PHY114 URE#1

#
-503
2023 -

between classical and quantum

-> Main difference and particles)
mechanise,dynamice of
waves

(i) determinism
deterministic
classical mechanics
in
is principle
mechanics even
in principle
ahneas quantum
the that
sense
indeterministic
is in

evolution cannot be predicted

its future

where photon hits

a seren
Example: a

she doubt
after passing stage
uncertain
slit i scompletely

(ii) Effect ofmeasurement

classical:
measurementdoes
act of
an
not
affect the system
-

1) does affect the system

"1""
-
quarter:

=man
Equation ofmotion Newtonare
(iii) terms
real
of
variables
-
classical: in

wave
equation
-

dx2 22

terms of
a
complex quantity.
-

Quantur: in

Schrodinger equation
-

th+
V4=
it-

(iv) Superposition principles: which implies

based on
division ofamolitude
classical:Interference
is
-

division of energy. which does

division of
care function,
based on
quantum:Interference
is

of
-

imply
not division energy.

(v) wone-particle duality particle or a

wave

behaves either simultaneously

as a

- classical:Asystem behaves as a wave

and a
particle
-
quantum:
Asystem
114 URE
#2
27-03-2023
-

Need for quantum mechanics??

with the question:what light?

all started
is
· It
comes out of
what a lightbulb?

farent

made p
of article ten corouscular
entryis
->

s et
rubber ball
A reflects off from
a surface
(ii) Reflection
-

attracta particb differently

iii) Refraction
-

differentmedia
differentcolors.
of
lightparticles
are

Livs dispersion
-

like water
w astaggedan
madeof
coves, e

iscentwage ispredictions
!
= couldn't
as
well but his theory
Chen were some
new

So, newton's theory widely accepted

was

at that
time.
-

be tested it.
challenge
not able to
and was
Huygen

double
->

stupement slit open, there was

uniform illumination
interference

>Moton's
slide open, there
an
wa s
-with both
->
it
could not explain
terry it
theory explained
->
ButHuygen's
->

now.
wave
lightis
a
So,
-
 effect
photoelectric effect,
compton
radiation,
Blackbody explain
it
19008: could not
>
theory could
- >

Hugger's
oflight duality
particle picture
-

-
But
a

wave as well as particle-wave-particle

So, light
is
-

that
is,
&- Broglie show wave-particle duality,
material particles
1924:
=

simultaneously.
coaves
Even and
particle
as
=

behave as

Chey
Equation
Newton's
properties of system: a

Summary:particle-only
wave equation
Maxwell's
wame-only properties
of system: a

--
-
Mechanics
wave-particle duality: need-I -
Quantum
particles
for non-relativistic
dirger's equation

+iE V4 =

pointed out strange feature

paradox Podolsky and Rosen a
EPR Einstein,
1935:
-

mechanics is
-

in quantum theory and thereby question ifquantum

a complete theory.

mathematical the experimental

Bell worked
out
a inequality,
1964:John which could test Einstein's objection
of
-

violation's

making photon sources

advancement
in

with modern technological

of Bell'sinequality
was
violations
1990s:
=

and detectors, experimental

demonstrated.
violations ofBell'sinequality
Nobel prize for experimental
2022:
=

Present:
-

but theory
successful
very
mechanics a
is strange quantum theory.
the validity of
Duartum which chattery
no experiment
-

there i s
- so far,
mechanical correlations, such as
entanglement, one being
Quantum technologies quantum
viewed as a resource for next-generation
-

communication/crptography, sensing. quantum

computation, quartum
 -
Tut-see
URE3
-

yes
-
# -
lecture
H
notes

all started -

theory?-how
it Tut-newell
m
for quantum
-

need
The
#

development bed to
that quantum questions.
details
look at the historic
and then go into the
Will
# first the mathematical framework
look at
will then
mechanics.
of quantum

to make better lightbulbs? filament be heated

so

How what temperature should

a
al visible frequencies)
medition (more intensity
- at
the best
thatw e get

radiation
body
·
when a
body is
emits
heated, it
redition.
becausepodthatemperati
radiation
called Shermal Hernel radiation from a

This mediation i s
blackbody. The
It is called a
any wavelenges.
radiation.
blackbody called
is blachbody

interest is
The quanity of
·
It is
spectral radiance RIV).
unit time
the energy per
defined
--
as

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area
per unit Umes

wait time
·
rediation
RIV)dV= per
unitarea in
the
per
vary +dV.
frequency range

radiation at
blackbody
Typical
diff.
temperatur from: Quantum Physics-Eisberg & Resnick

dire
unit
unita re per
total energy emitted per -

what I
the

/
is Power
at temperature
T. energy
blackbody
⑰

per cent
a
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Stefan's
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ow =

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total energy emitted

cases
in

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cre
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increases with nearing
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How does Uman, the frequency at maximum
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with
temperature.
#

Vex & T ar dmardI

latee
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the blackbody spectrum.

work outthe theory that
govers

↳Team
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Model: consider a cubical box of a

n ⑧
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S
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No radiation escapes from
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xa
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She temperature of
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n
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very good
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she cavity.
inside the caitet

-: the
what total
e nergy of modes
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total number of De average
take the
Let's Also, let'ssatan
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v, inside
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per
↳ ergs demity (energy
 that
prove deter Boltman's constant
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theory says
IKT
stanical
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wave

Td-ageseamen
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nee

Quarture Cheory (particle

picture) says
ut_I
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fo
Planck'sformula

to
->Blackboc rediation
 #4
PHY114 TURE

EM modes
to

mode?
what
isan electromagnetic In one-D
the equation
is

Marwell'swave equation.
->

satisfies
The EM field

= what
is debutcos at EGS (h2
(known
=
+wt)

a re possible solutions
if
u
i(na-cot)

- andEeee
we canverify thatEiknut

Few=cK
relation
- dispersion

endem, we have
archant refractive ickxwt) solution
medium with au
In

wellasE
a

= aslent)as e

called modes.
the
to wave equations are
solutions
the independent (Komthot) another
mode.
mode, while
is
-> has

cos (12-ct) one

is

convenience
mathematical
illnewil are
taken justfor
solutions
cos (kox1wt)
-> complex 2

with the connection:Re(eilkn1ct)]=

 mode?
EM
do we represent
How

x
2
=

-
1x

k
w
=

vd
2HV
2 c
= =

5 =

how
dependent
So
=>
many
in

El
labels?
Each K is
one:K.
Only
-

The
an independent mode.
total no.
Ris the
angal no. of
ofallowed moder

vector
/
But electric field
a
is
as
direction
15]
-

So it has
quartite. A

-***
well. Ares each K, we

can have two different

which the electric
directions in

oscillate. The
direction
field can

called

↑
oscillation is

of each K, ther
polarization
and for
can be two different
polarization.

xx

-
two independent
polarization
directions
 3D space

↑2
EM- modes in

the electric field E(4, 4,2,4)

The wave equation for
given by

e
3D
in
is

+ -I

er ** =

:when I state
-uft
areDe be
Posen solution? Iti

- (kxx kyy x,2)

=
+
+
X
x

i (x yy zi)
=
+
+

relation?
what i sthe dispersion

I
-

medium
-

Ik1 adidatefractive
= / in
indee

↳ w (k) =

attky
= r
the EM mode?
independent labels for
her many
->

and kn
three:Ka, K,
-

Only W.
also be Ka, ky,
On it can
-

nature of
the vectorial
when we incorporate labels
-

have four
the field,then we

k, be
and polarization
kn,

3D space

ar yar vinival"
EM mode
in

too independent
with
directions.
polarization
I
PHY114
-
RE
#5

N(r) du
Calcutting
one-dimensional
case

->

Electric field inside the cavity E x a

=

20
=

+24Vt =2EEKnoS (24Vt)

E(x,t) Sin(kx-2HV+) + Es Sin(kx
Es
sin) at
=
Si=2
(SeiA+
(metallic
-conditions 0
0
=

(i) F(x 0,t) 0 =

0
=

24Vt
=

CoS
(ii) E(x a,H
= 0
=
=> 2 E. Sinke
nT = k =
= d =
Ka
=

=0 =

Sinks
->

allowed frequencies

-
Varitb
(Since
with
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....

also

a / ince set allowed

L frequence

allowed
modes are
how many
and V,then
between 0
allowed frequency
antennaeaI
is
If
the

mir)=x=
-

allowed
modes are

vidV, then how many

between Ward
the
If allowed frequency is

49dV
NIrdr=nr+dY-N(r) =
atd)-2:I

de
 du
-calculating NIr)

n
-
3D
in
space

>y

-I

aa ,x
X

of
x
She wave-vector an EM mode 3D
in can
be written as

B knx
=
+ kyy K22+

-
where in k2= *-
=

terms of its
be described in

ofthe EM mode can

So, thepropagation
components:Rx, ky &KE. Cherfan
conditions and
metallic boundary
Now each componentseen directions, we get
wave propagation
along a

for the
at

since ata and

to
-
as z-directingen
Similar

raisedin
-
B

z
N
Ty

·t
the

itu m =

>
2
 ·
allowed
mach frequency ofchesphen
-
L -radius
Ty zau
·

=
-
a

between 02 v,
if allowed
the frequency
is

So,
number
of modes
a xs
the total
medics
the sphere with
of
volume
=>

it became
Including polarization,

*() x
2

↳eachmodecanvibrate messagein
:
Mu)=

L differentpolarization
So too

3 needs to be positive,
8πV Since frequency
- U are allowed
positive in, my&A,
3 C3
only ofthe sphere.
only 8th
(v
a
=
=volume ofde
carity which means

dr is
range
and +
the
Therefore, the number ofmodes in
frequency

n(v dr)
n(v)
N(r)dv
+
-
=
=

(+du-v)
8 πV

(+ 34)-v)
=-
323

- -
8πV
(v'(2 - r1 (v
+
=

- x3dvr= Vd
Vud
 PHY114 URE6
#
-

mode
energy of
an EM

now calculate the average

we

quantify I is given by
The expectation
value of
a

p
the usabilite saleene
de
5
Is d5-whau
P is
-

fb(z) d = 1
=

theory
al wave

the energy. The energy of

any
for
value
have
de amplitude
mode
Es, where Es
can is
An EM to
Es mode proportional
is
an EM

electric field.
ofthe

↑ Es amplitude REs amplitude

~
with with

*
increases i increases

-
(
ever every

temperature the
shermal equilibrium at probability (E)dE
- At
the and E+de given
is

system with ranges

in
energy
offinding
a

by

-(2)
=
=
k+
KT
Plans
t E
 the given
is by
therefore average energy

eatene
di
-

I b/e-(E I
-ElkT
de
E d5=

7
-
EIKT
-EIKT

(n
nT
3 e #
n+
+

( k+a+] = kT
=
-
0 0
1
0 -

Fi k +
=

fore

distrator ->Rayleighseamsradiation
we
Therefore

d
with
This formade agrees
at small values
experimentonly
offrequency
V

From
Quantum Physics:Eisberg & Resnick
 solution
Planck proposed
a

take
->

EM mode
in a reality ran
only
An
Quantum theory: and thus the
amplitude at
values for its
discute setof energy
Unlike in
at a
given frequency. Es
arbitrary
theory an
Ez

=E
classical was

not allowed. Er
value
ofenergy is
L

*
at a
values

*
The allowed energy ----------

frequency
given
v is by
Zo
nhvin 0, 2,2
=

EIV) the Planck'sconstant

=

hiscalled

she average energy

the
with quarter theory,
Now,

peri
bad
given
is by n

5 -
-

[ P(5n)
0
n =

n 0
·

E
=
e-why/nt
nhr/nt

-Ste
-

two problem)
(given
as a
be
to
can be evaluated
This sun

hu
5
m+I
=

#>

m
ints blame eati o nfor or

experimental
observations

-x1535s
 rad
: Dmax=0.1
/

Sin kg
m 0.01
=

l 0.1m
=

- 9.8m/s2
a= ↓ q =

-- pescad
r =
-

1.56
=
H2

1.6 H2
oscillater
with
frequency
So, this an
is

oscillater?
what
is the
energy ofthe 9.8x0-1/1- 2501)
x
80) 0.01
mgl)1
=

3
5x105 Joule
=

=>

by
10.43X81.04 X10
be increased
The
oscillator energy can
6.626x1534
=

x 156
13 hv
=
=

⑰
=

small. be
Can't
· This extremely
is
in
Asa result, it seems
observed.

agroscopeallowsee nesameante
ene

this.
possible to see

O’Connell, A. D. et al. Quantum ground state and

single-phonon control of a mechanical resonator.
Nature 464, 697–703 (2010).
 The photodectric effect -

aree
Lenard in
and
Halloachs 1888
in

1902 firstobserved photoelectric effect.

thatwhen light above a cut-off
The effect is

surface, electrons get

frequency falls
on a

with kinetic energy.

The
ejected
gated some

and cause a

electrons towards collector

the
go
applied potential
is
the the
If
current in circuit.
the electron reach the collector.
positive, it helps & Photoelectric effect is
the recoment
if negative potential applied,
is
However,
a
used most
in
photon/light
at potential v Vo.
=

becomes s ome
new
decrease
to and also
detectors. It is
This
iscalled the stopping potential given by the basic principle in

charge solar cells

where the electronic
Kman=eVo,
is
kinetic entige
of
and kman the
is

when v 0

ejected
=

the electron

-
No called the
is
stopping potential

wave theory
d AA time
is
it give a
received by alle in
an
E
ergy
where I is
the intensity
IBAAt,
E
=
i Is
↓
A

photoelectric
Facts about effect
the emitted

e
-
of
kinetic energy
kmaw
1. The maximum the
independentof intensity of
the
electrons is

lightfield
man
because
does not make
sense
wave theory: should give more ·o v
-> intensity (energy) because
electrons
the
Kinetic energy to
amplitude of the electrons.
larger
energy implis
to
more
kinetic energy
and thus larger
the E-field light
of
depends on the
instein: makes sense
because Kman only increases
*

the intensity
function. Increasing
- -
the work
frequency and
does not
but
the
number of photons
the
in
lightfield
the
increase the energy of photons
 there a
is frequency vo,
cut-off
2. For each surface, occur.
X

..
does
which the photo electric effect
not

below

because the W
does not make sense
wave theory: depend on
-> electron should
of
ejection not
a minimum intensity (energy) but
because
on a
frequency
minimum
IAADt
related to intercity:E
energy
=

is

Einstein: because the energy ofa photon

makes sense
- below the cut-off
hV. So,
is to its
related frequency E =

eject
to
photons does not sufficientenergy
frequency vo, the
metal
an electron from surface
the ofthe

instantaneously
almost
surface
the

x
are emitted from
3. Electrons
s
I ③

↳
4

because
make sense
theory: does not
⑤
wave
the total
->
the
in
wave theory time.
accemulated energy depends on

beam less intense, one

the
if
is
So, for
radiation
collect the
should have to
much
longer.

a photon is a concentrated
because
Einstein makes sense
it
and when it arrives,
-> bundle ofenergy absorbed
arrives as an he burdle of
energy
and
gets
the other atom.
entirely by one or
 effect (1905)

-
Einstein's
photodectric
quantum theory of
of EM wave

hypothesis:
an
planck's The energy
-
can be increased or decreased only
in the multiples of hV. The minimum energy,
have hu
other than zero, thata mode rean is

Planck's view,
the EM
energy,
once rediated,
However, in

specals through space like water waves.

to explain
This
=>
picture, although sufficient explain
able to
wa s not
blackbody radiation,
the photoelectric effect. :
!

i
"
:
=- Ir
ein's theory not
=
#

the radiation is : !

Energy of
EM = -
but also travels as a =

only quantized
i
=
bundles. Einstein assumed sale ↳
"
concentrated
bundle remains localized - = = =
thatthis energy :
hV
E hV. - =
moves and has the energy
:
as it
=

- =
also assumed that the photoelectri
Einstein
in
in -

effect, one photon is

completely absorbed by -
=
one electron in the photocathode. with
There a
is probability
to be found.
photos
where the is

the
always found
as
emitted it
But
So, when
is
electron
the is
hV. T
entire bundle of
energy
it has kinetic
energy, the
a does
observe this he energy,
one

value which isgiven by over

maximum of not have integrate the space
which electric field i sspread.

Kmax=hv-hVs=hr-wo the at

workfunctionof
met
the
called
woes
-

is
So, the stopping potential
vo =rvo
=
PHY114 URE
#
7
-

The compton effect confire

the
to
the firsteffect wa s the second
-

photoelectric effect
wa s
The
radiation. The Compton effect
particlerlike return of nature of
radiation
like
confirm the
particle
dramatically
to
photon by
related to the absorption of a

proteclectric effect ofphotons

was
The
the
related to seattering
adore. The compson effect is
-
an
common phenomenon
Scattering isa very

sausa
an atom.
by electrons in ·
example
Reflection, refraction
as
·

onacaratthe
ofscattering
experiment, xe of
in cordon's original surface,
falls a graphite
wavelength
on
to
beam has two separate
scattered
the X-ray scattering
do and
the other one involve
wavelengths. One
the
is essentially
II
is with
16 be-do
=
the presence
of
x-ray
-
relativit
called the
photon at shifted
the wavelength is

I-er
of
particle of
y man in

I
campton effect. Energy of a

mar energy
rest
the Kinetic energy
-

explain
-

E
=

The
-
wave theory oflightcannot Within ware moc
wavelength. k
+

[P= momentum]
=

emergence of
a new

sheory, an incoming
frequency
lightof I ->
moc
and
electron
oscillate the frequency.
that
at atrest, p=0,
can
that
at
for a particle
And then the electrons, oscillating
m,c
radiation at that frequency E =

emit
frequency ran
photon E
for
1
a

wrote
In

set
mags
quarter theory,
A= h.
photons
The retin is
are considered localized

gives the
Photon (11)

I
= P2
,
Photon(b0) e-(mo)
Eo, Po e -
u

befar
after
prp+pid
⑤ momentum
conservation requires [P.-P.CO-Pst=
aero
P,COSD P2004
- P
Po
+

Sino-psin
+

and 0 P,
=

of
and adding,
we

↳squaring
#Consertation ofenergy gives
- -

=MoC=Es #mo2

=
E, 2P2
Er=C;
=

c2Po-P.)
/moC22
+mo?
Mos= cpmoe
a cP0-412 mo" 2C(00-P.)
+
+

[P.-P.) moc=
<p>
&, cP-P12 + 2 2

p2 2
P4 p.2-20.5, 2m.(Po-P.)
-

a.

comparing P &, get

2P.P, -2MoC(Po-P.)
2POP, COSO
=

or, 1 mos) c00) =

4)
-

[P
=

a
t b-*-* =
=

xo=en
Sets
-mes). ↳ Compton
wavelegth
260, depending on

0 to
Ad
·
varies from
O.
the scattering angle
electron
and compton scattering, an

Note:In photoelectric effect

both
require a description
atom and both
these effects
-

removed from an
incoming
photoelectric effect
is an
In
based on
lightbeing particle. absorbed by the atom
and

photon at a given frequency is completely kinetic energy

with
bound electron gets ejected
as
ansequence
a a

complete transfer of energyto

v hv-hvo.
=

So, photoelectric effect

does not
in

She atom happens. This the reason

why
is
photoelectric effect
happen with electrons since ease, the
that complete transfer
free
in

when
possible) problem 2-1). So,
ofenergy not I
and momentum is

in
with
free electrons carpon scattering sakes place
lightintracts and at
which an electron fromejected
is
the
targetmaterial
continues
with remaining energy (atsmaller frequency)
She same
light
after the scattering.
frequency falls
on an
at certain
Nonetheless, when light
a

it oscillate
out, then just
atom and is not ejecta n election
able to
the
the atom atthat and as a result
She electrons i n frequency called the
This
electron emits rediation at the same frequency. has
is

all around and

it a

Rayleigh
scattering. We see
Rayleigh scattering
description based on considering lightas waves
 it propagates
character. It
wave
has dual is

summary:Light
a

and behaves as a
particle when detected.

BroglieHess
dual character
a
has
atom also when
like, electron,
like a particle
butacts
waves when propagating
It behaves like
detected.

=he (Planck's huboshere)

used ampson
scatterin)
For
light relativity,
in

p E I from wardength has

photon of
=

5 =I
tk
a

=
= =
-
momention 0 z
=
=

momentum
with
material particle
associated wavelengths.
I
a
->
For material (De-Broglie):3 =
p has
an

particle
for
andene
:
-
thede-Broglie wardage an as
whatis
of
a re

=10
36
1626
x10
=

A: 6 =

->

electron
moving
de-Broglie wavelength of
an

what is the
Q:
at1 0 m/S
10
-

6.6x153Y -
(x10-9 14m
=
=

d -
-
# 9-1x,5-3/
6
=

x10
 that:
have seen
So
far
we

photons are waves-Young's double-slitexperiment

compton effect
photoclectric effect,
·

· Photons are particles -

that elections are particles to

the proof according
What is
electrons
move
well-localized points.
cathode ray tube,
#
at
In the
and hit
screen

F q(E X5)
-

waves?
=

thatelections
are
the proof experiment. This
what
->
is
davision Germer
proof is
-

The first which a

is
elections,
of
e

experimentinvolves diffraction
with
cave
phenomenon interference
-
The other proof
isYoung's double-slit
elections.

matter waves (Davisson-Germer experiment)

I dectron gun

itte
difference
between the
two interfering
.ta
wave fronts:
De
detector

Path length
Al 1,
+

12
Emd
=

l,
=

d =>
Sing
-
=
1.

(n 1,cos(π 24)
- -

1,c)(20) =

si2)-
=
=

(2-wx
+

(1 202)
=

:be=1,+lz
-

...
Al=2dSmY
a re
interference is

give
conditionone
 URE8
#
#114

wave-pedduality -

as
hu
-
wave-particle
Einstein decatity for
-

a photon

hi

:.

s
de Broglie
-

-
⑧

-
wave-particle
far a

duality
material particle

behave as wave as well

and the material particle,
So, both, mediation field
the but
behaves as a particle
as particles. When detected
a
quantum system
waves.
when propagating it behaves as

measurement. The
manifested
not
in the same
vice verse
there aspect
Both
a re
nature and
nature
conceals particle
neverts wave
measurement that
called Bohim complimentarily principle
-
This is
is ofmatter was

-
and velocity
v

material particle of
mass me

behave as a plane
Let'sconsider
a

we know
thatit can
and wo ?
and E Imv2 between K
the relation
=

P mv
.

So, what i s
=

wame given by eike-cot).

Here we have v t
E
=and >=

2=
=
2E t =

a
n
== 4
ma- d
=
= =

② - v
m
=

① w
=
r)=
=

I
different
This i s
relation from the disposion

-na
dispersion
en
We
↳
-

phase
the velocity, is
the matter wave, on

The velocity of
wavelengt
Y = v6 --de-Broglic
↳> associated frequency

haveand
we

the
half
phase
the front is

not - the of
velocity
particle
the
velocity of
that
it represents.

make sense??
does this

Me:
when
This issue always arises
we consider a single monochromatic
consider
cave. when
But
we
the
Then
a
group ofwaves.
sense of
to distint
get

:
the phar
we

velocities. One
is

and
the other one
velocity
is group velocity
 #S
LECTURE
#114 -
-

/,
nee
R

we S
⑧8.

>2

By A Ly

=warengetolight
rese
ofthe
act
wave

and ine
eachpoinot nthandapartment
principle:
Meals

mist
icr-wt solution
to the wave equation (9,t) st*(it)
=

C a
is
Ecait--
R
WICK.
relation
the
with dispersion is
the electric field reaching (2,3
So, the amplitude of
a
ice
de 1/
erm13-412
=

(army)
-
wenin) -

ag
2

a 2
the denominate
Approximations: in

etalat
the ramentor
in

(Fresnel approximation)

The
r z(1
=
+

+- ++ -
 nzy') dudy
:vig') be
-

2
ikz
any (fun,en(niye
A

lover the entire aperture)

Assume ka
22
1 and
red
the entireaperture)
&, 2x &
2 (over
(Fraunhaufen approximation

tryi t
fine, ))uesseda
in

y's
*(n',Y') uIx!3) luie,
Intercity=E(xig'
=

(n'+ei)
dady/
-
is
2

e)()v(n.)
e
=(n!' =

V((W(3)
A
and I, thatis, ifV(2,3) =

factorizable in x

field amplitude
is

y
If the

i1(use-dex)
-
den zcni' =
fries
can
write the intensitye

foraonedimensionalacture,
we

So, 2

↳area winher aninthe

be written

on
via man

She field amplitude

which
isde
=)ume
-

v(x) =

Ik1 SinO
Kes
not matter
write
=

E
mean
ofthe
we

-ikndx- amplitude
fucase
the
that
This
v(kn)= transform of
means

v(x) -
field at
2 the Forier
is

the aperture
at
the field
Thiscan be inverted to yield thatthe field amplitude
This means berepresented

Witfunekurden
-

at the apertune
can
a
superposition of
anorweighted C
ikni
 in
Example #1
-

slit
single

een
9/2

vie=

--
in 2/2
-

eisin()-Ts

saines
xamole #3

~
=

-
v(z)
double slit &

-d-
-
---
I
+ a

-
dS
+ -<d

tie-in
r
Gt-h'an
-

v(n)) I
=

-
 =

e+ hidral -

2
ximedtal
22
-

I -
-
mins
ihr'de
ikal
22

---
I
-

(eintase")
-

iks'd-as

e
-
-

I
-

-
ike
E
a

ias-asin
has a
bit
a
=
-

I al
...
vinia) as

<(4)

to
=

sell)

*
 #10
#114 EURE
Theory:
· wave can have
any amplitude/energy
wave
=>
· division of amplitude - division of energy
interference
· Superposition ofamplitudes causes

levels
& Fundamentally incorrect works at
but high
light
have energy
An EM mode
atfrequency can
Quantum theory: in the multiples of
his only

I division ofenergy
a division of wavefunction interference.
superposition ofcoavefunction
causes

lightlevels.
a

at low
but
correct required only very
Fundamentally
is

&

slit)
wave-particle duality (single

(double slit)
wave-particle duality

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=igiIUZ8GprQ&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-_VcGqyX3

itself Dirac
with
-

interferes
Asingle photon
=>

nature the
less we know of
tendo ofthe particle principle.
> The men
we
complimentarity
verse-Bohn's
nature, and
vice
the wave
 electrons
experimentwith sigh

slit
double

Bach et al. New J. Phys. 15, 033018 (2013)

-

·
double
with
experiment
slit heavy molecule

Fein et al. Nature Physics 15, 1242 (2019)

 #11
#114 RE

Particles
> are dictated by
Newton's theory:
P.) at
(xo,P) atto, M.,
--
given
t, can be determined

dictated by
wave
=>
dynamics are

cave equation:
cave theory, such as Maxwell's at to (E1, B.)
62 B -> given (Es,B.)
YE B
=
& B =
E t,
at can be determined

mechanics.
inquire quantum
wave-particle duality,
we

*For explaining mechanics for:

quantum
There are different formulations of

· masless particles (n 0) =

· massive particles (myo at ulativistic spends (VC)

·
massive particles (m+o) atnon-relativistic speeds (VC).

-
at
quantum mechanics for massive particles (m+0)
of

speedsleaseor
otivistic need oe

wave-particle deality into the Heory

has
incorporate
to

an
(i)
3
satisfy de-Broglie:
=

to
(ii)has

viii)has to satisfy planckEinstein:

consavation:
E hva
=
v
a
=

live has to satisfy energy

where V isthe potential energy
+y
-

=K.E.+ P.E. =>

-
=

- F -
=

22

then
the potential a
is reconstant, thati sV=0,
CVS If and D should also
be constants.
than I
m 0 and
F
de-Broglie
=
-

be
should should
=
a

this solution
the
In case,
wave
ofd b
=
and v
=
 such worked
dynamics
was
the equation for describing

base
debridge
en

i
and
ourigeten cal l e d
and a complex
4(x, iscalled the wave function is

which are real quantities.

2, P, E&B,
-

to
quantity as opposed
determine
t=
at to, Schrodinger equation
-

given 4(xo,tr)
at time t ts.
t.)
=

↑
(x,, any

all
contains
information
the
4(x,1)
-
She wave function but is, it just
is
an abstract
about
the system
as

mathematical quantity.
Schrodinger's theory is if 4, (m.+) and Tel,t)
linear. That
is,
then
two separate solutions schrodinger equation
the
-

one

also a solution.
(4,t) 2,4,(x,t) (24,12,t)
is
4
+

function should represent

a

teen
when visit) =0,
the wave

deBroglieareofata
and
-

at
valued

ofMR*(as
alies
and single
must
be finite

continuous
mustbe
2.4(x)
&
4(n)
(, )("du >

3. 4(2) be square
must integrable

density
Probability -

probability densityconjugate
-

P(2,t)
*
(x,t) 4(x,t) of
the
4
->
=

instantt, measurementis
at
a

associated with
interpretation:If, y
an

Born's
made to particle
locate the that
cavefunction
ofthe 4 (m, A5,
the probability
thecarefunction 2 and
store
between
the particle found is

(m,t) dx
p(n,t)dx 4*(x,t)4
is =
 variaamical
surementofamical ble variables (position, momentumis
obtain
value
certainly
a
measurement, to
one

to
needs be measured. Upon principle
variables. But it i mpossible, even i n

when the
for the dynamical
i s

The only exception

is

outcome of measurement.
predict the any What one can predicta re the
in its eigenstate.
quantum system
is
variable.
expectation values (average value) of
a dynamical

value:
-
Expectation

value on the mean is defined as

expectation
within classical probability theory,
(x)
(xp(a)dx
=

*
value is defined as

expectation
-

mechanics,
quantum

we'll saytoprotectthe
However, in

dre ·
not
(x) =

** (,t) r4(4,t)

value ofany other quantity

the expectation
can be defined in the same way
(x2) f4*(4,t)i4(x,+)dr
=

dre
- I

(x,t)f(x) 4(x),t)
1
*

+
(f(n))
=

defined
-

be
-

I
p and energy can

The expectation
value ofmomentum
=4(x,+)de
the same way:
in

P4(3,+)de&
() (44,,t)
=

<P) 14*(,t)
=

randt,
function of
expressed as a

the wavefunction is
sand t
However, since P and in
I terms of
need do
to express
particle
we

to che free
corresponding
know
wavefunction
thatthe
we
i(kx -
(t)
given by:
is
4 (m,t)= e

given by
this free particle
is

-bait
The momentum of +12,t)
an
p t 3*
=

be written as

free particle
can

ofthis
the energy

E
hv
=
-2πr
=
kw
= Ft+(,t)
=

-
 and I are
given by
... The expectation values ofP

f
dre
<P> =
*(x,+))- it)4(9,t)
+

S** (it t)
+(m,+) di
(*)
(r) =

da
general
4*
In (,t)
(m,t) f(x, -ite) +

Sf(x,P3)
=

-
Operators:
variables (observables) are represented
quantum theory, the dynamical
So, in

as
mathematical operator.

position: Ente
momentum. I
te -

energy.
Entit
the wavefunction, probability
the
above to
is express function ofM.
what have done expressed as a

operators
are
we
values and the
the expectation
density,
This iscalled
the position-basis representation
and other
the wavefunction
-

evores

inwhich
the
Alternatively
can
one are

m
of omentum
-

quantities as afaction
 #12
#114 EURE

relation
inty
variables such as position
theory conjugate
the
In quantum accuracy.
measured arbitrary
with
be
cannot
and momentum
be measured
dictated
is by
The which they
with
can

accuracy
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

ur), -

when xa))) in)-2x(x))

xx
=
=

->
+(n)(a)

:An
and
sin=-Pa

we also ham: (E

latesame the
similarlyor
 Schrodinger equation
imeindependent
-

i
it4,
(4,5)-
-

(x,) + V(2,)4
stat
is,
has
no
time-dependence,
Assume V(n,t)
v(4,t) V(x)=

the type
have the
solution of
Now, 4(,t)
let to
(t)
4(3,t) 4(x).0
=

the above equation,

we
get
substituting in

it 19)G()
4(2)91) -4
4()4H) + V(x) -

4(n)4(7), we get
divide
both sides by

Em r 4)
+
v(n)- itpit *()

t. Hence
2, RHS depends only on

LHS depends only on

to constant
equal
-

each be
a
both must

D
4(2) VR) G -
+
=
-

it t
= 4H= --
(t) 2t
&

④
(*) fgat
=

o, eng/ -
-

--

-enitade-Drogeeware
be
a,

moving frequency
with
w
E
=

en

has to then its energy

frequency have
mustbe E= tw. Then we

a E =

Taking 4101=1, we
t
get
 E4()
V(2) 4(2)
=

D 24(2)
+

Now, I -

the time-independent
-
This
is

Schrodinger equation

So, the complete solution this

in case is

t- 4(a) e

↳ This
is stationary
called the
solution. Why??

this ease is time-independent

probability density
in

is the *+
i
Hb (4(n)12
-

*(x,t)4(2,t) 4*ca)e 4() e

=

4 =

values are
time-independent
(ii) The expectation
-it die
Sf(x,p)2 (4*(,t) F(,
=
a) + (x,t)

dx

(+ *()f(x, -itex)
Y
(x)
=>
 ded zero potential (free particle) VCRI=0,
EF0(m)
-
becomes
The Schrodinger equation
now
---------------
EO
-

4 (x) E4e)
=

=x
to solve for 4(x).
our aim is
-
iEt/
then:4(x,t) 4(use
=

The total wavefunction is

the solution
know that
From de-Broglie's hypothers,
we
already
should be wave wavelength
with

b mr m-me
a

s =
=
=

Now let's solve the Schrodinga equation

E4r)
-

24(2) =

(2)
-E
+
or,
24(x) =

and the
second-order differential
equation
This
isa
the form
solution of
is
2x
↑
(n) C
get
=

we
the above equation,
it
substituting in

-2

q2e= *
e
-

(Since ecu
+ a)
t 0
=

et0
a
( ) ->
=

afen k:
v int
ik
a
= =

.. =

(a)
thatthem two solutions for 4
find
a re
So, we
ilex
inse
-

and (ii) 4(x) = e

-(x)
essically,
e
(i)
=

free particle

I
any arbitrary
a
mechanics
quantum will undergo
From linearity in

two solution are

also a with
energy
ofthere mode
rection
superposition
lonstant
a e
I
valid solution, thatis, iks
-

ins

↑(u) = Ae I Be
mechanically, a

solution
is 8 quantan
complete becomes
Therefore, the -:(kx wt) +

free particle on a

i(kx-wt) +
Be either a left-going
↑ (x,t) As =

rightgoing
code.
d have
↓ when A B, then
we

left going wave

=

right-grin wave
I a
standing wave.
 A
positions basis wave
function
ells-rot)
-

normalize
the
wavefunction
is
this
:check if Function is not normalizable

-4 dr
-

*() (2)dm
c
n ot
the function
+
= =
is
-
So

square integrable.
physical wavefunction
-
So, thisi s not a

thisisa
but useful wavefunction
-

very
 #13
#114 EURE

The step potential ETV. V(k)

-

I
I ⑳
vo
V(x) Vo =

for x>0

=> 0 for a so ---------------------

>

-
For a classical
particle since ECV fax70,
the barrier
there no
is
possibility for mooring

Let'ssolve Schrodinger equation

In region,
2
S0
e
-

t(x) =

solution;
we get
on a possible
Try
as
e
D
Ae
+ Be -

Y(x)
=

in

K. E
=

And inregion

-2 ansea(FYe
solution,
we get
possible
=more
Again, try ect as a

e
a
vo)
=

- = (E -

-Ke
HeR
De
+
- R
..4(x) = CC

Boundary conditions: atx +

0, 4(2) 10

ofthe
wave function: Ke
finiteness
-

(i) () DC
and Shay
=

0
4,
c
=
=>

cavefunction
the
(ii) of
continuity
y, (2)
->
at x 0
=

↑(2) at 2 0
=

->
D A
=
+
B -
B
 derivative
(iii) continuity ofthe

#latm o
=
Alatu=o
*

k2D A
=>
-

B D
=
-
i4A-ikB
=
-

->

0 B +

2A
= =
12
+

i)*.I
3 -

4 2
=
=
(2- its
)
eihn
2)eik+(s- i)
so
(2
a
+() =
+ so

-Ki fax2-
De
=

solution is
The complete i(k,xEt(t) [O
i(k,x Et(h)
-

x
=

Be
+

need
A
4 (x,H)
c

-see
=

=
De

the patches ene

mefee
Reflectance:
m mlistat
=

i(k,x
Et
+

1)]da
1)][Be
+
-

·[*e+(k,m
+

x
-

)](Ae"(ki-EtACD de
=[A*e
-

= is I
reflected
particle
is
that the
probability
The
density of the particle?
-

What the probability

is 2
:
nlt
-in

/ (HE) ein (- ) e

14. I
k= ErE(t
2- 2.
j
De
->

22: No-E) It
 density ofthe region 2.
particle
probability
in

Q: What the
is
-
-

2k2 a
l4z(x)/3

-
*(a)
4 4(2) (Die=

although I
Thismeans that
into
particle can penetrate
2, it ultimately gets
region
reflected.
Penetration depth
gx
I
=

-- E
an analogous
example in
-
total internal
optics is
reflection

The step potential E>U

solution region
in

iK,
-________
E
ik,
-

Be
4, (n) A e
= I r =

Solution region
=r
in
- [K,
CC
ikeDe
4(x) =

region -
D =

constraint.
No reflected come in

continuityof wavefundat
the
=>
the

the derivative iK
continuity
of
i4B=
ik,A=

+ lata-**: lafx=s*
->

ta
->
③ 4 +
= A
=

(1 B)
+

= =
ee
-
C =
e A
x, k2
+

*
3 -
Y B
-> I
=

=( i)
(EE)
A
=

- i(k,x+wt) lo
for
a
2-cot
ik,
)e
. 4 (4,t) Ae At +

reflected rese
=

-- a

i(k2-(H) 30
for
a

Afte ansmitted wave

↓
-

[K,- k2)2

Reflectance " R
=
=

(k2)2 +

peubability transmission:T
of
1
=
-
R =

Must

---....
R

E/vo

- I

↳
x

all
This does not
go

the to zero.
way
 #14
#114 EURE
The barrier potential E(V.

.
Vo
0 3x (a
V(x) =

<0 or 2) a
O
=

Solution region
in
D
-
ik,
ik,x
>
Ae Be
↓

(x)
=

4
x a
x0
=
=

region
solution in

ik,
- ik, x, =
=k
De
↑(2) 2e
= +

solution region
in
k2x
-
2m(Vo -E)
--
-
Ka kz =
t
I GC
Fe
↑(2) =

D 0
region (3) -
=

reflected wave in

Constraints: No

at
a 0
=

the wavefunction D
continuity of
Mr 6
-
+

-
+, () Jea==taklota 0
=

o
u =

at
derivative
continuity ofthe 8
-- ReF+ked
-

claturelate to

continuity ofthe fundon set

at
a cete e
ware
use cele et

continesofthedentativeofa
in,
I

one can show that

T =
=

(s+egy-s
funneling
when Esvo, quantum
Quantum
even a
finitesize
-

=>

tunneling through
a

particle has finise probability of

becomes as, there is
no funneling
If the size a
barrier. two
tunneling of plosons crouch
An analogous publem optics
=>
in is

kept for cital internal reflection

prisms
tunneling.
has to eventually worry about
The semiconductor industry
->
 (Live experimental
demol
RE#
15

#
-

/, wee
R

S
⑧8.

>
>2

L
By A y

J = wavelength lightact
of of the wave-Vertee
k 24
=
=

be written
via man

She field amplitude

i de
via)
(via
=
e-

ka
IsinO ISiD
=
=
->

can
critz
we ↳
x A
-

- . . . . . . -

-k
ka !
"kz
⑤

x
>

10 7
2

-y
by
constant.
is
I
a
just a
scaling
write above
the as
can
ofkm,
we
terms
-i kn

I
dx
U(kn)= U(a) e
V(x)

Wit
->

e udem
-

knee
side with and
(via
each a
multiplying to get
respect kn, we

integrating with
"Russia die
-

(fua)e-
irne

frcun)
dka = an
e
de
E)
di 24fu(>d(n-E)
Jucs(e-ika dan
-
=

I
2πU(π)
 -

Fusanse"
as
virl= dka
-
i

attuckaseika
e
drea
uncertainty relation
-
-xDKm>
*

Sure,
-

Fact
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and momentur

otcarnest an aesination
ene
So,

relation
uncertainty
=>

-x APr]

slit
single

ea
↑

diffraction from
a
-- --
= >

S*
E
> ka = 1kISinD

Ik1
>I l
=>

>

↑4
As
Do * kx max
=
(Insino)
Sin Oman
7 AKm -

.
2π
> =>
jz
Ax 0
=

Akx0 =

demonstrate >s
 (Live experimental
demol
LECTURE#16
PHY114 -
-
-

slit)
wave-particle duality (single

(double slit)
wave-particle duality

often videos:
interference and
ofsingle-photon
links
-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UgBvOhsFvKk&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=uoQm3Brd7Kw&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAotJ8NTBF8&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAotJ8NTBF8&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=4
 17
PHY114 #RE#
--

density
Probability -

probability densityconjugate
-

P(2,t)
*
(x,t) 4(x,t) of
the
4
->
=

instantt, measurementis
at
a

associated with
interpretation:If, y
an

Born's
made to particle
locate the that
cavefunction
ofthe 4 (4, A5,
the probability
thecarefunction 2 and
store
between
the particle found is

(m,t) dx
p(n,t)dx 4*(x,t)4
is =

value
Expectation
-
and I are
given by
... The expectation values ofP
*

dre
f 3,t))- it)4(9,t)
*

<P3 = +

S** (it t)
+ (m,+) di
(*)
(r) =

da
general
4* f(x, -ite)
In + (,t)
(m,t)
Sf(x,P3)
=

-
Operators:
variables (observables) are represented
quantum theory, the dynamical
So, in

as
mathematical operator.

position: Ente
momentum.
Eit
energy.
Entit the warefaction, probability
the
to express
above is function ofM.
what have done expressed as a

operators
are
we
values the and
the expectation
density,
This called the
is
position-basis representation
and other
the wavefunction
-

evores

inwhich
the
Alternatively
can
one are

m
of omentum
-

quantities as afaction
 Momentum-basisRepresentation the momentum
basis

well quantities
in

express
these
transformation. coordinate
through a

-delta faction
S(n) =

⑧
0 ifx F0
if
x 0 =
and
Isculda 1
=

also f(x a)
-
-
0
if
if
a
at

xa =
and
scalda=a
=

dis f(a)
!
=

f(x) (x a)
Therefore: =
-

mm-
airas-delta function
of

I
S(ex a)
-

representation ofthe
Integral
dirce-delta function
-

S(x x)-
=
weo
Xt
trtexp[-]
-

iRE ')
ze
-

dr

re ni
-
S
and
stato I
erden e
f(n)
Also a
s(an)= substitute y=axe
dyade

[(fascudatfr]
*
because

(f(n)f(an)dn ?
=

proof:
If)
Ifalscaldy
=
-

... asm= =>

f12)
sie de
 LECTURE18
PHY114 -
-
-

momentum
what is basis? but
vectors are nothing
which the basis
A
basis i n
momenture value
definite
-

representing a
states
know that e P* represents
de-Broglic hypothesis,
we
-
From
P.
a wave with momentum
terms
4(x) in

to
want represent wavefunction
position-basisvalues.
So,
a
- we

momentum
definite
of waves carrying

where YCP,5)
the
is weightage
with

P
iPa,
of the mode ein
-
(n)
2 dp, morertem P.

-??
aspectto me, get
we
with
each side withjip/t and integrating
multiplying
eiP
dr=hcose
iPs/t dx
ipat dp
*

(4(n)
-

Te
-

da de
-

ar

0)2πSD)
dp
"4(P) 24+ (P-p')
-
↓

S Ft
+10)
(TIPSCO-PCdD
=

ips /
de
-

(y(n)
e
.. (0) =

-treat
p'c p

nee
-

Recall
-
x

,
R

By Ly

lucase-in
de
v(x) =

kx)

-Eva
Sin
=

=(k)
Ie
Inverting it
-

eteenhe

representation
momentum-basis
-
e-iP4/t
S(a,t)
dee
wave function: ↑(P,t) I
1

⑭ -

probability dencity: P(y,) =

1 **(p,t)4(P,+)dp
Operators: p P
=

i
=it p
=
E it
t

expectation
value:
(f(, p,t)= 4*(p,t) (itEp,p,t) + 4p,t)dp
moment-basis representation
- This
is called the
what
- >
is the
momentumrepresention
1P.x/
of a wavefunction 4 (9)= e
I
-iPalt
:Put des
r)e
S(n)
iPat
dre
-

4(P) =
e-
- *

2ThS(P.-P) ei S(P.-P)

-
dx=
=

-
-

-
e

momertur-basis
core function

s0--

the momentum-basis represention of

a

what
->
is
at
point particle
se=40
kept
stationary
4(x) S(x -40)
=

ips/t
das
-

+(p) =

-(4(w)e
-
iPut di

- between
has momentum
that the particle
Probability
is
PC and P2
(P2-P.)
+coldo=Sn do-
02

/Tip: probable
to be found
P,
-
equally momentum.
with any
 & solutions
quantum systems
of
yes
E >
V(atx =
=
a
1. When unbound system
solution,
scattering step potential
particle,
·

Ex: free the propagation

one

Necesarytorepresenting
·

8)
V(atx
=

>
2.
When E bound system
solution, Hydrogen atoms
·
Board box. Electron a
in

in
particle
a

Ex:
atoms & molecules
the stability of
· Necessary for

potential
see
finite
v(x) 0
=

for
-

(x31 2 -V(x)
v(z) 0
= otherwise . . .

D
Vo
=

⑪ ② ③

potential infinite
in
Since the
is

and 2 she save function

uion
vanishes there.
x
-

az 0
alz

solution region
=
in

ine
ike x

A2 Be
+

4(x) =

the wavefunction
atx 1925
=

continuity of
-
-
#eat
Ie
⑧
u-
also Be
-ice_e"* =

-
ika/2 E
E I
-

= - =
- -

i valz e-ikalz o eisinka 0

=

e
 uπ
nT = k a
=

ka=
Sin K 0 -
E
=

intle in/2
P
①
-
=>
Be
- Ae
+

0,2,4..
if
=
n

Ae
-

in= - A
B
=
1,2,3
if
- =

n
=>

+
=
A

Sin(a
nix - in
2 iA
i
5
Ae
=
::4(a) =
-
2

n 0,2,4...
Asin(n) if
=

Afintal
=
Al intra- 2ACOS (*a)
13,5...
+

if n

"as(* a)
=

A
=

check the normalization?

a/2

((+(n)(2d 1 =

9/2
alz

2a)
dx 1Ax
= (show)
=

SIAI
Sim
solutions
for even

a/z
A
-

show that
Similarly one can
AE

solution is
So, the final -
iEnt/ even

EEi ()
n
=

42(x,+) =

odd
-Ent/t n
=

=
as() e

what En?

e
is

we have
 RE19
PHY114 #
-
-

the solutions.
of
outogonality need to

solutions to
the Schrodinger equation
- The different
is,
be orthogonal. That

(mit] da=Sans
St. uit Tri

normalized, they are

solutions
are

-> If orstogral
the
called orshonormal.
the
eigensolutions
the of
in 1, all
These
=>
solution

energy operator
En 4r(,)
it*Yn(n,t)
=

a
born quantized
is

the particle
in

betal energy of take

cannotjust any
enogy.
The
2. The particle
=>

Ear man
2
block.
a metal
electron in

conduction
Example to one
ion
electron due
by

w
->
potential faced

to two
ion

W
electron due
Potential faced
by

Lun
to ions
electron due many
Potential faced
by
-
Harmonic potential av(x)

X.
V(x) cx2
S
=

& Resnite
(Appendix IofEisberg
↑ R. Shankar
Section 7.5 of

describe
Simple harmonic
potential can

& small vibrations

any system
thati s executing
stable
abouta pointof
equilibrium.

ubiquitous
Harmonic potential is

molecule
& a diatomic
vibration ofatoms in
his atomic vibration
due to
Thoral
his properties ofsolid
a re vibrations
(iii) EM waves

xically: experience
a
force
moving
under such a potential
· particle
A

V(x)
cx
arc=mi
-

f(x)
=
=

=
-

w
is

The oscillation frequency 40 is

·

with
man
amplitude
the oscillator
The total energy of mode
=I
·

1rx a
=
=

E P+ V
+

particle
as a
the
deneity of
whatabout the probability
deneity offinding
·

function ofposition. probability

The
proportional
=
-

at it is
the particle
P. (n) ? particle
=

the
to its speed. Faster
detection.
its
is moving, less probable is

have
For given energy E, we

-tat
a

E Ima 2 mE
=
+
= E- ca a =

aP(k)
:(
at

x
the

=
=
extremem

=
=
4

"W
 mechanical
Quantum
- the
write Schrodinger
time-independent, we can

since the potential is

equation as

e)
(n) mx
E
-
+ (x) =

solution given
is by
Ent/
The complete -

(n+2) tw
Er =

4(x) -
4(x)4(t) =

1,2,.-.
-(4,t) x 0,
=

and tas:
(i) eup)-**Y in((**x]
(m)x
me , 13) where x
=

k
4

LengI
a
An=
-

Huly) called Hermite polynomials

is are
Hermite
complete solutions the
solutions of
So, the and one

differential equation 0
24H(2)
2yGH)
=

At
+

d2 H(x) -

in) lot dyz

Ane-4a) e o(y) 1
#
=
where is an
is integer

2y
H,(2)
=

H2(3) -
= 2(1 -

zy2)

have is
that the oscillator
can

(expl-
The minimum energy -
442
A.2
4(2)
-

I4w
=
=
Er =

mechanical oscillato
classical oscillar, quantum the
energy
the two. The minimum
the multiples of
So unlike
·
have energy
in

can only has to

have is tw
thatthe system
·
Pusability density
so
--Fr_t

Seet
-P(x) -P(x)
 LECTURE
#20
114
free particle
-

potential,
#

barrier
solutions:step potential,
-> scattering
solution: t2
-
Bound -
n
En =

Infinite -
well potential 2ma2

(n+) two
·

potential En
=

oscillator
·
Harmonic

ga metronaton) orbit
atom
a
in
circular
atom moves
an
· An electron i n potential EM radiation
Conlon's
influence of
under the not radiate an
such arbit does
an orbit
Electrons moving in
moves from
one

electron
only if
·

mediated
an

·
EM energy
is

the
to other.
the
atom with
the
hydrogen
be illustrated by modeling
All these
in
2-item
even
·

potential: vinin,

obtain state solution,

dime-independent, we
stationary
Since potential is
"losing
·

which emplains
the stability of
hydrogenaton I opposed to
(as

energy by accelerating electron-model")

Solution: ↑n,, me
(2,0,P)
where n=

l 0,1,2
=
1, 2, 3...
. . .
n -
1
With
er

l
me =-1,...0...

terby
electron(al an
k
5
=
n

=
E =
nπ2E2
-

2m9L

models
in free-electron
metal-
erectors
a

faced by
ential

XxX=-I -

-
et*or
1
- 2 Na=
 manywas
no inthe -
periodic potential

↳xx ILL-
--

-
↳a +

describe
several new
effects
model van
electron
->Kronig-pennybe described using the free
thatwouldn't periodic potential)
model (without

solving differentquartum systems essentially mean

·
In
general equation for differentpotential.
the schlodings
solving thata r e
solutions
equation given
a setof
the schrdinger
·
solving *N(2)
orthonormal.: 42(4), 42(2).... superposition
is written as a

the quantum system

⑧ The general
state of
states.
the stationary
of
(n 4r(m)
4(x) =

n 1

by
=

stat is
given
evolution of a
stationary
·
The time - iEct/

4, (n,t) 4, (a)
=
e

4(a)
->

by
stat given
general
is

The time evolution of

a

- iEnt/

nucuse
·

(4,t) -

(x)
↑ -
 measurement

of
tionstationary q
state uantum sition

a
is
e

stationary
state
↳n(n) etc.
i En,
Iam Pala with
energy

E(x)
=>

n 1
=

the system, then

the
energy of
make
measurementof state with
the stationary
a

Ifwe in one of
system
is
->

thatthe
we find Ec
as En
either Esc
...

energy

m is equal
has energy
system
thatthe the inner productof
The probability
This
obtained by taking tax onto
estate in(2)
of
->
is

Acull?
which the projection
to
is

↑ (as
Wale),
with

and i sgiven be

Talaldr-Sinest
an

; ties, a

as
tes du
I
=

- *

, Sm =

cm*Cm= Aml
given by p =

The probability therefore

is

value of
energy
is the average
value of
energy N

) Expectation
after many
measurements. (E) EEI
=

t
will wait
->
hisand the otherquarter concepts the
in
 # 21
-DE
-114
dispersion
Phase velocity, group velocity and group velocity
-_eler t)
given by
2
wave is F(x,H=
plane
A constant
the velocity of
a

velocity
is

wave on phase
the
The velocity of
a
wave
the
phase print of

Me:
point given by
constantphase
is

ka-ct=constant
0

ka
w =

:
vd
=
=
=

and velocity
v

material particle of
mass me

Let'sconsider
a

:P mv
=
and E Imu2
=

the corresponding
matter wave: 2
bev =
=

For

=
V
=
:Up
vd
= E
=
=

the
half
phase
the front is

not - the of
velocity
particle
the
velocity of
that
it represents.

make sense??
does this

when
This issue always arises
we consider a single monochromatic
consider
cave. when
But
we
the
Then
a
group ofwaves.
sense of
to distint
we get the phar
velocities. One
is

and
the other one
velocity
is group velocity
 she ve

K and so,
with
a
given Up=
single wave
given by
only velocity
one
If
->there is

the conceptof
phase
waves
the
with
and w

only
have multiple

g
However, in eneral. Chrisper
re relatives

matter waver?
whati sthe
dispersion
relation for
m-(m)=
-
STE .
=

w(n) GTV
=
=

= relation for an
EM wave
ina dielectric
medium of

-
dispersion is
index in
refractive

E which we
have several plane
waves.

which
situation spread given sin),
consider the
in

vester has
a
we
Now, the
wave
that
also assume width vko.

rem
we
and has a S(k)
centered ofk=ks
is

around new.
expand costs
this we ream taylor
one
in rease,

co(k) ((ko
=
+ k-
W(K)
K) =
+
(k
-

1) no
=

:LIKER.()+cr-ros/=+* In=
phase velocity
Up >=
=
of
velocity
the
the wave packet
velocity-desides
vg=
Egroup
e
desides to
dispension
group velocity
I
-

wave packet spreads

GVD=
 and the
GVD, fet'swrite bunch of
waves as

In order visualize
to up, ve

i(ke-ct) dk-This wave-packet

(n)
a
is

e
(x,+)
-
=

&

: ([Ro+K-KSx
-

[(wo +(x-roSc'+c")t) dr

:E(4,t) ( s(u) e

werere
=

inwinwe
j
de
(kox-wot]
-

scne -
-
-> e
↓ -

This a
is
monochromatic
wave with phase velocity
Up dx
Wo
=
->

To I

For the
-
matter wave case
apresentation,aene
nd
wave-packet.
cock)=
n particle
the velocity)
half
Hrvo?/h Vo
I
vo-
=

I
/h
.. =

jeans
aree
voasahotmenanin
in deser

in a dielectric medium fee

I
M
wave
when sh

I
In situation
in
have:w(K)= material median
we
K

velocity= vp y= lightpropagate
which en
:Phase
=

inden, then we
C
retractive
velocity Ug I have group velocity
also
=
=

group
=

phase velocity and

group velocity dispension 0
=

I finite GVD
(a

wave-vecter speed given by Simulate the

wave-packet
Simulation:for
I
a

enp)-anami fan backme

in
- is

SDR1= rett
#114 RE#22
it that
ifU p=I, does mean
wave
matter
Q:For the behind
-
-

the
matter wave corresponding the
to particle lags
a
to
the particle extends from
-

wave

Are! really.
A single plane
the wave lagging
Not
no
such thing as

there
-
-

is
Therefore
behind.
the velocitybeing
what do we
mean by group equal
0!
--

the
to particle velocity
need the
idea of a

the group velocity

we
to and ris
For defining central
waveverters
E with a
small, and
in

group of waves,
be arbitrarily
width
However,
I can

waves is essentially an

group of
2.

particle velocity
the
the to,
limit see how
man
and sees we

single wave
the velocity.
to group
vo is equal
group of
waves
of
velocity
a

meantby
the place
what
->
is

to
A t t to
=

Em)
=

·
The phase velocity of
is
the group of
caves

fixed
velocity of
x
a
the

" t t1
=
·
phase

The
point (red

group
dots)

velocity theis

of
ofthe peak

EM).
velocity
the envelope (blue dots)
x

"
E(n) t tz

.......
=

"
 "V(k)

:
I
-
E Vo

⑧ ⑳
0
>x
x
=

to she
when whathappens
In a step potential problem E>Vo,
velocities inside the two regions
phase and group

Region ⑳ Region
Ane:
-
- -

i(k2x -
wt)
i(k,2 cot) 2
-

solection !
&

et
wave-vector:
Ki I
↳
Phan velocity: Up, I
-= Er
e

We
en

the
W = -

relation: C
dispersion
-

group velocity: Vys=

-

A =
= I vg =
=

tkz
=>
2πm

=
=
P2
u
V2
=

k, k2
have:
So, we
Up, 4Vp2

vgi7 Vgu

v, Ve
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