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Additive manufacturing process monitoring and

control by non-destructive testing techniques:
challenges and in-process monitoring

Q. Y. Lu & C. H. Wong

To cite this article: Q. Y. Lu & C. H. Wong (2018) Additive manufacturing process monitoring and
control by non-destructive testing techniques: challenges and in-process monitoring, Virtual and
Physical Prototyping, 13:2, 39-48, DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2017.1351201

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Published online: 18 Jul 2017.

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VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING, 2018
VOL. 13, NO. 2, 39–48
[Link]

Additive manufacturing process monitoring and control by non-destructive

testing techniques: challenges and in-process monitoring
Q. Y. Lu and C. H. Wong
Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This paper examines on the obstacles specific to the implementation of non-destructive testing Received 1 May 2017
(NDT) techniques in additive manufacturing (AM). The general challenges impeding the adoption Accepted 3 July 2017
of AM for volume production of parts, and the use of NDT techniques to ameliorate some of
KEYWORDS
these challenges are studied. These challenges include the lack of understanding of AM Non-destructive testing
materials, and insufficient standards for the mechanical testing and NDT of additively (NDT); additive
manufactured parts. An overview on the principle of operation for in-process inspection NDT manufacturing (AM)
methods is presented. The techniques include thermography, and acoustic emission testing. The
applications of these NDT techniques in AM and their suitability for defects detection of
additively manufactured parts are reviewed. The sensitivity, and the advantages and
disadvantages of each technique are evaluated. The types of defects, and the detectability of
these defects by NDT techniques are assessed.

1. Introduction
printed fuel nozzles for the use in their leading edge avia-
Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques have primarily tion propulsion (LEAP) engine (Kellner 2014).
been used for inspection and assurance of product However, the extensive adoption of AM technologies
quality. This encompasses the assurance of the product’s is hindered by challenges such as the lack of certification
quality and review of in-service parts at regular intervals standards, geometric inaccuracies, and presence of
(Boyes 2009). Constant advancements in NDT instru- defects in finished parts (Energetics Incorporated 2013).
ments are fuelled by the increasing need in establishing NDT offers solutions to some of the challenges men-
the integrity and reliability of engineering materials and tioned above through before, during, and after process
parts. In this review, in-process inspection methods control. Characterisation of input materials which
including thermography, and acoustic emission testing include powder shape and size can be achieved using
are studied. NDT techniques. These techniques also play an impor-
Additive manufacturing (AM) is the process of fabri- tant role in establishing a closed-loop diagnostic
cating objects from a three-dimensional (3D) compu- system for monitoring and prediction of structure prop-
ter-aided design (CAD) data where materials are laid erties, and defects generation during AM processes.
layer-by-layer (Chua et al. 2017). As opposed to conven- Furthermore, in-situ measurements can be utilised to
tional machining methods such as milling and grinding, optimise part-to-part reproducibility. Additively manu-
which are subtractive in nature, AM produces the final factured structures such as a mini aircraft that have
shape of the part by the addition of materials (Huang been tested by Airbus can be regularly inspected and
et al. 2013). maintained by NDT (Airbus 2016).
In recent years, AM has progressively transited from The use of NDT methods for the verification of quality
being regarded as a tool for rapid prototyping to the effi- and structural integrity of additively manufactured parts
cient production of individually customised, and highly is necessary for the inspection of discontinuities and pos-
complex functional parts. For instance, biologically inspired sible failures without destructing and damaging the part.
scaffolding structures with high strength-to-weight ratio In-situ monitoring and inspection using NDT technolo-
can be created through AM processes. AM presents a gies during the printing process render both time and
broad range of applications (Gibson et al. 2010). For cost savings as the process can be stopped if a failure
example, General Electric Aviation has successfully 3D is detected. Semi built parts that do not meet the

CONTACT C. H. Wong chwong@[Link]

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
40 Q. Y. LU AND C. H. WONG

standards can be stopped automatically before further conventional methods such as ultrasonic and eddy
parts are manufactured. current testing is a challenge (Waller et al. 2014). Simi-
larly, the internal structure of many additively manufac-
2. Challenges faced in implementation of NDT tured parts may be inaccessible for less geometry-
to AM responsive techniques such as magnetic particle
testing. X-ray computed tomography (CT) is the most
While notable success has been demonstrated in the encouraging method for the inspection of parts with
implementations of NDT techniques to AM processes complex geometries. CT technique has imperfections
for applications such as in-situ monitoring and testing such as its incompetence in crack detection and the
of defects present in printed parts, there are still chal- deterioration in its sensitivity as the parts increase in
lenges to be overcome in this aspect. There is a per- thickness and size. The development of NDT techniques
ceived need to characterise the critical defects suited for additively manufactured parts may take years
detectable by NDT techniques at a certain confidence due to the variation in AM technologies and complex
level in additive manufactured parts, and the proficiency processing parameters.
of NDT techniques in identifying flaws in geometrically
complex parts produced by AM.
3. Challenges faced in AM
2.1. Defects characterisation The general challenges faced in AM include the lack of
Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) data are required by understanding of AM materials, insufficient standards
fracture mechanics investigators in ensuring that for the mechanical testing and NDT of additively manu-
defects larger than the critical defect size are assessed factured parts, and a lack of accurate physics-based,
at a certain defined probability of detection and confi- multi-scale predictive models for accurate AM modelling
dence level. Hence, NDT techniques should be validated and simulation.
for their capabilities in capturing standard-sized defects
at a specified probability and confidence level. 3.1. AM materials
However, the detection of a single flaw by NDT techni-
ques developed by well-characterised physical reference Common metal materials used in AM include stainless
standards may not pertain to parts fabricated by AM. steel, titanium alloys, and aluminium casting alloys.
Conventional manufacturing is subtractive in nature, as Advancements in AM have been hindered by the lack
the part is formed from a bulk material. AM, on the of understanding in post-processing, and the ineptitude
other hand, builds a part in a layer-by-layer fashion. to monitor and identify defects during the printing
Due to the difference in nature of manufacturing, process. For the former, thermal post-processing beha-
defects characterisation of conventionally manufactured viours such as hot isostatic pressing and heat treatment
parts cannot be directly used on additively manufac- are not well specified for AM materials. For the latter,
tured parts for NDT methods. In addition, the parts pro- there is a lack of robust in-situ measurement and moni-
duced by powder bed fusion processes generally have toring of materials’ performance. Hence, feedback
larger amount of porosities due to insufficient powder control of the material composition and microstructure
fusion and flaws are scattered throughout the part. This is unfeasible and the incorporation of sensors is not
makes the sizing of flaws a challenge (Waller et al. 2014). achievable with the current black box controllers (Ener-
The challenges mentioned rendered the identification getics Incorporated 2013).
and quantification hard for the defect type and sizes In addition, inadequacy in the number of certified
detectable by NDT techniques for additively manufac- measurement methods for powder chemistry and size
tured parts. There is often ambiguity among industries distribution illustrate a lack of material standards (Shar-
to what constitutes to a critical defect, especially for geo- ratt 2015). As a result, real-time adjustments to process
metrically complex additively manufactured parts. This parameters such as the laser power of the selective
information will only be accessible with maturation of laser melting (SLM) process, which will yield in an
AM processes, and after the completion of extensive improved product, is hampered.
studies.
3.2. AM processes and equipment
2.2. Complex geometry
The challenges hindering the large-scale implementation
AM technologies are able to produce parts with complex of AM processes revolve mainly around the establish-
geometries. However, NDT of these parts using ment of advanced technologies. These include improved
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 41

monitoring and control processes and outputs; standar- 3.3. AM qualification and certification
disation of AM process ranging from input materials to
All the constituents of AM technology, including materi-
products; and emphasis on the knowledge base to facil-
als and processes, must be qualified and certified in
itate process refinements (Waller et al. 2014). The
ensuring the reproducibility of high-quality components.
absence of real-time sensors in all regions vital to
Without the standardisation procedures, the production
process control and monitoring has been ascertained
of the first few high-quality part is problematic. This is
as a main challenge. Furthermore, there is also a lack of
due to the inexistence of a public database for access
NDT methods that could be employed for in-situ moni-
to materials properties on the design allowable for speci-
toring and performance indication (Energetics Incorpo-
fic processes. Acquisition of material data is also chal-
rated 2013).
lenged by the number of AM machine manufacturers,
Standards are crucial in ensuring equipment-to-
and the evolution of control software. Collaborative
equipment consistency and provide guidelines for
work has to be taken on for the testing of materials
mechanical testing of parts. It is necessary to
and processes to set up databases. The effect of
develop standards to overcome insufficiency of accu-
thermal post-processing on the characteristics of addi-
rate material datasets for design allowable and
tively manufactured parts is poorly understood, and
control samples.
heat treatment of AM components is not well-charac-
Commercial systems are available for real-time in-
terised (Energetics Incorporated 2013). Hence, detailed
situ monitoring of AM processes, providing process
requirements for AM processes have to be developed.
control and quality assurance of printed parts. Arcam
There are insufficient feedback sensors and measure-
EBM has developed process validation technology for
ment techniques available for obtaining the necessary
AM. Arcam LayerQam is a high-resolution camera
data for qualification and certification (Srivatsan and
system for the detection of defects through each
Sudarshan 2015). The development of closed-loop
layer. Porosities detected will be reported as an entire
control systems, which can aid in the provision of data,
build, and individual components (Arcam EBM 2013).
is inadequate. In an ideal scenario, data collated can be
Sigma Labs has established the PRINTRITE3D INSPECT
stored in a repository and can be made available to the
software for in-situ inspection of metallurgical proper-
AM community. There are issues in the development of
ties. Through the use of sensor data, in-process
such a repository due to the proprietary nature of
metrics for the metallic material is instituted. A quality
some data and the inconsistency in data format (Ener-
report is generated with real-time metric data for
getics Incorporated 2013).
both the material and the layer-by-layer process
Test protocols for AM materials and processes are
dynamics (Sigma Labs 2016). The in-situ quality assur-
insufficient, and there exists an extensive variation in
ance system, QMmeltpool 3D, from Concept Laser, uti-
technologies. This makes the accounting of reports incon-
lises coaxial sensors to identify the melt pool area and
sistent and tedious. In addition, modification of the AM
the melt pool intensity. The system documents posi-
machines is restricted due to intellectual property owner-
tion-related characteristics of the melt pool when the
ship, and the obligation to adhere to maintenance and
part is being printed, providing local indications of
warranty requirements (Energetics Incorporated 2013).
defects in the part (Concept Laser GmbH 2015). EOS
No consensus among organisations has been reached
e-Manufacturing Solutions has introduced EOSTATE
for the input materials and finished part standards. This
MeltPool, an automated, and real-time process moni-
includes the characterisation of the size, shape, chemis-
toring system for direct metal laser sintering (DMLS).
try, and microstructural uniformity of the input materials
EOSTATE MeltPool software registers data by observing
(Campbell et al. 2012, Ford and Despeisse 2016). In addi-
light emitted by the melt pool, which can be used to
tion, there are also limited standards addressing the
draw conclusions on the quality of the printed parts.
measurement of the mechanical and physical properties
The process monitoring is carried out at each spot,
of produced parts. The standards addressing the test
each layer, and each part during the build process, low-
samples’ measurements, and the reporting and storing
ering quality assurance costs (EOS e-Manufacturing
of AM test data is absent. These standards will be devel-
Solutions 2016).
oped under the administration of the American Society
Novel and advanced imaging and processing NDT
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International Technical
techniques are able to optimise the in-situ non-destruc-
Committee F42 (Royal Academy of Engineering 2013,
tive examination and inspection of the end product.
Waller et al. 2014).
The most suitable NDT technique for in-process monitor-
The inadequacy of standardisation procedures for
ing applications should be identified for each AM
NDT of additively manufactured parts has been
machine.
42 Q. Y. LU AND C. H. WONG

examined. Despite the general applicability of current the object, resulting in variations of the emitted radiation
NDT standards of conventional wrought and forged captured by the infrared camera.
parts on AM parts, certain requirements such as porosity Thermography can be applied through two
and surface finish must be attended to by customised approaches: (a) passive and (b) active. In the passive
standards for NDT procedures. approach, the natural heat distribution is quantified
over the surface of the inspected material. This approach
is usually used in temperature monitoring. In active ther-
4. In-situ inspection NDT methods mography, induced heating, or cooling, also known as an
external stimulus, is applied to the inspected material
NDT techniques including thermography and acoustic
and acquisition of the temperature profile across its
emission testing can be applied as inspection methods
surface is measured. Active thermography is the
for in-situ monitoring of AM processes. These techniques
approach adopted in NDT. The aim is to produce a
are particularly useful for obtaining the necessary data
thermal contrast on the subsurface defects. There exist
for qualification and certification of additively manufac-
various stimulation methods, which can be classified as
tured parts. They can also be incorporated into feedback
optical, mechanical, or inductive. Optical stimulation is
control systems of the AM processes during printing to
the most common method where light is employed to
rectify and reduce defects produced in the part. It
deliver energy to the inspected object. Heat is generated
should be noted that thermography, and acoustic emis-
from the applied stimulation and propagates from the
sion testing can also be used as post-process inspection
surface through the object as thermal waves. As discon-
NDT methods.
tinuities alter the propagation rate of the thermal waves,
a thermal contrast on the surface directly above the
defects is produced.
4.1. Thermography
An active thermography NDT set-up is illustrated in
Thermography relies on the infrared band of the electro- Figure 1. Laser is used as the excitation source, while
magnetic radiation spectrum. This infrared band is the surface temperature of the sample is monitored.
further categorised into four smaller bands. They are Generally, three components are involved in NDT using
near infrared, short-wavelength infrared, mid-wave- active thermography: an excitation source, an infrared
length infrared, and long-wavelength infrared with camera, and a data processing algorithm to improve
wavelengths of 0.8–1.7, 1–2.5, 2–5, and 8–14 µm, respec- the signal-to-noise content of the thermographic data
tively (Usamentiaga et al. 2014). Infrared radiation travels (Usamentiaga et al. 2014).
in straight lines outward from the source and propagates
in vacuum. The intensity of the emitted spectrum 4.1.1. Types of defects detectable and sensitivity
depends on the absolute temperature of the body. Various defect types of interest including cracks and
Three factors that affect the thermal measurement delamination in composite materials can be detected
include emissivity, surrounding, and atmosphere. with active thermography. It can also detect disbonding
Emissivity is the most important calibration parameter due to entrapped water under epoxy coating of steel
for quantitative measurement of temperature using pipes. Contaminants in fibreglass epoxy composites
infrared radiation. It can be interpreted as the ratio of can be identified through thermographic inspection of
the radiance of a body at a particular temperature to the fibre (Shull 2002). Infrared thermography has been
the corresponding radiance of a black body at the widely used in the field of civil engineering for the detec-
same temperature (Raj et al. 2002). The emissivity of a tion of internal voids and delamination in concrete struc-
black body is 1.0. In reality, objects rarely have emissivity tures such as pipelines, bridge decks, and highway
of 1.0. High-emissivity materials emit more infrared radia- pavements (Holt and Manning 1980, Clark et al. 2003).
tion than materials with low-emissivity at the same tem- While NDT methods such as ultrasonic testing is
perature (Usamentiaga et al. 2014). mainly suitable for the identification and characterisation
In NDT, infrared thermography measures the tem- of defects ranging from 5 to 10 cm in depth, active ther-
perature field of the surface of the studied body. The mography bridges the gap for testing between the
principle behind thermography is based on the differ- surface to a depth of 10 cm (Milovanović and Banjad
ence in thermal behaviour between the internal struc- Pečur 2016).
ture of the examined object and its flaws.
Discontinuities affect the heat flow and will be heated 4.1.2. Advantages and disadvantages
or cooled at rates different from the bulk of the material. Thermography can be conducted even in situations
Hence, temperature differences exist on the surface of where a large standoff distance is required for inspection.
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 43

Figure 1. Active thermography set-up.

Hence it is a non-contact inspection technique. This Fedala et al. demonstrated the possibility of employ-
advantage is significant in environments where immer- ing optical lock-in thermography with a modulated
sion of the specimen in a fluid as used in ultrasonic laser excitation in detecting a crack of 2–3-mm long in
testing is not feasible. Thermography is a rapid method the section of a turbine engine. The crack was located
as compared to other NDT techniques such as ultrasonic, at a complex curved surface of the part. If this method
for the examination of parts where surface contact or can be extended reliably, it will be beneficial to the
access is difficult. Active thermography can be used for NDT of additively manufactured parts, particularly
thickness measurements such as cast fan blades (Sharratt those with complex geometries (Fedala et al. 2014).
2015). National Aeronautics and Space Administration
In thermography, the infrared technology has limited (NASA) has implemented the use of infrared camera for
penetration capability, usually restricted to depths of a in-situ process monitoring. Progress made in the field
few millimetres. Hence, it is only suitable for monitoring of feedback and control by thermographic measure-
or detection of surface anomalies of the material (Avde- ments has benefited the quality of electron beam free-
lidis et al. 2011). The radiation captured by the infrared form processing. Some of the improvements include
camera contains not only information on the object’s temperature calibration of infrared cameras for evalua-
measured temperature. It is also dependent on the tion and characterisation of the weld pool characteristics;
heat transfer inside the object and is affected by the real-time tracking, and feedback algorithms to refine the
ambient temperature. These factors must be taken into uniformity of weld shape. Straight wall specimens made
account for the calibration of the infrared camera, and of stainless steel have shown improved consistency with
could complicate the recording of accurate thermo- the implementation of these systems. During printing,
graphic temperature measurement, which is a major the detection of defects in the specimens was also
drawback of this technique (Švantner and Veselý 2014). accomplished with the use of calibrated infrared
cameras (Waller et al. 2014).
4.1.3. Applications of thermography in AM Thermography can also be integrated to powder bed
Thermography offers the major advantage of being a fusion processes such as electron beam melting (EBM)
relatively fast technique, as compared to ultrasonic for in-situ process monitoring. Krauss et al. demonstrated
testing, and adaptable to different temperature-inducing the possibility of utilising infrared camera to track the
methods. Such characteristics allow thermography to be solidification process and the quality of powder layer
used on parts with inaccessible surfaces. Pertinent to the deposition during the print process of a SLM machine.
NDT of additively manufactured parts, thermography is The variation in powder layer thickness can be identified
less sensitive to the effect of surface roughness as com- by thermography immediately after recoating based on
pared to other techniques. the theory that a thinner layer of powder will heat up
The selection of excitation source is dependent on the more rapidly than that of a thicker layer. Artificial flaws
type of defects of interest. The use of laser or flash lamp with size up to 100 μm were also distinguishable
as surface heating methods in thermography has been through the mensuration of the temporal evolution
shown to reveal surface cracks under 1 mm in width and the spatial distribution of the total irradiance
with suitable aspect ratios (Runnemalm et al. 2014). during each exposure of a new layer (Krauss et al. 2012).
44 Q. Y. LU AND C. H. WONG

4.1.4. Suitability of thermography for additively phenomenon whereby the rapid release of energy from
manufactured parts localised sources, such as transient relaxation of stress
Active thermography is suitable for the in-situ monitor- and strain fields, creates transient elastic waves. Some
ing of AM processes. The limitation of thermography examples of this phenomenon include fracture, crack
on the depth of defects detectable is trivial for in- initiation and growth, and plastic deformation. A salient
process monitoring of AM printing due its layer-by- aspect of acoustic emission, as compared to other tech-
layer nature. The formation of defects during the build niques, is that signals are generated within the material
process can be captured by the infrared camera across itself (Shull 2002). Inspection and analysis are based on
the layers (Ljungblad 2012). the minute acoustic signals generated by the propaga-
Thermographic images captured by an infrared tion of discontinuities in the material under a stimulus,
camera are also particularly useful for mapping geome- such as temperature and stress (Scruby 1987). Informa-
trical profiles of the sputter activity which can cover an tion regarding the location of discontinuities and the
extensive area. Krauss et al. have explored the use of material’s structural integrity can be acquired.
thermography to collate data about the stability of the An important characteristic of acoustic emission is its
SLM process and the resultant part quality (Krauss et al. irreversibility. When a material is subjected to a given
2014). The solidification and deposition of powder is stress level and unloaded, there will be no emission
monitored and evaluated. Hence, hot spots can be distin- upon immediate reloading until the previous stress
guished at an early stage during the solidification level has been exceeded. This is due to the close relation
process to aid in the rectification of print parameters. of acoustic emission with plastic deformation and frac-
Pivotal indicators, such as the highest temperature, and ture. The irreversibility feature allows the recognition of
cool-down behaviour of the powder bed are allocated subcritical growth of defects, including fatigue crack
to assigned locations of the cross section for the whole growth and stress corrosion cracking (Raj et al. 2002).
layer. A 3D quality report containing information based Acoustic emission monitoring is not strictly non-destruc-
on one image per key indicator and layer (tomography) tive in nature due to damages incurred to the material.
can be generated by the stacking of individual layer However, only minor microscopic damages are asso-
data (Krauss et al. 2014). ciated with acoustic emission testing in comparison to
The feasibility of adopting thermography for in- the eventual failure of the material.
process inspection of the building platform in AM equip- Two types of acoustic spectra distinguished, depend-
ment has been proven (Bayle and Doubenskaia 2008, ing on the nature of energy release are: (a) continuous
Schwerdtfeger et al. 2012, Dinwiddie et al. 2013). and (b) burst (Boyes 2009). In metals and alloys, continu-
However, the broad temperature range of the melt pool ous emission takes place during plastic deformation by
for powder bed fusion processes should be taken into dislocation movement and diffusion controlled phase
consideration for the calibration of infrared camera. The transformations. It is usually related to yield instead of
temperature distribution of the powder bed ranges fracture. A burst emission is characterised by momentary
from approximately 2000°C, the instant which the laser (from 10 μs to a few milliseconds) and high amplitude
beam melts the powder, to 400°C upon cooling, with a pulses, as a result of discrete release of strain energy.
time on the order of milliseconds (Cheng and Chou Crack initiation and propagation, and stress corrosion
2015, Lane et al. 2016). Hence, the chosen infrared cracking are examples of such emission (Raj et al. 2002).
camera should have a measurable temperature range The instrumentation for acoustic testing generally
corresponding to that of the melt pool evaluation of includes signal diagnosis and acquisition, processing,
the powder bed during the melting process. The calibra- and analysis units. Considerations such as the motivation
tion process is further complicated by its dependence on for which acoustic testing is utilised, and the degree of
the lens and filter combination, the material’s emissivity, sensitivity required will affect the choice of analysing
and the material of the window between the lens and units (Raj et al. 2002).
the imaged subject (Lane et al. 2016). Figure 2 shows the schematic of a standard experi-
mental set-up for acoustic emission testing. The pre-
sence of cracks in the material generates small stresses
or ultrasonic waves when subjected to stress. Acoustic
4.2. Acoustic emission testing
emissions produced are detected by the transducer,
Acoustic emission testing, among the various NDT tech- which converts wave pulses into electrical impulses
niques, is conceivably based on the simplest fundamen- (Kim and Liaw 1998). The preamplifier amplifies the
tal concepts. It is, however, one of the most challenging signals and the filter is used to enhance the signal-to-
techniques to be implemented. Acoustic emission is the noise ratio (Martinez-Gonzalez et al. 2013). The electrical
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 45

Figure 2. Schematic set-up for acoustic emission testing.

impulses are then amplified by the amplifier before data In acoustic emission testing, the characteristic of
processing, analysis, and evaluation is performed. The the emitted signal is unforeseeable as it depends on
results are displayed on the computer. the characteristics of the source present inside the
material. Different acoustic emission sources may
reflect tremendously different waveforms. In fact,
4.2.1. Types of defects detectable and sensitivity the same acoustic emission mechanism may lead to
Acoustic emission testing is exceptionally sensitive as different signals detected if the source is positioned
compared to other NDT techniques. For eddy current, differently relative to the propagation path to the
ultrasonic, and radiography testing, the minimum detector.
detectable crack size is approximately 0.5 mm, assuming
that ideal conditions are met. Acoustic emission testing,
on the other hand, is capable of detecting crack growth 4.2.3. Applications of acoustic emission testing in
of the order of 25 μm. This is equivalent to micro crack AM
growth of the order of less than 10 μm (Raj et al. 2002). Acoustic emission testing is based on the principle of
Acoustic emission testing is able to identify growing sound waves transmission through the test part. This
flaws of at least an order of magnitude smaller than technique has the potential for monitoring of the print
those measured by any other NDT techniques. The process for additively manufactured parts. Variations in
growth of one or more defects can be detected by acous- microstructure, surface defects, surface roughness, and
tic emission testing. As the growth of defect approaches geometric divergence will influence the signature of
the critical size, the recorded acoustic emission count sound travelling through the part. The difficulty asso-
rate increases drastically, signalling imminent instability ciated with this method lies in the recognition of the
and failure of the component. source causing the change in sound signature. Hence,
Acoustic emission testing has been applied to pipe this technique is only practical when the detected
rupture research, examination of known flaws in pressure sound signature caused by an impact can be compared
vessels, stress corrosion cracking, and fatigue failure to a reference signature.
(Boyes 2009). A prognostic and health management approach for
health monitoring, fault detection, and quality control
of AM equipment is studied by Yoon et al. (2014). This
4.2.2. Advantages and disadvantages approach involves the use of acoustic emission sensors,
Acoustic emission testing is more applicable than other and the feasibility is validated on a fused deposition
techniques in the area for monitoring and evaluating modeling (FDM) printer. The printer was operated with
structural integrity due to its potential for: (a) continuous and without a fault seeded driving belt. During this
monitoring, (b) indication of advance warning, (c) com- process, five sets of bolt and nut (a total of ten sets)
plete volume inspection of the component, and (d) iden- was produced for each condition. Illustrations on the dif-
tification and location of any crack initiation and ference in quality of the printed parts for each condition
propagation, and system leaks. can be found in Yoon et al. (2014). Acoustic emission
Through the utilisation of an array of acoustic emis- signal analysis performed on the seeded fault tests of
sion sensors, a global area or the volume of the compo- the 3D printer test rig has proved its capability to
nent can be inspected. High-cost and time-consuming detect driving belt seeded looseness fault. This opens
point-by-point scanning is not necessary (Shull 2002). opportunities for the use of acoustic emission in
46 Q. Y. LU AND C. H. WONG

examining AM imperfections such as mechanical compo- designed for the inspection of geometrically complex
nent faults (Yoon et al. 2014). parts fabricated by AM technologies. Novel and
advanced imaging and processing NDT techniques
4.2.4. Suitability of acoustic emission testing for with the ability to optimise the in-situ non-destructive
additively manufactured parts examination and inspection of the end product is one
Acoustic emission testing has been used as a post- of the advancements made. While it may take years for
process inspection, and an in-situ monitoring NDT tech- AM-specific NDT techniques to reach a stage of matura-
nique for additively manufactured produced parts. Wang tion, many of the current works in progress have demon-
et al. employed the use of acoustic emission testing for strated the success and potential of implementing these
cracks detection during powder directed energy deposi- techniques to AM.
tion process (Wang et al. 2008). Acoustic sensors were The general challenges faced in the AM industry have
placed on opposite sides of the surface of cuboid speci- been summarised. There is a lack of understanding in the
mens, and signals were documented with an acoustic post-processing process of AM materials and certified
emission detection device. The creation and propagation measurements methods for material standards. The
of cracks can be detected by tracing the sudden acoustic absence of real-time sensors in all regions vital to
emission signals stimulated by the release of energy process control and monitoring has been ascertained
during material fracture (Wang et al. 2008). With informa- as a main challenge for AM processes. The lack of feed-
tion on the speed of acoustic emission signals and the back sensors and measurement techniques have
time taken for the acoustic sensors to receive the impeded the advancement of qualification and certifica-
signals, the time and position of crack created, and pro- tion standards for AM. In addition, the development of
pagation can be established. As the information closed-loop control systems, which can aid in the provi-
obtained was through post-processing of data, there is sion of data, is inadequate.
no option of real-time monitoring available (Everton In-situ inspection NDT techniques, namely thermogra-
et al. 2016). It was concluded from experimental results phy, and acoustic emission testing were reviewed for
that an increase in layer thickness causes an increase in their operating principles, types of defects detectable
the emergence of crack owing to the higher cooling and their sensitivity, and their respective advantages
rate. The finding presents potential for closed-loop and disadvantages.
control of the process. The applications for each of the above-mentioned
General Electric has developed an acoustic monitor- techniques in the AM industry, and their suitability for
ing system for measuring acoustic signals using acoustic the inspection of additively manufactured parts were dis-
sensors in powder bed fusion processes (Redding et al. cussed. The integration of thermography to powder bed
2017). The acoustic sensors are placed underneath the fusion processes such as SLM for in-situ process monitor-
build substrate. Monitoring of these signals allows for ing has been demonstrated. In addition, NASA has imple-
defect detection in the printed part. The monitoring mented the use of infrared camera for in-situ process
system can be activated upon completion of the monitoring. Thermographic images captured by an infra-
printed part, or in real time. Defects identification is red camera are also valuable for mapping geometrical
achieved by comparing the signal profile of a known profiles of the sputter activity so that hot spots can be
piece of qualified and defect-free specimen, and the distinguished at an early stage during solidification of
measured signal profile of the printed part. While the powder bed fusion processes to aid in the rectification
acoustic profile shows acoustic signals with constant of print parameters. Acoustic emission testing has been
amplitude in a defect-free part, sudden dips in the ampli- used as a post-process inspection, and an in-situ moni-
tude of acoustic signals are present in the acoustic profile toring NDT technique for defects detection of additively
for printed parts with defects (Gold and Spears 2017). manufactured produced parts.
A follow-up review study for AM process monitoring
and control by NDT techniques on post-process control
5. Conclusion
and their applications will be available. Post-process
The obstacles specific to the implementation of NDT inspection NDT techniques, namely visual inspection,
techniques for additively manufactured parts were liquid penetrant testing, magnetic particle testing, eddy
reviewed. NDT techniques have not been validated for current testing, ultrasonic testing, and radiography are
their capabilities in capturing standard-sized defects at reviewed for their operating principles, types of defects
a specified probability and confidence level. Hence, the detectable and their sensitivity, and their respective
sizing of flaws is a challenge. Current NDT techniques, advantages and disadvantages. The applications for
such as ultrasonic testing probes, are not distinctly each of the above-mentioned techniques in the AM
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 47

industry, and their suitability for the inspection of addi- Everton, S.K., et al., 2016. Review of in-situ process monitoring
tively manufactured parts are discussed. The applicability and in-situ metrology for metal additive manufacturing.
Materials & Design, 95, 431–445.
of each NDT technique, including thermography and
Fedala, Y., et al., 2014. Infrared lock-in thermography crack loca-
acoustic emission testing, for different categories of AM lization on metallic surfaces for industrial diagnosis. Journal
process are evaluated. of Nondestructive Evaluation, 33 (3), 335–341.
Ford, S. and Despeisse, M., 2016. Additive manufacturing
and sustainability: an exploratory study of the advantages
Disclosure statement and challenges. Journal of Cleaner Production, 137, 1573–
1587.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Gibson, I., Rosen, D.W., and Stucker, B., 2010. Additive manufac-
turing technologies. New York: Springer.
Gold, S.A. and Spears, T.G., 2017. Acoustic monitoring method
for additive manufacturing processes. US Patent
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