Unit IV

Part I

MISSION VISION CORE VALUES

CHRIST is a nurturing ground for an individual’s holistic development Excellence and Service Faith in God | Moral Uprightness
to make effective contribution to the society Love of Fellow Beings | Social Responsibility
in a dynamic environment Pursuit of Excellence
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N etwork Layer:
Network Layer: Addressing IPV4 addresses - IPV6 Addresses -
Internet Protocol: IPv4 – IPv6Address. mapping protocols: ARP –
RARP Routing protocols: Unicast routing protocols: distance
vector routing, Link State routing, Multicast Routing protocols
 Network Layer: Addressing
IPV4 addresses - IPV6 Addresses

MISSION VISION CORE VALUES

CHRIST is a nurturing ground for an individual’s holistic development Excellence and Service Faith in God | Moral Uprightness
to make effective contribution to the society Love of Fellow Beings | Social Responsibility
in a dynamic environment Pursuit of Excellence
 CHRIST
Deemed to be University

What is Packetizing?
• Packetizing refers to encapsulating data received from the
payload, which is the upper layer of the network.
• Encapsulation process takes place on the sending computer.
The de-encapsulation process takes place on the receiving
computer.
• The host adds a header that includes the source and
destination addresses alongside other relevant information
required in the packetizing process.
• Note: The routers cannot change the header or the address

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Routing?
• In the network layer, numerous routes are available from the source to the destination.
The Network layer follows some strategies to find the best route possible.

• The process of finding the best route is known as routing.

• Types of routing protocols are used for routing:

• Unicast Routing Protocol
• Multicast Routing Protocol

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• Advantages of the network layer services:

• Packetization makes it easier to transfer data packets.
• Packetization helps to eliminate single points of failure in data communication.
• Forwarding helps to data packets from one network to another.
• Routers reduce network traffic.

• Disadvantages of network layer services are as follows:

• It lacks flow control in the design of the network layer.
• There is a chance of congestion.
• Error control in the network layer is inefficient as there are fragmented data packets.
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OSI Model

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Network Adapter Settings

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IPV4 Class and Range

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IPV4 Class: Range and Usage

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Example: IPV4 – 32 bit

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IPV4 Packet: Header and Data

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IPV4 Packet: Header Information

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IPV4 vs V6

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IPv4 and IPv6 - Comparison
● Header checksum [IPv4] - to detect corruption in the
header of IPv4 packets.

● Time to live (TTL) [IPv4] refers to the amount of time

or “hops” that a packet is set to exist inside a network
before being discarded by a router.

● The "Type of Service (ToS) [IPv4] : Indication of the

Quality of Service (QoS) desired, such as precedence,
delay, throughput, and reliability.

● Flags field is used to control how a specific IP

[IPv4]
packet is treated by a device.

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IPv4 and IPv6 - Comparison
● Padding [IPv4] is basically used to make sure
that the IP packet header has a length that is a
multiple of 32 bits.

● Fragment offset [IPv4] – use to identify the

sequence of fragments in the frame.

● Internet Header Length (IHL) [IPv4] field

indicates the number of 4-byte blocks in the IPv4
header.

● Version: To indicate the current version of the

Internet Protocol (IP) being used.

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IPv4 and IPv6 - Comparison
● Traffic Class in IPv6: It helps routers to handle
the traffic based on the priority of the packet.

● Flow Label field in IPv6: It is used by a source

to label the packets belonging to the same flow
in order to request special handling by
intermediate IPv6 routers

● Hop Limit in IPv6: It indicates the maximum

number of links over which the IPv6 packet can
travel before being discarded.

● Source – Sender, Destination - Receiver

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Routing Algorithms

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Autonomous System (AS) – Introduction

● An autonomous system (AS) is a group of networks and routers under the authority of a single
administration.

● Routing inside an autonomous system is called intra-domain routing.

● Features
○ Collection of networks with the same policy

○ Single routing protocol

○ Usually under the single administrative control

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The Network Layer – Introduction

● Concerned with getting packets from the source all the way to the destination.
● Getting to the destination may require making many hops at intermediate routers
● Network layer must know about the topology of the network & choose appropriate paths
● New problems occurs when source & destination are in different networks

● NETWORK LAYER DESIGN ISSUES ARE

1. Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
2. Services Provided to the Transport Layer
3. Implementation of Connectionless Service
4. Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service
5. Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram Network

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ROUTING ALGORITHMS - Introduction
● Main Function of Network Layer: Routing Packets from source to destination

● Definition: Routing algorithm is that part of the network layer software responsible for deciding which
output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on

● Routing algorithm: Forward, Fill & Update the route table

● Properties of Routing Algorithm

○ Correctness, simplicity, robustness, stability, fairness, and efficiency.

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Routing Algorithms

Distance
Optimality Shortest
Flooding Vector
principle Path Routing
Routing

Link State Hierarchical Broadcast Multicast

Routing Routing Routing Routing

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Distance Vector Routing

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Distance Vector Routing…(1)
● It is a Dynamic Routing Algorithm
● Here, each router maintains a distance table called as Vector
● Router Maintains a routing table giving the best route to reach the
destination
● Based on, Least cost between the 2 nodes
● These tables are updated every time
● Metric can be hop/delay
● If the metric is a hop, then the distance is 1 HOP
● Bellman Ford Algorithm: dx(y) = least cost from x to y
● If no link exists between two nodes, the cost of a direct link between the
nodes is “infinity”.
● The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an intra-domain (interior)
routing protocol used inside an autonomous system

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Distance Vector Routing…(2)

● Cost is configured by the network operator

● The settling of routes to best paths across the network is called convergence.

● Distance vector routing is useful as a simple technique by which routers can collectively compute shortest

paths

● It reacts rapidly to good news (new path), but leisurely to bad news (Link failure).

● Here, delay metric is the number of hops

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Distance Vector Routing…(1)
Example: Routing Table of B

Source Destination Cost (Min) Neighbour / Next Hop

B A 1 A
B C 3 C
B E 9 E
B D 7 C

Source: B
Destination: A

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Link State Routing

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Link State Routing…(1)

● Example:
○ IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)

○ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

● Usage: Used in Large Networks & Internet

● Principles of Link State in Each Router (Stages)

1. Learning about the neighbors

2. Setting the Link Costs (i.e. Distance)

3. Building New Link State Packets

4. Distributing the Link State Packets (i.e. To other routers)
5. Computing the New Routes (i.e. Shortest Path)
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Link State Routing…(2)

1 - Learning about the Neighbors

● Learns about the neighbors
● Sends Hello Packet on Point to Point line

● Routers are connected by a broadcast link (e.g., a switch), the situation is slightly more complicated.
○ Router A, C, F are directly connected to LAN
○ Then A, C, F are further connected to Router H

● Virtual Router N is introduced to connect all the Nodes in Graph Model

○ A to C is connected by using A, N, C (using virtual router N) New Graph Model Generated

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Link State Routing…(3)

2 – Setting the Link Costs

● Requires each link to have a distance or cost metric for finding shortest paths.
● Cost is configured by the network operator
● Example: Bandwidth

3 - Building New Link State Packets

● Each Packet has: Id of Sender, Sequence No, Age, List of neighbour & Cost
● Diagram (Left): A network with 6 Routers
● Diagram (Right): Link State Packets for the network

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Link State Routing…(4)

4 - Distributing the Link State Packets

● Flooding is used to distribute the link state packets to the router
● New Packet is forwarded, Duplicate Packet is discarded
● Issues: Maintaining the sequence no. is a difficult task
○ Solution: using the age of each packet after seq. no. & decrement it once per second

• Data from A: Sent to C and F, Ack to A

• Data from F: Sent to A and C, Ack to F
• Data from E: Sent to C, Ack to A and F

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Link State Routing…(4)

5 – Computer the New Routes

● Issue: Different directions may even have different costs. (Eg. Route A to B, B to A)
● Solution: Dijkstra’s Algo is used locally to construct the shortest paths to destination
Note:
● Link State requires more memory & Computation
● For n routers, k neighbors -> memory required is proportional to kn

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Distance Vector vs Link State Routing

Distance Vector Routing Link State Routing

used in small networks used in larger networks

it has a limited number of hops. it has unlimited number of hops

high convergence time convergence time is low.

periodically advertise updates only new changes in a network.

It has loop problem No loop problem

Updates are broadcasted Updates are multicasted

advertises only the directly connected routers and full advertise the updates, and flood the advertisement.
routing tables,

Eg. RIP ,IGRP , BGP . Eg. : OSPF , IS-IS

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Broadcast Routing

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Broadcast Routing

● Sending a packet to all destinations simultaneously is called broadcasting.(Eg.Live updates)

○ Issue: Source should aware of complete list of destinations
● Multidestination Routing: Each packet contains list of destinations or a desired destination
● Reverse Path Flooding:
○ Definition: Forward packets to multicast address out to all links except incoming link

○ It sends the broadcast packet over each link only once in a direction. It requires to know how to reach
destination, without sequence no. or list of destinations.

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Multicasting

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Multicast Routing

● Multicast packet is delivered to planned recipients only.

● Prune the Spanning Tree: Remove the links that do not lead to members (Efficient)

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Multicast Routing …(2)

● Core-based trees to compute a single spanning tree for the group

○ All of the routers agree on a core (root) & build the tree by sending a packet from each member to the
root.
○ The tree is the union of the paths traced by these packets
● To send to this group, a sender sends a packet to the core.
○ When the packet reaches the core, it is forwarded down the tree

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Multicast routing protocols

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Multicast routing protocols

● Multicast routing protocols use trees, i.e. spanning tree to avoid loops. The optimal tree is called shortest
path spanning tree.

● DVMRP - Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol

● MOSPF - Multicast Open Shortest Path First

● CBT - Core Based Tree

● PIM - Protocol independent Multicast

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Classful and classless addressing schemes.

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classful and classless addressing schemes.

● Classful addressing is a technique of allocating IP addresses that divides them into five categories.

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classful and classless addressing schemes.

● Classless addressing is a technique of allocating IP addresses that is intended to replace classful addressing in order
to reduce IP address depletion.
● Classless addressing is the temporary fix, which nevertheless makes use of IPv4 addresses.
● In order to make up for address depletion, the class privilege was taken out of the distribution.
● The entire address space is partitioned into blocks of varying lengths with classless addressing.
● An address's prefix designates the block (network); its suffix designates the node (device).

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