AN APPLICATION OF MULTI CHANNEL

SURFACE WAVE (MASW) IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

JOASH ROHIN STANLEY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY &

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

UCSI UNIVERSITY

2023
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to convey my appreciation to UCSI University to give me
this opportunity to conduct this research paper and this enhances me to become a better
individual in my line of work as a Civil Engineer. This Final Year Project provides me with
an excellent opportunity to put everything I have learned throughout my studies into effect.
Also, I would like to thank my supervisor Ts. Dr. Mohammed Noor Hisyam for providing the
help and assistance needed in helping to achieve my goals in succeeding to publish a well
written thesis for my Final Year Project. Always there to spend time every fortnight to discuss
my progress update and correction to help me learn from my mistakes. Moreover, providing
learning materials and educating me on learning new software required for my Final Year
Project. Lastly, I would like to thank my friends and family for providing further assistance
and giving out pointers on how to conduct a research paper, learning from experience of past
seniors research paper.
 DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY AND EXCLUSIVENESS

I, Joash Rohin Stanley, formally certify that the research is based on my own work
except for the quotes and sources that have been properly cited. I further certify that while
writing the research, I obeyed the directions that have been set up by UCSI University.
Finally, I affirm that this research has not been presented for any other degree at UCSI or
other universities earlier or simultaneously.

Yours sincerely,

_________________________

(JOASH ROHIN STANLEY 1001852178)

Date: 31st July 2023

Supervised by,

_________________________

(TS. DR. MOHAMMAD NOOR HISYAM)

Date:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND / GENERAL OVERVIEW

For the safe design, construction, and long service of many buildings, cities, including
highways, bridges, tunnels, and other infrastructures, it is necessary to provide the necessary
information about an existing soil condition, elastic moduli, bedrock depth, ground stiffness,
site class, and groundwater table. This is due to population growth, rapid urbanisation, and
the demand for new land for infrastructure expansion. Regarding soil survey engineering
expertise that is pivotal in this matter is a geotechnical engineer. There are various
geophysical methods to conduct site investigations. In comparison to more traditional field-
testing methods like boreholes, geophysical methods allow for more thorough site exploration
across a larger region. Based on site-specific restrictions, geological and geotechnical
conditions, project objectives, and geophysical principles, the optimal geophysical technique
should be utilised at each site (M. A. M Ashraf et al., 2018). Improper information about soil
characterization of certain structure will lead to improper satisfactory design which may lead
to structural damage and loss of human life from any future consequences. The primary cause
of structural failure results from a lack of knowledge regarding the geophysical and
geotechnical characteristics of a soil. Geotechnical engineers find that a thorough knowledge
of the type, nature, and properties of the soil, geological structures, depth of the groundwater
table, and competent bedrock is crucial for selecting the right location, designing engineering
structures, and identifying potential adverse and unfavourable conditions in the study area so
that appropriate corrective measures can be taken (K. D. Oyeyemi et al., 2020). Among the
most widely used geophysical methods to measure unknown foundation of the soil layer at a
larger region is the Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) method. Why MASW
said to be the most widely used geophysical method is because its reliable, trustworthy, non-
intrusive, and affordable for engineering applications to identify possibly unsuitable
geological conditions, ascertain the soil and rock's small-strain stiffness, analyse foundation
instability, and understand site classifications.
MASW first measures seismic surface waves generated from various types of seismic sources
such as sledge hammer, analyses the propagation velocities of those surface waves, and then
finally deduces shear wave velocity (Vs) variations below the surveyed area that is most
responsible for the analysed propagation of velocity pattern of surface waves (N. S. Pawar &
Dr. S. Mhaske., 2017). Due to its relationships with the small-strain shear stiffness, shear
wave velocity (Vs) is a fundamental quantity in geological engineering. Evaluation of the
dynamic behaviour of soil requires knowledge of the shear wave velocity distribution. The
dispersive nature of Rayleigh Waves that propagate from the soil surface are used to
determine the Vs from the dispersion curve by sledgehammer or etc and the average shear
wave velocity which is (Vs30) is estimated from the measured Vs is used to identify the site
class for site response analysis, earthquake resistant design and safe building provision.
According to building codes, Vs30 is used as a proxy to classify soil sites and account for the
effects of the local soil conditions (Eurocode 8). The dispersion curve generated by the
Rayleigh waves through MASW technique will determine the Vs to estimate the most
probable subsurface stiffness profile of the soil.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In the civil engineering industry especially building construction land excavation,

determining soil condition is a very essential step in making the foundation is proper and
stable before we begin constructing anything on it. Most of the construction companies uses
methods such open excavation and borehole drilling to conduct soil exploration. Although
there are many advantages there is also vast disadvantages such as drainage condition, noise
pollution and lots of time wasted due to its tediousness. The contemporary corporate
environment is fraught with difficulties. To advance soil exploration in construction,
organisations of all sizes are being pushed to fulfil higher social commitments, adopt
technological advancements, and think strategically in ways that have changed substantially
over time. Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) is a non-invasive method that
has become a common technique for estimating near-surface V s - profiles for engineering
applications. MASW is a time and cost-effective technique that can further be applied at a
wide variety of soil sites, including locations where site conditions limit the application of
invasive techniques, such as penetration tests (Olafsdottir, E.A.; Bessason, B.; Erlingsson, S.,
2019). Despite this technique is widely used in geological test and in fields to determine
earthquake, it is said that this technique could prove useful in civil engineering by obtaining
the soil conditions. MASW has not been adopted in many construction companies as their to-
go method when it comes to soil exploration due to because contractor lack the knowledge
and experiencing in using this technology. Introduction of this geophysical technique saves a
lot of time as it does not requires any drilling or penetration onto the ground surface to detect
soil conditions but uses Rayleigh waves which is a non-invasive method. Furthermore,
research of the studies on MASW adoption in Malaysia has revealed few possibilities. In
Malaysia, there are few MASW implementation studies or research, therefore this study
might help organizations grasp the benefits of MASW to be used in civil engineering in the
near future.

1.3 OBJECTIVES / AIM OF STUDY

The aim of this study is to prioritize Multichannel Analysis Surface Wave (MASW) in Civil
Engineering and employ it to manage the quality of soil exploration. The objectives of the
study are as follows:

 To determine the uses of MASW and its uses and how it can be implemented in Civil
Engineering.

 To study the methodology of obtaining data using MASW and comparing its
effectiveness compared to traditional methods.

 To obtain multiple reading of shear wave velocity (V s) from the dispersion curve
through the propagated Rayleigh Waves to study various conditions of the ground
1.4 SCOPE & LIMITATIONS OF STUDY

This study will be focusing on studying MASW and how to employ it in Civil Engineering.
Construction surveys, group-oriented conversations, and site exploration history were utilised
as benchmarks to identify areas of strength and weakness obtained to further study MASW
and its usage. The shear wave velocity data obtain from the dispersion curve will be used to
study the condition of the soil. Recommendations will be made and examine to areas that
need improvement. Software such as Orange Mining Data will be used collect and record
data.

However, in terms of limitations regarding this study is that, due to the fact MASW is widely
used in the geotechnical field, its not often to find clear surveys or data information regarding
the usage of MASW in construction sites. Therefore, we cannot single out a individual areas
as our main focus of study to understand MASW better.

All in all, the goal is to implement MASW in Civil Engineering, backing it with information,
data and proper discussion to see fit how this technology is important in future use in the
Civil Engineering World .

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE

This research will assist organisations in determining what is MASW and how it can help in
the application of Civil Engineering. This research would be studying the shear wave velocity
(Vs) from the dispersion curve generated by the Rayleigh waves to further understand the soil
conditions better using a non-invasive method. This can assist organisations or construction
companies in reviewing, evaluating, and implementing appropriate initiatives to promote a
better-quality method in conducting soil exploration before laying out foundation and avoid
any soil defect that can cause fatal damage.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter reviews work related and theoretical behaviour of Multichannel Analysis
Surface Wave (MASW) and its application to Civil Engineering. MASW survey was
generally reviewed in this section. Discussion on relationship between Shear Wave Velocity
(Vs) and soil parameter are also included in this section. The literature review consists of
three parts. The first part talks about the geotechnical method itself and how it is widely used
in soil exploration including the background of the technology. Then the second section talks
about the Shear Wave Velocity (Vs) which is a parameter to identify the soil conditions and
its methodology to obtain it by using MASW. Lastly, it talks about the comparison of MASW
to other soil excavation or geotechnical techniques to test soil conditions to deduce why
MASW is the best option as well as how to incorporate MASW in construction field.

2.2 MULTICHANNEL ANALYSIS SURFACE WAVE (MASW)

2.2.1 DEFINITION OF MASW

Measuring the shear-wave velocity distribution, the seismic technique known as MASW may
determine how the overburden and bedrock are arranged in the soil using as the technique
used is non-evasive. It examines the dispersion of surface waves, which often employ
Rayleigh waves in their fundamental mode. An array of geophones is utilised to measure the
seismic waves, just like in other seismic techniques. Surface waves for MASW can be
produced by an active source, such as a sledgehammer, or by ambient surface waves, such as
those produced by heavy machinery and moving vehicles. Both 1D (depth) and 2D (depth
and surface distance) forms of the shear wave (Vs) profile are provided by the approach. The
findings can be used to calculate the stiffness or strength of soil and rock, as well as the depth
and topography of soil bedrock. MASW is commonly used in the geotechnical field to
identify seismic waves of earthquakes, volcano eruption and map subsurface geology.

2.2.2 HISTORY OF MASW TECHNOLOGY

A wave-propagation technique called Spectrum Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW), which

produces the near-surface Vs profile, was established in the early 1980s. SASW uses the
spectral analysis of ground roll generated by an impulsive source and recorded by a pair of
receivers. This method has been widely and effectively used in many geotechnical
engineering projects (Stokoe et al., 1994). To uses SASW, each time the single receiver is
recalibrated based on the wavelength calculation made during acquisition repetitively to
sample the desired frequency range. Data are collected and analyzed to produce a dispersion
curve by calculating the phase difference between each deployment of receiver pairs. The
inclusion of noise during SASW measurements occasionally can be controlled using a set of
empirical criteria tailored for each site investigated (Gucunski and Woods, 1991; Stokoe et
al., 1994). The degree to which near surface materials might alter makes it difficult to
optimise these requirements. In addition to the differences between each site, it is challenging
to evaluate and separate signal from noise using simply a pair of receivers. The amount of
time and work needed to do a multichannel process increases since it is necessary to record
repeated shots into many field deployments for a single site. The SASW method has a few
flaws, which are addressed by Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW).

In the early 2000s, MASW became the most widely used technique amongst the geotechnical
engineers replacing the SASW method. The study was originally initiated in the middle of the
1990s by geophysicists who had been using the seismic reflection method at the Kansas
Geological Survey (KGS). Seismic reflection is long used in the oil and gas industry to image
the interior of the earth for depths of several kilometers. The same method is taken and used
for engineering purposes to identify very shallow depths up to 100m or less. According to the
substantial research done by SASW investigators, surface wave qualities must be more
complex than previously thought or theorised, and that it was obvious that the two-receiver
strategy had outgrown its ability to manage the complexity.

To incorporate MASW into geotechnical engineering projects, it helps to demonstrated the

multichannel approach's scientific validity in surface wave dispersion research, and in this
light, the work can be viewed as a feasibility test of the strategy for future frequent use.
Then, using uncorrelated Vibroseis data, it highlights the effectiveness of the approach by
detailing advantages with multichannel acquisition and processing concepts most appropriate
for the geotechnical engineering applications (Park et al., 1999).

2.3 SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY (Vs)

2.3.1 WHAT IS SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY?

Due to its relationship to the small-strain shear stiffness, shear wave velocity (Vs) is a
fundamental quantity in geological engineering. In-situ Vs-profiles can be evaluated using a
variety of approaches in three steps taken. The three basic components of the MASW
approach are field measurements, dispersion analysis, and inversion analysis. Both the
inversion analysis and the dispersion analysis can be carried out using the software
MASWaves. The analysis can be completed using just one multichannel surface wave record.
Assessing the dynamic behaviour of soil requires knowledge of the shear wave velocity
distribution, for example, to analyse seismic site response, soil-structure interaction, and
vibration transmission in soils. The main data acquisition and computational steps are
illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Overview of the MASW method: (a, b) field measurements; (c, d) dispersion analysis;
(e, f) inversion analysis (Canadian Geotech Journal, 2018).

2.3.2 METHODOLOGY OF IDENTIFYING SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY

2.3.2.1 FIELD MEASUREMENTS

For data acquisition, low-frequency receivers also known as geophones are lined up on the
surface of the test site. As the geophones only record vertical motion, it is important that they
are placed vertically on the ground. (M. A. M Ashraf et al., 2018). Surface waves produced
by dynamic sources, such as a sledgehammer and a seismograph, are measured using the
active surface waves approach. The signal directing the seismograph to begin recording will
be transmitted when the impacted source produces a vibration to the test site or the ground.
Surface waves, primarily Rayleigh waves, are used by active MASW. The number of
receivers (geophone) is denoted by N and the offset is set at different distance from the first
geophone with five time stacking for instance such as 10m, 15m and 20m to improve the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) which were adopted from the conventional seismic refraction
method. The resulting impact would produce surface waves that the geophones would pick
up on. In the Rayleigh basic mode, the wave form was visible in the seismograph and
scattering image just as shown in the illustration in Fig 1(b). The weight of the
sledgehammer, the number of receivers, the distance of offset from the first receiver is a
controlling variable that decides the outcomes of the wave form in the seismograph captured.
Using SeisImager/SW software or programme MASWaves, acquired MASW data were
processed and interpreted to determine the shear wave velocity, Vs, by constructing the
dispersion curve.

2.3.2.2 DISPERSION ANALYSIS

One of the most important phases in eventually producing an accurate shear wave velocity
profile is the generation of a dispersion curve. A crucial step in the implementation of MASW
is the determination of the experimental Rayleigh wave dispersion curve. Significant
mistakes in the inverted shear wave velocity profile might be caused by an inaccurate or
incorrect experimental dispersion curve. The typical format for dispersion curves is phase
velocity versus frequency. By determining the phase velocity from the linear slope of each
component of the swept-frequency record, this relationship may be established. Analysis and
noise removal on ground roll data can improve a dispersion curve's accuracy. A field
measurement seismogram can be subjected to a multichannel coherency measurement
because to the excellent isolation potential of each frequency component. You can also use
impulsive data to determine the dispersion curve using a frequency-domain method (Park et
al., 1998b).

In the dispersion analysis, dispersion curves are extracted from the acquired surface wave
data.  Transform-based methods, in which the acquired time series are transformed from the
space–time domain into a different domain, are most used for active-source surveys (Socco et
al. 2010). For instance, the frequency–wave number (f–k) transform (Yilmaz, 1987), the
slowness–frequency (p–ω) transform (McMechan and Yedlin, 1981), and the phase shift
method (Park et al., 1998) can each transform a visual representation of the surface waves'
dispersive characteristics, from which the Rayleigh wave dispersion curve is recognised and
retrieved based on the spectral maxima.

2.3.2.3 INVERSION ANALYSIS

The reverse calculation of the experimental dispersion curve is used in the inversion analysis
to produce a shear wave velocity profile. On the basis of a set of fictitious model parameters,
including a fictitious shear wave velocity profile for the test site, a theoretical dispersion
curve is calculated. The theoretical dispersion curve that is most compatible with the
measured curve is found by repeatedly inserting several sets of parameters into the model. As
the end result of the survey, it is assumed that the shear wave velocity profile will provide a
theoretical dispersion curve that satisfactorily fits the experimental curve.

The dispersion data, along with estimates of the density and Poisson's ratio, are necessary for
the iterative inversion procedure that calculates the Vs, profiles. A least-squares method
enables process automation (Xia et al., 1999). In this method, Poisson's ratio, density, and
model thickness are held constant throughout the inversion while only Vs is updated after
each iteration. From here we will be able to obtain the shear wave velocity.

2.4 USE OF MASW IN CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING FIELD

2.4.1 COMPARISON OF MASW WITH OTHER GEOTECHNICAL METHODS

2.5 RECOMMENDATION & SIGNIFICANCE

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 AREA OF STUDY (SITE SELECTION)

To gather all the data on possible fieldwork locations, a desk study was conducted. To acquire
the current and available data and materials pertinent to that specific site. The majority of the
data was gathered after reviewing the reports on geotechnical testing done in the potential
study region. Additionally, a site visit was made in order to observe basic site characteristics.
Verbal data was also gathered for this research and verified using already-existing records
like reports and historical maps. The desk research for site selection also included a
description of the 2014 9th edition Geological Map of Peninsular Malaysia. This geological
chart provides details on various soil products produced by the geological formation with a
range of grain sizes. The following criteria must also be fulfilled for field work to be
successful such that the greenfield sites must be accessible for heavy-duty trucks, grassy, and
far enough away from nearby buildings that is at least more than 10 metres away to avoid any
buried structures.

Around Peninsular Malaysia, a seismic MASW survey and field geoelectrical resistivity
measurements were done before earth boring. There are a total of 23 sites that were chosen at
random for fieldwork, and 12 samples were taken for analysis in which 6 of the samples are
taken over borehole. Following that, the sample counts were assessed using statistical
analysis to determine whether they were appropriate for the data tabulation of soil
characteristics. Even though the sites were chosen at random, the information was obtained
by desk research, as was stated in the paragraph before. Results from soil boring and
geoelectrical resistivity measurements show the various geological characteristics, from
clayey soils to sandy soils. The study sites in Peninsular Malaysia are depicted in Figure 2.
Information about the study region in the chosen states of Peninsular Malaysia is shown in
Table 1 including class of soil product to determine whether its soft soil or hard soil.

States Site No. Location Soil Products

Perlis A1 Kuala Perlis Marine clays
B1 Kota Kuala Muda Marine clays
Kedah
B2 Bandar Puteri Jaya Laterites soil
C1 Red-yellow latosol and gley
Universiti Teknologi Petronas
soils
C2 Red-yellow latosol and gley
Tronoh
soils
Perak C3 Pinji Perdana Red-yellow podzolic soils
C4 Parit Red-yellow podzolic soils
C5 Sungkai Red-yellow podzolic soils
C6 Hutan Melintang Gley soils on marine clays
D1 Pudu Ulu, Cheras Red-yellow podzolic soils
Kuala D2 Damansara Red-yellow podzolic soils
Lumpur
D3 Cyberjaya Organic soil with gley soils
E1 Shah Alam Alluvial soil and gley soils
E2 Puncak Perdana Red-yellow podzolic soils
Selangor E3 Selayang Red-yellow podzolic soils
E4 Klang Marine clays
E5 Pulau Indah Alluvial soil and gley soils
Melaka F1 Kg. Morten Gley soils on marine clays
G1 Sg. Koyan Laterites soil
Pahang G2 Cameron Highland Laterites soil
G3 Pekan Gley soils on marine clays
 H1 Yellow-grey podzolic soils
Terengganu Marang
with laterites
Johor I1 Muar Gley soils on marine clays

Table 1: Location of study area in every state of Peninsular Malaysia

Figure 3.2: Location of site study on each state in Peninsular Malaysia
3.2 SOIL EXCAVATION & EQUIPMENT USED

3.3 MULTICHANNEL ANALYSIS SURFACE WAVE (MASW) OF SEISMIC SURVEY

OYO Mc-Seis 2D multichannel analysis surface wave technique was used to carry out the
seismic imaging. (MASW). In practice, the MASW technique is used to identify the soil's
shallow depth subsurface. (Coulouma et al., 2012, Park et al., 1999). It was used in the same
area as the 1D-VES and 2D resistivity surveys along with the horizontal drilling line. A
seismograph set, two sets of 12-channel seismic take-out cables, 24 units of 4.5Hz
geophones, a fully charged car battery, a remote cable and trigger switch, a hammer, striking
plate, and measuring tape were the primary tools and accessories used in this survey. These
items are depicted in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Equipment and accessories for seismic MASW survey

Prior to being run, the seismic shot point for the study region was planned, as seen in Figure
4. During the triggering process, the seismic shot plan is used to direct the position of the
source or shot point and receiver. To gather as much information as feasible, it is
recommended that the seismic shot have five in-line shot points and two offset shot points.
(Saad, 2018). As depicted in the figure, this shot configuration was used to improve accuracy
in data acquisition while isolating noise traces like traffic waves and learning about potential
overburden depth and shear velocity variations. (Park et al., 2007, Pegah and Liu, 2016,
Maheswari et al., 2010, Hayashi and Craig, 2017).

Figure 4: Shot locations for seismic survey

The geophones were installed firmly into the ground at the necessary distance of no more
than 15 metres between each geophone. These geophones were attached by being clipped
onto the seismic takeout wire, and the seismograph unit was used to test their functionality.
By tapping a geophone with a finger to test its functionality, a seismograph will reveal
movement at a specific geophone distance. The trigger switch was mounted on a
hammerhead and linked by a remote cable. Figure 5 shows how the indication was produced
by striking a steel plate with a hammer. At the seismograph device, the trigger level is
examined. At the offset position prior to the first geophone, the first source was activated. As
the collection progresses, the seismograph's waveform displays the ground roll, which is the
surface wave's Rayleigh wave, as shown in Figure 6. The source was then moved between
each geophone in turn.
Figure 5: Installation of geophones, trigger process and capture wave during seismic survey

Figure 6: Multichannel raw field or waveform data contain ground roll signal or Rayleigh
waves
3.4 INTERPRETATION OF 2D MULTICHANNEL SURFACE WAVE

Prior to producing the seismic picture with layers of the subsurface, the data were input into
three stages of the programme. Using the Pickwin (surface wave) program, the files in the
shape of "groups" were examined in the initial stage. The work details, including source
interval, source receiver, and quantity of data, were viewed in this programme for verification
purposes. In the "set up" area, the information can be reckoned if it hasn't already been done.
Later on, the 'Wave Equation or WaveEq' programme is used for the editing stage of the
procedure. The phase velocity curve against frequency, also known as the dispersion curve in
Figure 7, was first derived from the raw Rayleigh wave data in the WaveEq programme.
Before generating the shear wave velocity profile, the low-quality data, such as noise and
higher mode, were eliminated. Based on the anticipated profile, the necessary range of shear
wave velocity (Vs), number of layers, and depth were established as depicted in Figure 7. As
shown in Figure 8, the shear wave velocity or S-wave velocity profile shows the depth and
the velocity number.

Figure 7: Dispersion curve of Rayleigh Wave

 Figure 8: Shear wave velocity profile

The modifying files were finally launched into the "geo plot" programme. As shown in
Figure 9, the pseudo-section in the geo plot programme denotes a stratum of profile in values
of shear wave velocity against depth. By clicking the "covert Vs to N value" bar to start the
portion of SPT-N values shown in Figure 10, the shear wave velocity values were
transformed into SPT-N values. Figure 10 also shows the SPT-N values according to depth
that were recorded based on the borehole site where the survey was conducted. Note that
instead of using the real SPT-N value, the seismic data was used to derive the SPT-N value
from the converted value of Vs for electrical resistivity correlation purposes. The "geo plot"
program, which was based on studies performed by Imai and Tonouchi, 1982, incorporates
the converted SPT-N value that was extracted from a well-established correlation of Vs
against SPT-N shown in Figure 11. Also as shown in Figure 11, the created equation from
Imai and Tonouchi was chosen for use in correlating Vs and SPT-N because it generated a
large amount of data in comparison to other existing equations. Numerous researchers
concurred and supported their results by using the equation developed by Imai and Tonouchi.
(Fauzi et al., 2014, Xia et al., 1999, Yordkayhun et al., 2014, Fatehnia et al., 2015, Imai and
Tonouchi, 1982, Xia et al., 2003, Wair et al., 2012, Maheswari et al., 2010).
Figure 9: Conversion of shear wave velocity to SPT-N profile
 Figure 10: Pseudo-section calculated SPT-N value from shear wave velocity

Figure 11: The relationship shear wave velocity (Vs) with SPT-N value (source Imai and
Tonouchi, 1982)

3.5 SOFTWARE USED