Unveiling the sustainability gaps of the

electrification of transport
Bastiaens Stijn, Kesteleyn Lotte, Li Lu yuan, Lyu Shengzhe and Willems Zita

Source picture: CARTOONSTOCK, Marian Kamensky

Governments and car manufacturers worldwide are promoting electric vehicles as a crucial technology to
reduce oil use and fight climate change. For instance, General Motors plans to stop selling new gasoline-
powered cars and light trucks by 2035 and transition to battery-powered models, while Volvo aims to
introduce an all-electric line-up by 2030 [1]. Additionally, the European Union recently announced a deal
to end the sale of new CO2-emitting cars by 2035 [2].

However, despite being a more climate-friendly, eco-conscious, and carbon-neutral option than traditional
vehicles, electric cars face several technical, ecological, socio-economical, and philosophical challenges
and drawbacks that compromise their sustainability. For example, the sustainability of electric vehicles is
dependent on how the electricity is generated. A significant percentage of electric grids around the world
still rely on fossil fuels that emit greenhouse gases and air pollutants, which harm human health more than
expected. Furthermore, the production of raw materials like lithium, cobalt and nickel for electric vehicles
can be problematic, as they are scarce, expensive and often mined under unethical conditions. Recycling of
these materials is also a concern, particularly for the key part of EVs - batteries.

Moreover, taking a broad view of the entire energy system behind electric vehicles brings up the issue of
social justice, as not everyone can afford or access electric vehicles or charging stations. Also, some regions
or countries may bear more costs or risks than others. Finally, infrastructure remains an issue, as electric
vehicles require more innovative, reliable, and adequate charging networks that can handle the increasing
demand for electricity.

It is vital to continue to evaluate the sustainability of electric vehicles and work towards creating a cleaner
and more equitable transportation system. Lastly, as electric cars go mainstream, they have faced a
persistent question: Are they really the answer now? We agreed that it is NOT!

Air pollution and power sources

“It matters how the electricity is made.”
The electrification of transport has the potential to be sustainable, while it currently faces significant
challenges. Starting with the power sources that provides the energy to charge the electric vehicles. The
environmental impact of an electric car depends on how the electricity that charges its battery is made. “It
matters how the electricity is made”. If EVs are charged on a coal-heavy grid, it can have a significant
impact on the climate [3]. Recent studies have shown that the 𝐶𝑂2 emmision per kWh for a coal-fired power
station is around 800 - 850 grams, this is more than 20 times the amount a solar panel emits per kWh [4].
Since 79.7 % of the energy today is still extracted from fossil fuels, the electrification is not yet sustainable.
However, the good news for electric vehicles is that most countries are now pushing to clean up their electric
grids. For instance, in the United States, utilities have retired hundreds of coal plants over the last decade
and shifted to a mix of lower-emissions natural gas, wind and solar power. So, electrifying transportation
without a significant shift toward renewable energy sources would result in increased demand for electricity
derived from fossil fuels, exacerbating environmental issues associated with their extraction and
combustion.

“They are only as green as their power sources.”

The mining activities of raw materials for batteries come with other costs. Mining raw materials such as
lithium, cobalt and nickel are labor-intensive, emits 𝐶𝑂2 and other greenhouse gases, and requires large
amounts of water, which is often scarce in the areas where mining takes place. Additionally, the mining
process can leave behind toxic waste and contaminants. Currently, most lithium is extracted from hard rock
mines or underground brine reservoirs, and much of the energy used to extract and process it comes from
𝐶𝑂2 -emitting fossil fuels [5]. In the case of hard rock mining, the extraction of every ton of lithium results
in the emission of around 15 tons of 𝐶𝑂2 into the atmosphere.

Furthermore, the manufacturing of batteries also contributes significantly to their environmental footprint.
The synthesis of materials required for battery production involves heating them to temperatures between
800 to 1,000 degrees Celsius, which can only be cost-effectively achieved by burning fossil fuels, adding
further to 𝐶𝑂2 emissions. Most lithium-ion batteries, which account for about 77% of the world's supply,
are manufactured in China, where coal is the primary source of energy. Coal emits roughly twice as many
greenhouse gases as natural gas, another fossil fuel that can be used in high-heat manufacturing. For
example, the manufacturing of an 80-kWh lithium-ion battery for a Tesla Model 3 could result in 𝐶𝑂2
emissions ranging from 2400 kg (almost two and a half metric tons) to 16,000 kg (16 metric tons) [6]. In
comparison, a typical gas-powered car emits around one ton of 𝐶𝑂2 for every 2,500 miles of driving. These
environmental costs must be carefully considered when assessing the sustainability of electric vehicles and
other battery-powered technologies.

Batteries
Now, if we want to know if the electrification of transportation is sustainable, we can’t ignore the batteries
we use to store the power for the vehicles. The construction process of those batteries is very polluting.

The most used battery in electric vehicles these days is the lithium-ion battery. This is because they are very
efficient, and they have a decent lifespan. The problem however with the lithium-ion battery is that lithium
is a limited resource. There’s not enough lithium to replace every gasoline powered car for an electric car
if we use the lithium-ion battery. Also, as mentioned before, the manufacturing process is very polluting.
We think this is very concerning so there must be a solution to these issues.

Luckily, there is a replacement for the lithium-ion battery. The solid-state battery is a very new technology,
so it’s not greatly developed yet. However, it is proven that it’s safer in use and requires less limited metals.
They also have a longer lifetime which makes them perfect for a sustainable electric vehicle. Solid-state
batteries can decrease the carbon footprint of the manufacturing process of electric vehicles by 39% [7].
Based on this, we think that solid-state batteries are, right now, the best option for the future. If we steadily
switch to solid-state batteries, we can make more sustainable electric vehicles.

“Lithium-ion batteries are not the future.”

If you think about the sustainability of batteries, you of course also think about recycling them. Is it possible
to recover all materials in those batteries? The fastest and easiest way to recycle batteries is to melt them.
This is way more dangerous for lithium-ion batteries since they tend to blow up or catch fire. Solid state
batteries are the better choice, they don’t blow up that easily and are way easier to work with. This method
(melting) is scalable and can be used on all kinds of different battery types. The downside of this method
is that it’s not as profitable as for example direct recycling.

However, direct recycling is more profitable, it’s slower and less scalable than the smelting method.
Furthermore, there are also processes in between those two, which give you a decent scalability with a nice
profitability. If you find a nice balance between those two methods, you can really recycle a lot of batteries
with a good profitability.

The best solution is still that you don’t have to recycle a lot of batteries by extending the lifetime of the
batteries. The lifetime of the solid-state batteries is way longer than the lithium-ion batteries. This is for us
another reason to choose solid-state batteries above lithium-ion batteries.

Are the batteries we use now sustainable? We don’t think it is, but is it possible to make it sustainable in
the future? If we make use of the solid-state batteries, yes.
Infrastructure
After exploring the consequences of the energy sources and batteries we use today. We found that electricity
isn't sustainable yet. Let’s talk about whether the distribution of it is sustainable. As the batteries we
currently use only last for a limited number of kilometers, our electrical vehicles need to be charged
frequently [8][9]. With this, we found three main problems that must be dealt with.

One of the primary challenges with electric vehicles is the extended recharge time required when their
batteries run out. When a battery runs out, the recharge time can take over an hour for top of the bill cars.
Lower cost vehicles need even more recharging time. This is a big difference with the gas station system
we have for normal cars. Electric vehicles are still not recommended for travelling use or for people who
must drive all over the country for work. One possible technique that will mitigate the difference is a smart
charging grid, which can prioritize the charging needs of EVs based on their battery levels and expected
usage patterns. Charging times are also optimized to coincide with periods of low demand for electricity.

The availability and the costs of charging infrastructure is also an issue to the sustainable development of
EVs. Buying and installing a charging pole can cost up to 1000 euros. Just one at the home place of the user
isn’t enough, public places and workplaces also need to provide these. Yet with the high cost this investment
gets delayed repeatedly. Making it not interesting for workers to invest at all. Also, most cars need 32
Ampere cables, in some houses this may require drastic changes in infrastructure.

“Use one standard plug for all devices.”

The third problem is the competition between companies selling electrical vehicles. More specifically, in
the different types of plugs they provide. You can compare it to the Apple-Samsung situation, both the
companies have their own specific type of head for their adapters which are not suitable for the devices of
the other brand. For electrical vehicles, Europe already initialized standard CSS plugs for fast chargers. In
the US, however, there is still work to do to align the different technologies.

Energy justice
“EVs have the potential to democratize energy and transportation.”
Lastly, the transition to electric vehicles also has implications for social justice, which are often overlooked.
The Energy Justice framework highlights four types of justice that are not fully respected in the transition
to electric vehicles.

Recognition justice means understanding and addressing the needs and vulnerabilities of different groups.
The EU’s regulation to boost raw materials exploration in Europe ignores the plight of people from the
main mining areas, who are harmed by the regulation [10]. Oil and fuel suppliers also suffer from job losses
due to the green energy transition [11].

The lack of recognition justice also leads to procedural justice issues, where individuals or communities
that are not considered vulnerable are left out of the decision-making process. For example, in the case
study of Charanaka village, people were unable to participate in the development of a solar park due to
language barriers for the rural people [12].
Distributive justice is often the focus of attention, but fair does not necessarily mean equal distribution of
benefits. In Spain, long-term subsidy schemes led to a massive expansion of renewable energy sources, but
it also led to significant electricity surcharges for low and high-income households. The unfair burden on
low-income households resulted in a 3% to 5.5% share of their disposable income going towards the
average annual electricity price, while high-income households paid significantly less in comparison [13].
Instead, one approach to address this issue is to quantify each user's contribution to the community and
allocate benefits accordingly [14].

Indeed, eliminating energy justice issues is a complex and challenging task that requires the cooperation
and collaboration of various stakeholders. However, recognizing the existence of these issues is the first
step towards addressing them. It is crucial for decision-makers to consider the potential impacts of their
actions on different social groups and take steps to mitigate any negative effects. Furthermore, it's important
to address any harm caused by past injustices. Restorative justice approaches can be used to repair the harm
caused by unfair treatment, and to ensure that affected communities receive support and compensation for
any negative impacts.

In this opinion paper, we stated that electrical vehicles are not sustainable... yet! We grounded this by giving
examples. While electric vehicles have the potential to reduce carbon emissions, the sustainability of
electrification of transport depends on various factors. These include the source of electricity used to charge
the batteries, the environmental impact of mining and processing battery materials and the energy required
to manufacture the batteries. If all this can be provided by green sources, that are themselves fabricated in
a ‘green way’, then it is time to start promoting and investing in electrical vehicles as standard
transportation. As of now, the mining and manufacturing of EV batteries result in significant greenhouse
gas emissions. In this sense, we do recognize that improvements are in progress, but it is imperative to
address these issues for the long-term sustainability of electrification of transport.

References
Picture: https://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/e/electric_cars.asp

[1] https://www.iea.org/reports/electric-vehicles

[2] https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_6462

[3] https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/02/climate/electric-vehicles-environment.html

[4] https://ypte.org.uk/factsheets/electric-cars/what-are-the-downsides-to-electric-cars

[5] https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/how-much-co2-emitted-manufacturing-batteries

[6] https://meche.mit.edu/news-media/how-much-co2-emitted-manufacturing-batteries

[7] https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1647

[8] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pLcqJ2DclEg

[9] https://www.eoswetenschap.eu/technologie/rijden-we-over-vijf-jaar-allemaal-elektrisch

[10] https://friendsoftheearth.eu/press-release/new-eu-raw-materials-plans-fail-to-deliver-justice/
[11] Sovacool, B. K., Kester, J., Noel, L., & Zarazua de Rubens, G. (2019). Energy injustice and Nordic
electric mobility: Inequality, elitism, and externalities in the electrification of vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
transport. Ecological Economics, 157, 205-217.

[12] Yenneti, K., Day, R., 2015. Procedural (in)justice in the implementation of solar energy: The case of
Charanaka solar park, Gujarat, India. Energy Policy 86, 664–673..
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.08.019

[13] Böhringer, Christoph, Xaquín García-Muros, and Mikel González-Eguino. "Who bears the burden of
greening electricity?." Energy Economics 105 (2022): 105705.

[14] Casalicchio, Valeria, et al. "From investment optimization to fair benefit distribution in renewable
energy community modelling." Applied Energy 310 (2022): 118447.