Optimization of Satellite Link Design
Avadh Nandra1, Jivesh Govil2, Harkeerat Kaur3
Department of : Electrical Engineering1,2, Electronics and Communication3
George Washington University1, University of Michigan2, GGS Indraprastha University3
avadh@gwu.edu jivesh@umich.edu kaurharkeerat@gmail.com
Abstract-The design of satellite communication system is a
complex process requiring compromises between many factors
to achieve the best performance at an acceptable cost. In the
Present World GEO satellites carry the vast majority of the
world’s satellite traffic, therefore it becomes utmost for the
link designer to design with a optimum utilization of space
segment as well as transponder downlink EIRP. We ( authors)
has performed the experiments by varying some of the entities
which play a vital role in the link budget and observed the
complete physical changes affecting the overall link budget
profile. Using such results based upon our work, we
performed a theoretical predictions on some of the major
problems experienced by the satellite users which includes
losses, and attenuation by rain or by equipments, outage of the
system etc. Results of these theoretical predictions, acted as an
impetus in knowing that the mismanagement of the link budget
calculation lead to vital problems such as interference, cross
polarization of the antenna and rising of the noise floor of
transponder etc.
I. INTRODUCTION
The Link budget played a vital role in the deployment of
any radio frequency network. It defines the amount of
power available in the communication link for trans and
receive. It has been experienced that the factors, which
influence system design in satellite communication are the
choice of frequency band, atmospheric propagation effects
and multiple access technique. All communication links
should be designed to meet certain performance objectives,
usually a bit error rate (BER) in a digital link or a signal to
noise ratio (S/N) in an analog link, measured in the
baseband channel. The baseband channel is where an
information carrying signal is generated or receipt. The
baseband channel BER or S/N ratio is determined by the
carrier to noise ratio (C/N) at the input to the demodulator in
the receiver. C/N ratio is calculated at the input of the
receiver, at the output terminals (or port) of the receiving
antenna. RF noise received along with the signal and noise
generated by the receiver are combined into an equivalent
noise power at the input of the receiver. In a satellite link,
there are two signal path, an uplink from the earth station to
the satellite, and a downlink from the satellite to the earth
station [1]. The overall C/N at the earth station receiver
depends on both links, and both therefore must achieve the
required performance for a specified percentage of time.
Path attenuation in the earth’s atmosphere may become
excessive in heavy rain, causing the C/N ratio to fall below
the minimum permitted value, leading to link outage. This
paper will help in designing a satellite system and gives a
broad knowledge of the required performance of the uplink
and downlink, the propagation characteristics and rain
attenuation for the frequency band being used at the earth
station locations, and the parameters of the satellite and
978-1-4244-1884-8/08/$25.00 ©2008 IEEE
earth stations. If required, additional constrains may be
imposed by the need to conserve RF bandwidth and to avoid
interference with other users. It is possible that sometimes,
all of this information is not available and thus the designer
must estimate values and produce tables of system
performance , based on assumed scenarios. Moreover, it is
usually impossible to design a complete satellite
communication system at the first attempt. So, a trial design
must first be tried, and then refined, until a workable
compromise is achieved [2]. The authors has made all
attempts to describe here all the parameters, which are
required for the calculation of Link budget of a particular
satellite.
II. SATELLITE INFORMATION
Following are the some important Satellite Informations:
A. Orbital Location
This is the location of the satellite in Geostationary orbit.
The slot is fixed for each country and is allotted by ITU.
The slot is depend on the location of the country whether it
is in northern hemisphere or in the southern hemisphere.
Geostationary orbit is devided in the two parts i.e. 0-1800
east and 0-1800 west.
B. Satellite G/T (dB/0K)
Satellite G/T = G/T = Gain of the receiving antenna of
satellite/ System noise temperature.
Gain of the antenna is in dB and System Noise
Temperature is in 0K.
G/T = G (gain in dB) – 10 log10 T
Satellite antenna have negative G/T because the
numerical value of G is smaller than the numerical
value of T.
C. SFD (Saturated Flux Density)(dBW/m2)
It is the flux density of the transponders at saturation
point of the TWTA of transponder.
Flux density (F) = PTGT /4πR2
PT is the output power of transmitter.
GT Gain of the directional antenna used in satellite
communication.
F is the flux density in the direction of the antenna
bore sight at distance R. PTGT is the effective isotropic
radiated power (EIRP).
D. Saturation EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power) (dBW)
It is the power (EIRP), which the satellite transmit
towards earth station having single carrier. If more than one
carrier have to be downlink, the output back off is to be
deducted from the saturated EIRP.
147
E. IM (Inter Modulation) Product
IM products are generated whenever more than one signal
is carried by nonlinear device. Sometimes filtering can be
used to remove the IM products, but if they are within the
bandwidth of the transponder they cannot be filtered out.
The saturation characteristic of transponder can be modeled
by cubic curve to illustrate the generation of third order
inter-modulation [3]. The third order IM is important
because the third order IM product often have frequency
closed to the signal that generates the inter-modulation and
are therefore likely to be within the transponder bandwidth.
For non linear characteristics of the transponder
HPA with a cubic voltage relationship and apply two
unmodulated carrier at frequency f1 and f2 at the input
of the amplifier. Vout = AVin + b (Vin)3 where A >>b.
The IM frequencies will be 2f1 – f2 & 2f2 – f1.
Figure – 1 : Inter Modulation
Third order IM product grow rapidly as the output of the
transponder increases towards saturation. IM power
increased as the cube of signal power in decibel units, every
10db increase in signal power carries 30 db increase in IM
product power. The easiest way to reduce IM product
problem is to reduce the level of the signal in HPA. The
input power of an operating transponder is related to its
saturated output power by output backoff. Backoff is
measured in decibel units, so a transponder with 50W rated
(Saturated) output power operating with a output power
25W has output backoff of 17dBw – 14 dBw = 3 dB. IM
products are reduced by 9dB when 3dB back off is applied
so any non linear transponder carrying more than one signal
will usually have some back off applied [4]. Since a
transponder is an amplifier the output power level is
controlled by the input power, and there is a saturated input
power level corresponding to saturated output power level.
Then the transponder is operating with output back off the
power level at input is reduced by the input back off.
148
Because the transponder characteristics are non linear, input
back off is always larger than output back off.
IM product is important factor for calculating the
total/composite C/N of the link.
(C/N)-1comp. = (C/N)-1uplink + (C/N)-1downlink + (C/N)-
1
intermodulation
F. Satellite Trans Antenna Gain (dB)
This is the trans gain of antenna of satellite
G. Satellite Antenna Receive Gain/m2 (dB/m2)
This is the receive gain of satellite antenna/m2
III. LINK PARAMETERS
Link parameters in short are illustrated below:
A. Carrier Information Rate (Hz)
This is the data rate to be transmitted on satellite.
B. FEC Code Rate
In digital system, one can add extra redundant bits to the
data stream which can tell us when an error occurs in the
data, and can also point to the particular bit or bits that have
been corrupted. System that can only detect error use error
detection. The system that can detect and correct error used
forward error correction (FEC). The efficiency of coding
scheme is measured of the number of redundant bits that
must be added to deduct or correct a given number of errors.
In some cases, the number of redundant bits is equal to
number of data bits, resulting in halving of the data rate for
a given channel transmission rate. This is called half rate
FEC. By adding half rate FEC to the data stream using
convolutional coding, the reduction in BER at the baseband
output of the receiver is roughly equivalent to a 3dB
improvement in C/N ratio [5]
C. Modulation
Any parameter of carrier wave form – amplitude,
frequency or phase is digitally modulated. Phase
modulation is almost universally used for satellite
communication. The type of modulation are PSK, BPSK,
QPSK, 16-QAM etc. In satellite communication mostly
BPSK or QPSK modulation techniques are used because the
higher value of C/N ratio is required for acceptable BER
D. Number of Bits per Symbol
In phase modulation the transition time plus the time
spent at the desired phase constitute a fixed time interval
called symbol period. The transmitted wave form during the
interval is called a symbol. The set of all the symbols for a
particular modulation type is called its alphabet. Thus
BPSK has two symbol alphabet and QPSK has four symbol
alphabet.
In the digital modulation process a stream of incoming
bits determine which symbol of the m available in the
alphabet will be transmitted. Mathematically Nb bits are
required to specify which of m possible symbols is being
transmitted. Nb = log2 m, Nb is the number of bits per
symbol for m PSK modulation scheme. Standard practice
is to make m a power of 2 so that Nb will be an integer.
for BPSK, m is 21, Nb = log22 , one bit per symbol is
required.
for QPSK, m is 22, Nb = log222 , two bits per symbol
are required.
for 8 PSK, m is 23, Nb = log223 , three bits per
symbol are required.
E. Transmission Rate (Hz)
Transmission rate = carrier information rate/FEC.
F. Noise Bandwidth Factor (NBF)
NBF = (1+α), α is the role off factor of Band pass filter.
A filter with a transfer function equal to the square root of
a raised cosine function is called square root raised cosine
filter or root raised cosine (RRC filters) even in practical no
such filter actually exists. Filters are used which are nearly
equal to RRC. At transmitter Bandwidth (occupied) =
Rb(1+α) Hz where α is > 0. Therefore occupied bandwidth
is always more than bit rate. But at receiver the noise
bandwidth of RRC filters = data rate.
G. Noise Bandwidth (NBW) (Hz)
NBW = NBF × data rate / FEC × number of bits per
symbol.
H. Eb/N0 Required (dB)
Eb/N0 required depends on the BER required for system.
For lower BER the more Eb/N0 is required. Eb/N0 =
Energy per bit / Noise Power Spectral Density.
NO = N/B0 where N is the received Noise Power (Watt)
divided by the Noise Bandwidth in Hz. For better Eb/N0
more C/N is required.
Eb/N0 = C × B0 / N0 × RS where C is the power
transmitted during one symbol interval, B0 is noise
bandwidth, N0 is a noise power spectral density, RS is
symbol rate on the link. The square root raised cosine
(RRC) has noise bandwidth (B0) normally equal to the
symbol rate (RS). Thus the receiver design with such filters
to achieve zero ISI (Inter Symbol Inference) has also B0 ×
TS or B0 / RS = 1. Therefore, Eb / N0 = C/N.
I. Clear Sky C/N0 Required (dB – Hz)
Clear Sky C/N0 required = required Eb/N0 + 10log10 data
rate (Hz)
J. Clear Sky C/N Required (dB)
Clear Sky C/N required = C/N0 - 10log10 Noise
Bandwidth (Hz)
K. Link Availability (%)
All the satellite communication links are affected by the
rain attenuation.
In the 6/4 GHz band, the affect of rain on the link is small.
In the 14/11 GHz (KU) band and even more so in the 30/20
GHz (KA) band, rain attenuation becomes all important.
Satellite links are designed to achieve reliability of 99.5 to
99.99%, average over a long period of a time typically a
year. This means the C/N ratio in the receiver will fall
below the minimum permissible value for proper operation
of the link between 0.5 to 0.01% of the specific time. The
link is than said to suffer an outage.
C – Band links can be designed to achieve 99.99%
reliability because the rain attenuation rarely exceeds 1 to
2dB. KU Band and KA band link cannot be designed to
149
achieve 99.99% because the rain attenuation generally
exceeds 10 dB to 20 dB.
IV. TRANS STATION DETAILS
A. Trans Antenna Efficiency (%)
Trans Antenna Efficiency = Normally 60% efficiency is
good and it can achieve upto 70% in Satellite
Communication.
B. Trans Gain of Antenna (dB)
Trans Gain of Antenna = 20.4 + 10log10 η + 20log10 (D ×
F/1000), η is efficiency of antenna (Trans) e.g. if the η is
60% than 60/100 i.e. 0.6 should be taken for the calculation
purpose, D is the diameter of antenna in meters, F is the
uplink frequency in MHz (Mega Hertz).
C. Trans Antenna Pointing Loss (dB)
Trans antenna pointing loss = If the antenna is not fully
peak or due to some misalignment in the antenna sub system
there may be some pointing error in transmitting the main
beam towards satellite.
V. RECEIVE STATION DETAILS
A. Receive Antenna Efficiency (%)
Normally 60% efficiency is treated as good and it can be
improve upto 70% in satellite communication.
B. Receive Antenna Gain (dB)
Receive Antenna Gain = 20.4 + 10log10 η + 20log10 (D ×
F/1000), η is efficiency of antenna (Receive) e.g. if the η is
60% than 60/100 i.e. 0.6 should be taken for the calculation
purpose, D is the diameter of antenna in meters, F is the
downlink frequency in MHz (Mega Hertz).
C. Receive Antenna Pointing Loss (dB)
Receive antenna pointing loss = If the antenna is not fully
peak or due to some misalignment in the antenna sub system,
there may be some pointing error in receiving the main
beam from satellite.
D. The System Noise Temperature (0K)
The System Noise Temperature of the earth station has
four main components (i) Due to atmospheric attenuation in
the main beam (ii) Side lobe pick up by the antenna (iii) Due
to low noise amplifier (LNA) (iv) Misc. Ohmic losses in the
feed and wave guide system (pre LNA losses) [6].
Twg = Tp(1-G), Twg is the Noise temperature due to wave
guide losses, Tp is the physical temperature in 0K of the
device or medium, G is the linear gain (less than unity) not
in decibel, of the attenuating device or medium. When the
system noise is low, each 0.1 dB of attenuation ahead of RF
amplifier will add approximate 6.60K to the system noise
temperature. Tp is generally taken as 2900K, G = -0.1 dB =
0.977 (G is converted in ratio).
Twg = 290 (1 – 0.997) = 290 × 0.023 = 6.60K. Wave guide
losses ahead of the LNA can have a disasters effect on the
system noise temperature of the low noise temperature
receive system.

Figure – 2 : Radiation
E. Clear Sky Noise Temperature (0K)
Clear Sky Noise Temperature is the total of Noise
temperature due to pre LNA losses plus due to LNA plus
antenna noise temperature.
F. Clear Sky G/T (dB / 0K)
G/T = Gain of the receiving antenna divided by system
noise temperature or it is equal to gain of the antenna in
receive side (dB) minus 10log10 T system.
It is also called the figure merit. While describing G/T it
is essential to mention the frequency and elevation angle
because G varies with the frequency and T system depends
on the clear sky noise temperature which increases as the
elevation angle is reduced below 100 [7]. At higher
frequencies the noise configuration of low noise RF
amplifier is higher.
VI. MISCELLANEOUS LOSSES
A. Rain Attenuation (dB)
There are two zones mainly mentioned for rain i.e. N zone
and K zone. N zone is the higher rain zone and K zone is
the less rain zone. For N zone the uplink rain attenuation is
5.4 dB and downlink rain attenuation is 3.6 dB. For K zone
the uplink rain attenuation is 2.5 dB and downlink rain
attenuation is 1.5 dB.
The rain attenuation depends on frequency, rain fall rate,
diameter and distribution of rain drops.
Attenuation (rain) = γr × L where γr is the specific rain
attenuation in dB / Km and L is the effective path length. At
6/4 GHz the rain attenuation effect is negligible, its effect in
14/11 GHz (KU) is more.
B. Uplink Path Loss (dB)
This is the loss which electro-magnetic waves suffer
while propagating from the earth station to the satellite in
the atmosphere.
Uplink path loss = 92.5 + 20log10 (36000 km) + 20log10
(F/1000), F is the uplink frequency in MHz., the distance of
GEO stationary orbit from the earth is 36000 km. (approx.).
150
C. Downlink Path Loss (dB)
This is the loss which electro-magnetic waves suffer
while propagating from the satellite to the earth station in
the atmosphere.
Downlink path loss = 92.5 + 20log10 (36000 km) +
20log10 (F/1000), F is the downlink frequency in MHz., the
distance of GEO stationary orbit from the earth is 36000 km.
(approx.).
The downlink path loss is always less than uplink path
loss as the uplink frequency is greater than the downlink
frequency.
D. Atmospheric Attenuation (dB)
The atmospheric and Ionospheric propagation are subject
to absorption, diffraction (diffusion), refraction, rotation of
the polarization plan of the electromagnetic wave.
The low layer of atmosphere cause absorption and
diffraction [8]. These cause some kind of emission and so an
increase in the noise power at the receiving antenna is
created. The upper layer of the atmosphere causes refraction
and depolarization is produced when the radio waves
traverse the ionosphere.
VII. UPLINK ANALYSIS
A. Trans EIRP of the Earth Station (dBW)
EIRP is the effective isotropic radiated power is the
transmitting power which would be required to be fed to an
isotropic antenna to give the same result as the transmitter
and the antenna under consideration.
EIRP of the trans antenna = power at the input of the
antenna (dBW) plus gain of the antenna (dBi).
B. Power at Satellite Antenna (dBW)
Power at Satellite Antenna = Trans EIRP of the earth
station – uplink path loss.
C. Power Flux Density at Input of the Satellite Antenna
(dBW/M2)
Power Flux Density at Input of the Satellite Antenna =
Power at Satellite Antenna + Satellite Antenna receives gain
/ m2.
D. Input Back Off / Carrier (dB)
Input Back Off / Carrier = Saturated Flux Density of
Satellite (SFD) – Power Flux Density (PFD) at Satellite
Antenna.
E. Uplink C/N0 (dB – Hz)
Uplink C/N0 = Trans EIRP of Earth Station – Uplink path
loss + Satellite G/T + 228.6 (k) – Trans Antenna Pointing
Loss. Where k is the Boltzmann constant = 1.37 × 10-23.
Joules/Kelvin = 10log10 1.37 × 10-23 = -228.6 dB J/K.
F. Uplink C/N (dB)
Uplink C/N = Uplink C/N0 – 10log Noise Bandwidth of
the carrier (NBW).
G. Uplink Power Spectral Density (PSD) (dBW/Hz)
Uplink PSD = Trans EIRP of the earth station – Trans
Gain of antenna – 10log10 Noise Bandwidth (NBW)
 VIII. DOWNLINK ANALYSIS C. Total Power Output of the amplifier (Watts)
Power amplifier output per carrier × number of carriers.
A. Saturation EIRP (dBW) Trans amplifier to antenna losses are due to the wave
Saturation EIRP is the maximum EIRP which the guide fixed between power amplifier and antenna for
transponder supports for the downlink carriers to the earth the propagation of radio frequency. The suitable wave
station. guide are used to minimum their losses [10].
B. Output Back Off per Carrier (dB) D. Steps required for Optimum utilization
Output Back Off per carrier = Input Back off per carrier – The following table illustrates the steps required for
Input Back off of satellite + Output Back off of Satellite. Optimum Utilization.
C. Carrier Down EIRP (dBW) TABLE – I
STEPS FOR OPTIMUM UTILIZATION
Carrier Down ERIP = Saturation EIRP of transponder –
Output back off per carrier. This value of EIRP which the S Variabl Variation Effect Effect Effect Effect on
N e Factor on on on Satellite
satellite antenna will transmit towards earth station and will Noise Require Trans Down
be considered for downlink C/N0 [9]. B/W d C/N E/S EIRP
EIRP
D. Clear Sky G/T (dB/0K) 1. FEC Increase Less More More More
Decrease More Less Less Less
In downlink path the receiving end is earth station 2. No. of More Less More More More
antenna, so this G/T is of the earth station. Bits per
symbol
E. Degradation in G/T (dB) Less More Less Less Less
3. Noise Increase More Less Less Less
This degradation in G/T is considered mostly for KU Bandwi
band. For C Band its value is negligible. dth
factor
F. Downlink C/N0 (dB – Hz) Decrease Less More More More
4. Eb/No Increase No More More More
Downlink C/N0 = Carrier down EIRP – Downlink path effect
loss + G/T of the earth station – Degradation in G/T + 228.6 Decrease No Less Less Less
effect
(Boltzmann Constant) – Receive antenna pointing loss. 5. Bit Error Less No More More More
Rate effect
G. Downlink C/N (dB) (BER)
Downlink C/N = Downlink C/N0 – 10log Noise More No Less Less Less
effect
Bandwidth of the carrier (Hz).
H. Downlink Power Spectral Density (PSD) (dBW/Hz) Satellite link can be further improved by using high
Downlink PSD = Carrier Down EIRP – Satellite trans quality antennas with better gain and less pointing error and
antenna gain – 10log10 Noise Bandwidth. the band pass filters having role of factor almost equal to
IX. TOTAL LINK ANALYSIS zero, so that the occupied bandwidth may be equal to data
rate. The pre LNA losses and losses between trans amplifier
A. Composite or Total C/N (dB) and antenna can be reduced by using high quality wave
(C/N)-1comp. = (C/N)-1uplink + (C/N)-1downlink + guide.
(C/N)-1intermodulation. XI. CONCLUSION
All the values of C/N are to be converted in Watts (dB to
Watts) than the values are put in the above formula after The above calculations and explanation of the link budget
complete calculation the value of the composite C/N. After should enable the readers and the satellite users to design
final calculation the value of composite C/N is again satellite links for prescribed quality & availability of
converted into dB (Watts to dB). services and to the dimensions of the earth station in terms
of antenna sizes, transmitted power, receiver noise
B. Link Margin (dB) performance etc. The specification of system will always
Link Margin = Composite C/N – required C/N. require a minimum C/N in the receiver, below which the
The purpose of link margin is to compensate any unseen link is considered inoperable. The design of the link to
losses which were not considered in the link budget so that achieve that minimum C/N requires repeated application of
there is no degradation in the link. the link and noise power equations to give C/N for clear air
X. TRANS EARTH STATION POWER AMPLIFIER SIZING conditions with acceptable bandwidth and antenna
dimensions.
A. Power at Trans Antenna Input (dB) There are too many variables in the system, including the
Trans EIRP (dBW)– Trans Antenna Gain (dBi). cost of antennas, receivers, and other components, to
produce a single optimization procedure. Iterative
B. Power Amplifier Output/Carrier (Watts) techniques are to be used to find a set of parameters for the
Power at Trans Antenna Input + Losses between trans earth station and satellite that provide the performance
amplifier to antenna required from the satellite communication system. The
dBm – 30 = dBW designers of a satellite communication system have to go
through several trial design procedures and compare the

151
resulting systems to determine which one best suits the
particular application.
REFERENCES
[1] J. Wang, L. Li , M. Zhou, “Topological Dynamics
Characterization for LEO Satellite Networks, Computer
Networks”: The International Journal of Computer and
Telecommunications Networking, Vol.51 No.1, pp-43-53, 17
January 2007
[2] Futron Corporation “How Many Satellites Are Enough? A
Forecast of Demand for Satellites, 2004–2012” February 16,
2004.
[3] R. Smallcomb, “A Unique Satellite Peer-to-Peer Enabling
Technology; Hughes Network Systems”; Hughes Spaceway,
The O’Reilly Peer-to-Peer and Web Services Conference,
Washington, D.C.— Nov. 5-8, 2001.
[4] J. Anderson, “Broadband Channel Simulator for Robust
Satellite Link Designs” RF Designs, April 1, 2004.
[5] A. Nandra, Jivesh Govil, Jivika Govil, “Causes of
Degradation of C/N and its Mitigation in Satcom”, Accepted
for IEEE Sixth International Conferences on Information,
Communications and Signal Processing, (ICICS 07), 10-13
Dec. 2007, Singapore.
[6] N.C. Karmakar, M.E. Bialkowski, “Designing an L-band
phased Array Antenna for Mobile Satellite Communications”,
Microwave Conference Proceedings, APMC, Apos; 97, Asia
Pacific Vol. 3, pp-949-952., Dec. 1997.
[7] P. Gvozdjak. “Modeling Communications in Low Earth Orbit
Satellite Networks”,. Ph.D Thesis, School of Computing
Science, Simon Fraser University, 2005.
[8] A. Ferreira, J. Galtier, J.-N. Petit and H. Rivano, “Re-routing
Algorithms in a Meshed Satellite Constellation”, Annales des
Tlcommunications, 56: 169-174, 2001.
[9] Jivesh Govil, Satellite Earth Stations for Distant Online
Learning, International Journal of Instructional Technology
and Distance Learning (USA), Vol. 2, No.10, pp. 75-84, Oct.
2005
[10] P. Crescenzi , G. Gambosi , P. Penna, “On-line Algorithms
for the Channel Assignment Problem in Cellular Networks”,
Discrete Applied Mathematics, Vol.137 No.3, pp-237-266, 15
March 2004

152