by:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

IIT ROORKEE, ROORKEE – 247667, INDIA
 WEAR
 Wear is the surface damage or removal of material from one or
both of two solid surfaces in a sliding, rolling, or impact motion
relative to one another. In most cases, wear occurs through
surface interactions at asperities.

 During relative motion, first, material on the contacting surface

may be displaced so that properties of the solid body, at least at
or near the surface, are altered, but little or no material is actually
lost.

 Later, material may be removed from a surface and may result in

the transfer to the mating surface or may break loose as a wear
particle.

 In the case of transfer from one surface to another, the net

volume or mass loss of the interface is zero, although one of the
surfaces is worn (with a net volume or mass loss).
 Wear Cont…

 Wear damage precedes the actual loss of material, and it may

also occur independently.

 The definition of wear is generally based on the loss of

material, but it should be emphasized that damage due to
material displacement on a given body (observed using
microscopy), with no net change in weight or volume, also
constitutes wear.
How to combat wear machine elements

 Maintain low contact pressures

 Maintain for low speeds

 Maintain smooth surfaces

 Prevent higher temperatures

 Use harder materials rather than soft materials

 Ensure low coefficient of friction

 Use lubricant
 Solution of wear problems

 Choice of materials
 Chace of lubricants
 Choice of contact conditions
 Choice of number of operation of mechanical system
 TERMINOLOGY
Group-I Terms: They are basically concerned with what is precisely
in the vicinity of surfaces.

 Blasting: Some sort of mechanical surface pre-treatment.

 Pitting: It is a form of externally localized corrosion that leads to

small holes in materials.

Group-II Terms: Deals with some form of mechanism taking place

for the worn out surfaces. They do not have any thing common with
Group-I.

 Galling: May relate to surface roughening due to shear stress.

 Scuffing: Probably relate to some stage of severe surface

roughening.

 Scoring: Due to bad selection of lubricants.

Group-III terms: They primarily connects with friction [Adhesive
wear].

 Adhesive wear:
• Adhesive wear occurs when two nominally flat solid bodies are in
sliding contact, whether lubricated or not.

• Adhesion (or bonding) occurs at the asperity contacts at the

interface, and these contacts are sheared by sliding, which may
result in the detachment of a fragment from one surface and
attachment to the other surface.
• As the sliding continues, the transferred fragments may come off
the surface on which they are transferred and be transferred back
to the original surface, or else form loose wear particles.

• Some are fractured by a fatigue process during repeated loading

and unloading action resulting in formation of loose particles.

• Several mechanisms have been proposed for the detachment of a

fragment of a material.
• In an early theory of sliding wear (still well recognized), it was
suggested that shearing can occur at the original interface or in the
weakest region in one of the two bodies (Archard, 1953),

Fig.1. Schematic showing two possibilities of break (1 and 2) during

shearing of an interface.
Group-IV Terms: They connect primarily with cyclic fatigue.

 Fatigue:
• Fretting wear: Small amplitude cyclic loading that displaces the
surface substance such as oxide etc.
• Delamination wear: Low cycle fatigue.

Group-V Terms: Generally deals with scraping or cutting [Abrasive

wear].

 Abrasive wear:
• Abrasive wear occurs when a hard rough surface slides across a
softer surface (Rabinowicz 1995).
 Abrasive wear
Group-VI Terms: Cavitation wear- due to vapour bubbles.

Group- VII Terms: Erosion or Erosive wear deals with micro

particles.

 Erosive wear:

• Erosion wear is a surface damage phenomenon which occurs

due to repeated impact of high speed small erodent particle
strikes the target material that causes removal of material
from target surface.

• In case of ductile materials, indentation of erodent particle

results in erosion wear.

 Where it is noticed: It is noticed in components specially with

high velocity fluids such as servo or proportional wall &
turbines etc.
 Erosive wear
 Impacts:
• Dimensional changes
• Leakage
• Lower efficiency
• More wear
 Classification of Erosive wear:
• Solid particle impingement
• Impingement of fluid droplets
• Flow of hot gases
• Cavitation of liquid
 Useful Application:
• Grit blasting
• Abrasive machining
• Water jet machining
 Undesirable Application:
• Polymer processing machine & others
• Coal plants (pulverized coal)
• Turbines
• Power plants
• Pipelines
• Wind shields
• Ship propellers
• Air crafts
 Wings
 Propellers
 Rotors
 Factors affecting the erosive wear:
• Grit blasting
• Ductility of the material
• Microstructure
• Velocity of the particle
• Impingement angle
• Particle size
• Hardness of the particles
• Temperature
 Dufrane Wear Model- A

Model A journal footprint wear

 Dufrane Wear Model-A Contd..

Model A is based on the concept of the journal imprinting

itself into the bearing, which would be described by the
equation
𝜹 𝜹𝑶
=- 𝟏 + 𝟏 + 𝑪𝑶𝑺𝜽
𝑪 𝑪

where
𝛿 is the wear depth at an angle 8
𝛿𝑂 is the maximum wear depth
C is the bearing radial clearance, and
𝜃 is the bearing angle.
Dufrane Wear Model-B

Model B uniform wear

 Dufrane Wear Model-B

Model B is based on a hypothetical abrasive wear model

with the worn arc at a radius larger than the journal, which
is given by the equation

𝜹 𝜹𝑶
= − 𝟏 + 𝐂𝐎𝐒𝜽
𝑪 𝑪

where
𝛿 is the wear depth at an angle 𝜃
𝛿𝑂 is the maximum wear depth
C is the bearing radial clearance, and
𝜃 is the bearing angle.
 Experimental Validation of Dufrane
model

Models A and B are

compared with experimental
data in for both models, So
was taken as the maximum
It is obvious that
wear.
Model B match
reasonably well with
the measured wear
data.

Comparison of models A and B of worn region with measured data on a

typical worn 16-in. (406mm) bearing
 Finnie Model for Erosive Wear
 Finnie was the first to derive the single particle cutting erosion wear
model.
 The erosion behaviour of ductile materials was studied by solving
the equation of motion for a rigid abrasive particle interacting with
the surface.
 Volume of material removal was estimated from the particle
trajectory

 Major assumptions are:

• The impact particle is harder than the target surface and does
not breakup.
• Material is removed in a same way as removed by a single point
cutting tool.

𝒎𝒙ሷ + 𝒑𝝋𝒃𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒎𝒚ሷ + 𝒑𝑱𝝋𝒃𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑰𝝓 + 𝒑𝝋𝒃𝝓 = 𝟎
 Finnie Model

Where,
𝒎 = mass of the particle
𝒙 , 𝒚 = displacement directions
𝑰 = mass moment of inertia of the particle
𝒍
𝝋 = , 𝒍 = length of the particle ,
𝒚𝒕
𝒚𝒕 = displacement of the particle in time ‘t’
𝝓 = angular velocity / angular coordinate
𝑱 = ratio of vertical to horizontal force components
𝒑 = constant horizontal component of contact stress
 Archard Equation
 The wear performance of tribological material pairs is commonly
assessed by experimental investigations which make use of rigs
incorporating a pin-on-disc geometry.

 The information so generated is conventionally interpreted in

terms of a linear relation between wear volume, applied load and
sliding distance in accord with the Archard wear equation.

 An appropriate material parameter is thus the so-called

dimensional wear rate usually measured in 𝒎𝒎𝟑 /𝑵𝒎 .

 However, there are many practical situations in which, as

components wear, the area of apparent contact changes so that,
although the Archard relation may still be applicable on the
microscale, the relation between either the macroscopic wear
dimension, or the total wear volume, may be other than a linear
function of sliding distance or load.
 Archard Equation

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑘𝑖 𝐹 𝑆
Where,
𝑽𝒊 = wear volume
𝒌𝒊 = specific wear rate coefficient
𝑭 = normal load
𝑺 = sliding distance

Modified Archard Equation

𝑽𝒊 𝑭
= 𝒌𝒊 𝑺
𝑨 𝑨

ℎ𝑖 = 𝑘𝑖 𝑝𝑆
Where,
𝒉𝒊 = wear displacement height
𝒑 = pressure
 References
• Bhushan, Bharat. Introduction to tribology. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
• Kenneth C Ludema - Friction Wear Lubrication_ A Textbook in Tribology-CRC-Press (1996).
• Khonsari, Michael M., and E. Richard Booser. Applied tribology: bearing design and lubrication.
John Wiley & Sons, 2017.
• Stachowiak, Gwidon, and Andrew W. Batchelor. Engineering tribology. Butterworth-Heinemann,
2013.
• Bassani R, Piccigallo B. Hydrostatic lubrication: Elsevier, 1992.
• Dufrane, K. F., Kannel, J. W., & McCloskey, T. H. (1983). Wear of steam turbine journal bearings
at low operating speeds. Journal of lubrication technology, 105(3), 313-317.
• E. Rajasekhar Nicodemus, Satish C. Sharma, “Influence of Wear on the Performance of
Multirecess Hydrostatic Journal Bearing Operating with Micropolar Lubricant”, ASME Journal
of Tribology, 2010, Vol.132, Issue 2, pp.021703-1 to 021703-11.
• R.K. Awasthi, Satish C. Sharma, and S.C. Jain, 'Effect of Wear on the Performance of Non-
Recessed Orifice Compensated Hybrid Journal Bearing', STLE Tribology Trans, Vol. 50, No. 3,
pp. 361 – 373, 2007.

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