Diodes

Cu 29 2 8 18 1 conductor
Si 14 2 8 4 semi conductor
Ge 32 2 8 18 4 semi conductor
C 6 2 4

Eg = Energy gap between conduction band(CB) & valence band(VB).

Eg < 5eV semi conductor
Eg > 5eV Insulator

In conductors, even at 0K or at normal temperature, there are sufficient electrons in CB. CB & VB are
overlapped or no energy band gap.
Pure Semiconductor (Intrinsic Semi conductor)
Pure Semiconductor: Thermally generated free electrons are in equal number with holes.
Holes and electrons acts as carrier and responsible for flow of current.
Recombination: Merging of free electrons into the holes is called recombination.

Semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient means with increase in temperature, no. of
holes and free electrons increases.

Temperature = Recombination = conductivity 

In other materials, electrons vibrate more randomly with increase in temperature, they collide
with each other, as a result conductivity decreases.
Semiconductor is the only material in which conductivity increases with increase in temperature.

To make semiconductor more conductive, carrier concentration is increased by doping.

Doping
To increase the conductivity of the pure semiconductor, doping is done.
Adding trivalent or pentavalent element to the pure semiconductor, result is doped semiconductor or
extrinsic semiconductor.
 Trivalent Intrinsic P-type semiconductor
Semiconductor
Pentavalent N-type semiconductor

Trivalent (Boron, Gallium, Indium, Aluminium) = Acceptor =P-type s/c

Pentavalent (Arsenic, Anitmony, Phosphorous, Bismuth)= Donor= N-type s/c
No. of electrons> No. of holes No. of holes> No. of electrons
Electrons are majority carrier whereas holes Holes are majority carrier whereas electrons
are minority carriers. are minority carriers.
Barrier Potential or Depletion Layer
VTh = 0.7 V for Si
= 0.3 V for Ge
PN Junction Diode
• As soon as diode is constructed and even when no. external emf is applied to it, the
free electrons in the N-region tend to cross the junction into the P-region and
similarly the free holes in the P-region tend to cross the junction into the N-region.
This phenomenon is called diffusion currents.
• These majority charge carriers cross the junction; the electrical neutrality of both the
regions (P & N type) is upset.
• N region loses electrons causing it to become positively charged and P region loses
holes and becomes negatively charged.
• Thus a potential difference called barrier potential is established across the junction
and this discourages further majority charge carriers from crossing the junction.
• Heavily doped diode- thin depletion layer
• Lightly doped diode- thick depletion layer
• Normal PNJ diode:1m.
Ideal and practical Semiconductor Diodes
A semiconductor diode is a device which conducts electricity only in one direction.
An ideal diode conducts current only when it is forward biased, i.e.- when the positive
terminal of the voltage source is connected to anode and the negative terminal of the source
is connected to the cathode of the diode.
An ideal diode does not conduct when it is reverse biased.
So the forward biased ideal diode behaves like a short circuit and the reverse biased diode
behaves like an open circuit.
It means the forward biased ideal diode conducts current through it with zero voltage drop
across it.
In other words, the ideal diode when forward biased has zero resistance and when reverse
biased has infinity resistance.
Volt-Ampere characteristic curve of a diode is called characteristic curve of diode.
 ID(mA)

A

VTh VD(V)

I-V characteristics of Practical Diode

The practical diode also conducts when it is forward biased and practically does not conduct or conducts very
small reverse current when it is reverse biased.
But unlike the ideal diode the practical diode have some very small forward resistance and the voltage drop
across it is 0.7 V for a Silicon diode and 0.3 V for Germanium diodes.
Similarly, practical diodes unlike the ideal diodes does not behaves as an open circuit but it has very high
reverse resistance.
From the curve, it is obvious that the forward current of the diode practically remains zero until the voltage
VD reaches VTh.
After VD reaches VTh, the diode current rises rapidly for a small increment of VD.
It is also clear that the reverse current is very small in the range of A.
Any diode has a maximum forward current and reverse voltage handling capacity.
The maximum forward current through the diode must not exceed the maximum current rating of the diode.
Similarly, the reverse voltage applied across the diode must be below its maximum reverse rating.
The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand is called the “Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)” rating of
the diode.
So a measure must be taken to prevent the diode damaging from the high forward current and high reverse
voltage.
Semiconductor Diode Characteristic Curve
The diode behavior during forward and reverse biased conditions is reflected by its characteristic curves or
Volt-Ampere relationships.
The curve showing the volt-ampere behavior of a forward biased diode is called “Forward characteristic Curve”
and that of the reverse biased diode is called “Reverse Characteristic Curve.”

Forward Bias ID(mA)

ID

VBR A

VTh VD(V)
The voltage across the diode VTh which is known as threshold voltage is also known as cutoff voltage or cutin voltage.
In forward biased region, I-V characteristic is closely approximated by,
VD/VT
ID=IS(e -1)
where ID= current through the diode
VD= voltage applied across the diode
IS= saturation current and is caused by the thermally produced minority carriers and is constant
for a given diode at constant temperature.
VT= thermal voltage or temperature voltage which is equal to 25mV at 25ºC or 298K.
VT =KT/q
where K = Boltzmann's constant
T = the absolute temperature in kelvins
q = the magnitude of electronic charge
= the constant called material scale factor which is equal to 1 for Ge diodes and 1    2 for Si diodes.

Forward current practically does not increase much until the forward voltage drop across the diode reaches VTh.
After the diode voltage reaches VTh , the diode current rises sharply for a small increment of the diode voltage.
 Reverse Bias
ID

The diode reverse current is negligibly small until the reverse voltage reaches some value equal to VBR.
Beyond this value of reverse voltage, the reverse current increases rapidly and this voltage remains practically
constant.
The voltage VBR after which the reverse current increases very sharply is called “Breakdown Voltage”.
VD is negative and few times larger than VT in magnitude.
Exponential terms become negligibly small compared to unity and diode current becomes I D  -IS .
Except some special diodes ( Zener diode), all the diodes must be operated well below their breakdown voltage
when reverse biased.
Semiconductor Diode Models
The representation of any device with equivalent electric elements such as resistors, capacitors, inductors,
voltage/current sources etc. is called modeling and the circuit representation of any device with equivalent electric
elements without the loss of its exact functional behavior is called “Model of the device”.
A semiconductor device can be modeled with respect to DC signal and AC signal acting on it.
A DC model shows how does a device behave when a DC signal is acting on it and it is called “Large Signal Model”.
An AC model shows how does the device behave when an AC signal is acting on it and is called “Small Signal
Model”.

Large Signal or DC Model of a diode

1. Ideal Diode Model
A forward biased ideal diode behaves as a short circuit with zero voltage drop across it and a very high current
flows through it.
A diode can be replaced with a short circuit if it is forward biased.
A reverse biased ideal diode behaves as an open circuit and does not conduct current.
Then, the whole voltage supply will appear across the open diode.
2. Constant Voltage Drop Model
In this case, a practical diode can be modeled as a voltage source equal to VD=0.7V in series with ideal diode.
3. Piecewise Linear Approximation Model
In this case, the real diode can be modeled as a series connection of the forward resistance R D and the voltage source
equal to VD0=0.7V.
Small Signal or AC Model of a diode
A DC voltage VD, represented by a battery, is applied to the diode, and a time-varying signal d(t), assumed (arbitrarily) to have
a triangular waveform, is superimposed on the DC voltage VD. In the absence of the signal d (t), the diode voltage is equal to
VD, and correspondingly, the diode will conduct a DC current ID given by

VD/VT
ID=IS e ……….(i)
When the signal d (t) is applied, the total instantaneous diode voltage D(t) is given by
D(t) = VD + d(t)
Correspondingly, the total instantaneous diode current iD (t) will be
iD(t)=IS e vD(t)/VT
[VD + d(t)] /VT
iD(t)=IS e
VD/VT d(t)/VT
iD(t)=IS e e
Using equation (i), we get
 (t)/VT
iD(t)=IDe d …………….(ii)
Now, if the amplitude of the signal d (t) is kept sufficiently small (d (t) << 25mV) such that
d(t)/VT <<1
then, we may expand equation (ii) in a series and truncate the series after the first two terms to get
iD(t)ID(1+ d(t)/VT)

This is the ''small-signal approximation''. It is valid for signals whose amplitudes are smaller than about 10 mV for =2
and 5 mV for =1.
ID+id(t)=ID+ IDd(t)/[VT]
Comparing like terms, we get
id(t)= IDd(t)/[VT]
id(t)/d(t) = ID/[VT]

The quantity relating the signal current id(t) to the signal voltage d(t) has the dimensions of conductance(mhos), and
is called the ''diode small-signal conductance''. The inverse of this parameter is rd called small signal incremental
resistance of the diode . (t)
rd= VT/ID

(t)
Small signal equivalent circuit
Load Line
A straight line constructed for a given diode circuit by connecting two points which respectively represent the maximum
possible current that could flow in the diode circuit and the maximum voltage that could be dropped across the diode is
called load line.
The point of intersection of load line with characteristic curve is called operating point or Q- point or Quescient point.
The operating point gives the diode current IDQ and diode voltage VDQ.

D
M

IDQ VDD=IDR+VD Equation of Load line

At Point M, At Point N,
VD=0 ID=0
ID=VDD/R=IDmax VDD=VD=VDmax
N
VDQ D
Diode Ciruits

Clipper Ciruit
Diode network which are used to “clip” off a portion of an arbitrary AC input signal without distorting the remaining
part of the applied waveform.

Applications:
Rectification process(AC to DC)
Wave Shaping(Television sets and FM receivers)
Protection of circuit from transients.
Types:
Positive Clipper
Removes positive half cycle of the input voltage and only negative half cycle of the input appears in the output.

For +ve half cycle, diode is short circuited, voltage limited to 0V(ideal) or 0.7V(Practical).
For -ve half cycle, diode is open circuit, output gives –ve part of input voltage.

=0.7V

VOUT = - (RL/(RL+R))VIN Voltage divider

R << RL
VOUT= -VIN
Negative Clipper

=0.7V

VOUT = (RL/(RL+R))VIN
R << RL
VOUT = VIN
 V+0.7

VIN should be greater than V for diode to conduct

-(V+0.7)
Combination Clipper

V1+0.7

-(V2+0.7)
Clamper Circuit
A network constructed of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a different DC level without
changing the appearance of the applied signal.
Also called DC restorers.
Chosen resistor and capacitor of the network must be chosen such that the time constant determined by =RC is
sufficiently large to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval of the
diode is non-conducting.
Used in analog video processing.
Positive Clamper

During –ve half cycle, diode forward biased and behaves as short circuit. - +
Charging time constant (Rf C) very small, C charge to Vi volts quickly.
Output voltage 0 as diode short circuited.
-
Rf = forward resistance of diode

-Vi + VC=0
VC = Vi +
 - +
+ +

- -

During +ve half cycle, diode reverse biased and open circuited.
Discharging time constant RLC is much greater than time period of input signal, capacitor remains almost fully
charged to V volts during off time of diode
Using KVL,
Vi + VC - VO=0
Vi + Vi - VO=0
VO=2Vi
 Negative Clamper

During +ve half cycle,

+ - + -
Vi -VC =0 + - +
VC =Vi
During –ve half cycle,
-Vi - VC -VO=0
-Vi -Vi - VO=0
- + -
VO= -2Vi
Positive Biased Clamper
Negative Biased Clamper
 ZENER DIODE -
+ -
+

A zener diode is a special type of diode that is designed to

operate in the reverse breakdown region.

Fig: I-V Characteristic curve of Zener diode.

 IZK = IZmin = minimum zener current required to sustain
breakdown
IZ = IZT = zener test current usually quoted by manufacturer
IZM = IZmax= maximum current the zener diode can
withstand

VZK=VZmin corresponding to IZK

VZ=VZT corresponding to IZ
VZM=VZmax corresponding to IZM

Fig: I-V Characteristic curve of Zener diode.

Zener Breakdown
In heavily doped PN junction diode, zener effect occurs due to spontaneous generation of electron hole pairs in the
depletion region by the effect of intense electric field or potential gradient across it.
A phenomenon known as ionization due to electric field.
It has negative temperature coefficient (NTC) property. Temperature= Breakdown voltage
VZ  5V.

Avalanche Breakdown
In lightly doped PN junction diode, the high speed drifting electrons due to large reverse biased voltage collide
with valence electron in the depletion region (crystal lattice of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor).
As a result, some valence electrons are liberated out of the covalent bonds, thus creating further electron hole
pairs.
A phenomenon known as ionization due to collision of high speed moving electrons with valence electrons in the
depletion region.
It has positive temperature coefficient property.
VZ  5V
Zener Breakdown
Some diodes are especially made to operate at breakdown . These types of diode are highly doped.
Due to high doping level, in this type of diode a small reverse voltage will be sufficient to tear out the valence electrons.
So at a certain reverse voltage high number of free electrons start to flow across the reverse biased PN junction
producing a high reverse current.
This process is called Zener breakdown which occurs in zener diode.
It is a reversible process.

Avalanche Breakdown
It occurs in less highly doped PN junction diode.
It occurs at higher voltage than zener breakdown.
In a less highly doped PN junction diode due to the high reverse biased voltage the moving carriers gain high
momentum.
When they collide with other atoms they liberate more valence electrons.
These liberated electrons also move at high speed and free more valence electrons.
Thus the number of free electrons crossing the junction increases and high current flows through the junction.
This kind of breakdown is called Avalanche breakdown and it is also reversible.
Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown may occur simultaneously.
Assignment
Write detail notes on:
1. Light Emitting Diodes
2. Photodiode
3. Varactor diode
4. Tunnel diode
 Rectifier Circuits
Rectifier is a device used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).

1. Half Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier

+ve half cycle, diode forward biased.

-ve half cycle, diode reverse biased.

Input and output waveforms

 2. Center tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

+ve half cycle, D1 forward biased, D2 reverse biased.

-ve half cycle, D1 reverse biased, D2 forward biased.

Input and output waveforms

3. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Input and output waveforms

+ve half cycle, D1 & D2 forward biased, D3 & D4 reverse biased.

-ve half cycle, D1 & D2 reverse biased, D3 & D4 forward biased.
When Capacitor Filter is Connected Across the Rectifier
Filtering of output voltage of half-wave or full-wave rectifier is necessary because electronic circuits
require a constant source of dc voltage and current to provide power and biasing for proper operation.
Filtering is implemented with capacitors.

Half-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter

Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter

Full-wave bridge rectifier with a capacitor filter

For a given input frequency, the output frequency of the full wave rectifier is twice that of a half wave
rectifier.
Ripple voltages for half-wave and full-wave rectified voltages with the same filter capacitor and load.
 The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and is defined as

where Vr(p-p) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and Vdc is the dc(average) value of the filter’s output
voltage. The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter.

Vr and Vdc determine the ripple factor, Vp(rect) = unfiltered peak rectified voltage.
1. Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter
2. Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter
2. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Capacitor Filter
 Zener Voltage Regulator

Zener Current
Series Current Load Current
Working principle:
Case I: Regulation when the input source voltage varies
To analyze the working principle, the load resistance (RL) is kept fixed and the input source voltage (VS)
is varied.
For instance, let's suppose that the VS increases. This increases IS, as a result, the current through Zener
diode (IZ) will increase without affecting load current (IL). As IS has increased, voltage drop across RS is
increased keeping load voltage (VL) unchanged. Same principle applies when the source voltage
decreases.
Case II: Regulation when the load resistance varies
The input source voltage (VS) is kept fixed and the load resistance (RL) is varied for analysis. For
instance, suppose that RL decreases. This will increase IL but decrease IZ which makes IS = IZ + IL
constant. So, voltage drop across RS is unchanged and hence, the load voltage (VL) is held constant. Same
principle applies when RL increases.