Geotechnical Engineering - II , Unit 4 Pile Foundation:

1 Explain: Classification of pile foundation

Ans Based on the function:
 End bearing Pile
 Friction Pile
 Compaction Pile
 Tension Pile or Uplift Pile
 Anchor Pile
 Fender Pile and Dolphins
 Batter Pile
 Sheet Pile
Based on the material & composition:
 Concrete Pile
 Timber Pile
 Steel Pile
 Composite Pile: Concrete & Timber, Concrete & Steel
Based on the method of installation:
 Driven Pile
 Cast-in-situ Pile
 Driven and cast- in- situ
2 Explain: Dynamic formulae/ Explain Engineering New’s formula/ Hilley’s formula
Ans Driven Piles: Dynamic Pile Formulas:
 Piles are usually forced into the ground by a pile driver or pile hammer.
 In medieval times piles were driven by men manually swinging hammer, which consists of a
weight raised by ropes or cables and allowed to drop freely striking the top of the pile.
  After the drop hammer came the single acting hammer, double acting hammer, differential
acting hammer, diesel pile hammer, and vibratory driver.
 Dynamic pile formulas are widely used to determine the static capacity of the driven pile.
These formulas are derived starting with the relation.
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost
 The Energy used equals the driving resistance (Pu) x the pile movement (s).
 Energy lost is due to friction, heat, hammer rebound, vibration and elastic compression of
the pile, the pacing assembly, and the soil.
Engineering News Formula
 As per the Engineering News formula the allowable load of driven pile is given by:

Where,
Qa = Allowable load in kg
W = Weight of hammer
h = Height of fall in cms
s = Final settlement per blow known as set
c = Empirical constant (c = 2.5 cm for drop hammer and 0.25 cm for single acting and
double acting hammer)
F = Factor of safety (Usually taken as 6)
Hiley’s Formula
 IS: 2911 gives the following formula based on the original expression of Hiley:

Where,
Qd= ultimate load on a pile
C= toatal elastic compression C = C1+C2+C3, temporary elastic compression of dolly and
packing, pile & soil respectively.
𝜼𝒉 = efficiency of hammer
𝜼𝒃=efficiency of hammer blow (i.e. ratio of energy after impact to striking energy of ram)

3 Explain: group action of pile using static formula

Ans Factors affecting capacity of piles
o Surrounding soil
o Installation technique (like driven or bored).
o Method of construction (like pre cast or cast in situ).
o Location of pile in a group.
o Spacing of piles in a group.
o Symmetry of the group.
o Shape of pile cap
o Location of pile cap (like above soil or below soil).
o Drainage condition in soil.
Ultimate bearing capacity of a pile is determined by the formula given below;
 Where,
Rf = total ultimate skin friction
Rp= total ultimate point or end bearing resistance
As= surface area of pile upon which the skin friction acts
Ap= area of cross section of pile on which bearing resistance acts
rf = average skin friction = mc
here,
m=shear mobilization factor or adhesion factor (for group action only, m=1)
c = cohesion = Unconfined compression strength/2
rp= unit point or toe resistance
A FOS 2.5 or 3 may be adopted for finding the allowable load.
Details for formula:
Formula Circular Section (dia=d) Square Section (side=B)
As = perimeter x length As = (π d) (l) As = (4B) (l)
2
Ap = cross sectional area Ap = π d /4 Ap = B2
formula Individual action Group Action
rf = mc mc C
rp = 9 c 9c 9c

For non-cohesive soil:

rf= Ktan𝝓 (𝜸𝒛 + 𝒒)
rp= 0.3𝜸BN𝜸q, for circular piles
rp= 𝜸BN𝜸q/2, for rectangular or square piles where,
K= coefficient of lateral earth pressure
𝛾 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
q= surcharge on ground
Z= depth of CG of the pile below the ground surface
B= least lateral dimension of rectangular of square pile (or, diameter of circular pile)
𝜙 = angle of internal friction
N𝛾q= Meyerhof’s non-dimensional factor ( resultant bearing capacity factor)
4 Explain: pile load test
Ans Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles. Two types of
tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz. vertical, horizontal (lateral)
pull out, are performed on piles.
Initial Load Tests on Piles
This test is performed to confirm the design load calculations and to provide guidelines for
setting up the limits of acceptance for routine tests. It also gives an idea of the suitability of the
piling system. Initial Test on piles are to be carried out at one or more locations depending on
the number of piles required.
Load applied for the initial (cyclic) load test is 2.5 times the safe carrying capacity of the pile.
Loading for Initial Tests is conducted as per Appendix ‘A’ Clause 6.3 of IS-2911 Part IV.
Routine Load Tests on Piles
Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required subject to
maximum of  ½% of total number of piles required. The number of tests may be increased to
2% depending on the nature / type of structure. The test load applied is 1½ times the safe
carrying capacity of the pile.
The Maintained load method as described in Clause 6.2 of IS-2911 (Part IV) – 1985 shall be
 followed for loading for the Routine Tests.
This test will be performed for the following purposes:
a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles
b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial Test.
The tests shall be performed at the cut-off level only.
Vertical Load Tests on Piles
This test will be carried out as stipulated in IS-2911 (Part IV) 1995.
Pile Head – The pile head shall be chipped off till sound concrete is met wherever applicable.
The reinforcement shall be cut and head levelled with Plaster of Paris. A bearing plate with a
hole shall be placed on the head for the jack to rest.
Reaction- Kent ledge shall be suitably designed to get the desired reaction on the piles. Anchor
piles (if required) shall be placed at a centre to centre distance of 3 times the pile diameter
subject to a minimum distance of 2 M.
Settlement- 2 dial gauges for a single pile and 4 dial gauges for a group of piles with 0.01 mm
sensitivity shall be used. They shall be positioned at equal distance around the piles on datum
bars resting on immovable supports at a distance of 3D (min. of 1.5 m) where D is the diameter
of pile or circumscribing circle for non-circular piles.
Application of load- It shall be applied as specified depending on the type of test (routine /
initial). Each load shall be maintained till the rate of displacement of the pile top is either 0.1
mm in the first 30 minutes or 0.2 mm in the first one hour or 2 hours whichever occurs first.
The next increment in the load shall be applied on achieving the aforesaid criterion.
The test load shall be maintained for 24 hours.
Initial Tests– The safe load on a single pile shall be the least of the following:
(i) 2/3rd of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 12 mm unless
otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of structure in which case,
the safe load should be corresponding to the stated total displacement permissible.
(ii) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement equals 10% of the pile diameter in
case of uniform diameter piles or 7.5% of the bulb diameter in case of under reamed piles.

5 Write comments on dynamic formulae

Ans 1) Dynamic formulae useful for cohesionless soil
2) Formulae not suitable for clayey soil
3) Formulae does not consider the effect of static skin friction developed afterwards
4) Presence of water table reduces the penetration value
 5) Loss of energy due to vibration, heat, breakage of packing/cap does not considered in
equation
6) Efficiency of blow and hammer is neglected in Engineering News formula
6 Explain Negative skin friction
Ans  Negative friction is a downward drag acting on a pile due to the downward movement of
the surrounding compressible soil relative to the pile.
 It is shown in figure.

 Figure shows the pile passing through a recently constructed cohesive soil fill. The soil
below the fill is completely consolidated under its overburden pressure.
 Negative Skin Friction will occur due to the following reasons:
1. When the surrounding compressible soil has been recently filled.
2. If the fill material is loose cohesion less soil.
3. By lowering the ground water which increases the effective stress causing
consolidation of the soil with resultant settlement and friction force being developed
on the pile.
4. It also occurs when the fill is over the peat or a soft clay stratum.
 For individual pile, the magnitude of negative friction, Qnf may be taken as below:
 For cohesive soil, Qnf= pcLf
 For granular soil, Qnf= 0.5pLf 2𝜸Kf
Where,
p= perimeter of the pile
Lf= depth of fill or soil which is moving vertically
c= cohesion of soil in the zoon of Lf
K= earth pressure coefficient
𝛾= unit weight of the soil
f= coefficient of friction ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
 When considering the FOS, Fs on ultimate bearing capacity of a pile, negative friction must
be allowed. So,

7 Explain group efficiency of piles

Ans  It may often be required to use more than one pile below a column, depending on the
column load and the load capacity of a single pile.
 Usually, driven piles should be provided in groups and a single pile should not be used.
 This is because the pile may move laterally during the driving operation, resulting in the
eccentricity of the load, causing additional bending stresses in the pile, decreasing both the
structural capacity and the soil resistance capacity.
 The use of a pile group instead of a single pile, though not warranted from structural
 consideration, will ensure in minimizing or eliminating the eccentricity of loads caused by
the lateral displacement of piles during the driving operation.
 This is not the case with bored piles, where there is better control over pile alignment, and
the number of bored piles used will be based on design requirements, depending on the
loads from the superstructure and the load capacity of the individual pile.
The load capacity of a pile group may not be equal to the sum of the load capacity of the
individual piles in the group.
 The efficiency of pile group depends on the following factors:
1) Spacing of piles
2) Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and
3) Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)
 The reduction in total bearing value of group of piles is more in case of friction piles,
particularly in clayey soils. No reduction in grouping occurs in end bearing piles.
 The efficiency of the pile group is defined as

where
Qug is the ultimate load capacity of the pile group,
Qu is the ultimate load capacity of the individual pile, and
N is the number of piles in the pile group.
 Converse Lebarre equation for friction piles

where
m is the number of rows of piles,
n is the number of piles in each row,
B is the diameter of the pile, and
S is the spacing of piles.
 Seiler-Keeney Method

{
η= 1−0.479
[ 2
s
][ m+n−2
s −0.093 m+n−1
+ ]}
0.3
m+n
where
m is the number of rows of piles,
n is the number of piles in each row,
B is the diameter of the pile, and
S is the spacing of piles.
 Feld’s Rule
According to this rule, the value of each pile is reduced by one sixteenth on account of the
nearest pile in each diagonal or straight row of which the pile in question is a member.
8 Explain Under-reamed piles/bored piles
Ans Procedure for Construction of Under-Reamed Piles
 The hole is drilled to the full required depth using augers.
 The under reaming tool consists of a link mechanism attached to a vertical rod with a
handle at the top and connected to a bucket at the bottom.
 The link mechanism incorporates cutting blades.
 The under reaming tool is inserted into the hole.
 When the central rod is pressed by the handle the mechanism actuates the cutting blades
to open out.
 The mechanism is now made to rotate keeping the handle under pressure.
 The blades now scrap the soil from the sides of the hole which falls into the bucket below.
 The rotation under pressure is continued until the full amount of soil forming the bulb is
removed which is identified by the free rotation of the mechanism.
 The volume of the bucket is such that it gets filled when the bulb is fully formed.
 The handle is now tightened which makes the link mechanism to collapse back into the
position.
 The under reamed tool is now withdrawn, the reinforcement cage inserted and the hole
concreted.
Uses
Under-Reamed Piles are widely used for different types of soils such as sandy soils, clayey soils
and also expansive soils. Under-Reamed Piles are required to be taken down to a certain depth
because of the following considerations:
1) To avoid the undesirable effect of seasonal moisture changes in expansive soils such as
black cotton soils.
2) To reach hard strata.
3) To obtain adequate capacity for downward, upward, lateral loads and moments.
4) To take the foundations below the scour level.
5) They have also been found useful for factory buildings and machine foundations.
6) Under-Reamed Piles are also used under situations, where the vibration and noise
caused during construction of piles, are to be avoided.
Details of Under-reamed piles
 According to ‘Indian Standard Code’ (1980) Under-Reamed Piles are generally designed in
such a way that, they can support the load from the structure and transmit to the soil
without causing any soil failure and settlements.
 In deep deposits of expansive soils, the minimum length of piles, irrespective of any other
consideration shall be 3.5 m below the ground level.
 If the expansive soil deposits are of shallow depth and overlying non-expansive soil strata
or hard strata, Piles of smaller length can also be provided.
 The diameter of Under-Reamed Piles varies from 20 cm to 50 cm.
 Minimum length of Under-Reamed Pile is 3.5 m.
 The diameter of under reamed bulbs may vary from 2 to 3 times the diameter of the pile
 depending upon the feasibility of construction and design requirements.
 The centre to centre spacing for Under-Reamed Piles should not be less than the 2 times
diameter of the pile.
 The vertical spacing between two bulbs varies from 1.25 to 1.50 times the diameter of the
bulb.
 The load carrying capacity of Under-Reamed Piles can be increased by making more bulbs
at base.
 The ultimate bearing capacity of Under-Reamed Piles can be calculated from soil’s
properties. If soil properties are not available directly from laboratory and field tests, they
may be directly obtained from in situ penetration tests.
Advantages
 It decreases the vertical settlement and also differential settlement.
 It is used when soil tends to swell and shrink due to moisture variation or expansive nature
of the soil.
 Provision of under-reams or bulbs has the advantage of increasing the bearing and uplift
capacities.
 When the number of bulbs are increased from one to two, the load carrying capacity of the
Under-Reamed Pile is increased.
 The provision of bulbs is of special advantage in Under-Reamed Piles to resist uplift and
they can be used as anchors.
 The cost advantages of Under-Reamed Piles are due to the reduced pile shaft diameter,
resulting in less concrete needed to replace the excavated material.
Disadvantages
 At a depth, where nature of soil varies with a climatic condition, Under-Reamed Piles are
not suitable for waterlogged soil, as they take load by friction.
 These piles need strict quality control and regular supervision during the construction.
 Most of the times, Under Reamed Piles are driven manually with hand operated machine.
Hence maintaining plumb of pile is very essential, because if they are not in plumb whole
load transfer mechanism would change.

Bored cast in-situ under reamed piles (a) Single reamed pile (b) multi under-reamed pile