is an ellipse enclose in a rectangle of sides 2𝐸1 and 2𝐸2.

Fig. 5

Elliptic left polarization Elliptic right polarization

VII. 2.3 Circular polarization

(𝟐𝒏+𝟏)𝝅
𝝋= , 𝒏𝝐ℤ, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟏 .
𝟐

𝑬𝟐 𝒚 + 𝑬𝟐 𝒛 = 𝑬𝟐 𝟏 (47).