Chapter 2

Fundamental of Damages
 2. Fundamental of Damages
2.1. Fundamental Theories of Damages
 Damage is state failure or malfunction of machine , system or facility ; when a
particular machine or facility at abnormal operating condition , it can’t deliver its
expected performance or service without causing any loose of time on account of
accidental damage or breakdown”.

 The mechanical properties of materials depend on the damage state, which can be
defined by the existing density, distribution and type of micro defects.
 Depending on their sizes and orientations some of the micro defects will start growing
under certain loading conditions.
 …..contd

 According to the oxford dictionary, “Damage” is defined as the physical harm that
deteriorates the value, usefulness, or normal function of something. etc.

 Damages are causes for the loss of functionality and workability of production if proper
action is not taken against them.
 Even under optimum design and operation conditions damage is unavoidable.

 Thus damages are the reasons for the existence of a maintenance organization, which

deal with maintenance on a scientific basis, it is necessary to study the reasons for and

forms of damages and the possibility for reducing the influence of damages.
 Damage - Definition
 Laminar or volumetric discontinuities on the micro scale (micro -cracks, micro -voids,
micro-cavities)
 Damage evolution is an irreversible process, whose micromechanical causes are very
similar to deformation processes but whose macroscopic implications are much

 Surface or volume-like discontinuities on the materials micro-level (micro-cracks, micro-

voids)
 Damage evolution is irreversible (dissipation!)
 Damage causes degradation (reduction of performance)
 Examples for processes involving damage phenomena: ductile damage in metals, creep
damage, fiber cracking or fiber-matrix delamination in reinforced composites, corrosion,
fatigue
 Effects of Damage

 Physical Appearance of Damage

• volume defects (micro-voids, micro-cavities)
• surface defects (micro-cracks)
 Macroscopic Effects of Damage
• decreases elasticity modulus
• decreases yield stress
• decreases hardness
• increases creep strain rate
• decreases sound-propagation velocity
• decreases density
• increases electrical resistance
 Damage Models/Theories of damge
 Damage models describe evolution of degradation phenomena on the micro scale from
initial (undamaged or pre-damaged) state up to creation of a crack on the meso-scale
(material element)

1. Phenomenological models
 Change of macroscopically observable properties are interpreted by means of the
internal variable(s); Concept of “effective stress”:

2. Micromechanical models
 The mechanical behavior of a representative volume element (RVE) with defect(s) is
studied; Constitutive equations are formulated on a meso-scale by homogenization of
local stresses and strains in the RVE.

 Cleavage (“brittle” fracture):Micro-crack formation and coalescence Stress controlled

 Ductile tearing:-Nucleation, growth and coalescence of micro-voids at inclusions or
second-phase particles Strain controlled, void growth dependent on hydrostatic stress
 Creep damage:-Nucleation, growth and coalescence of micro-pores at grain boundaries
Stress or strain controlled
 Ductile Fractureature

Failure mechanisms: Nucleation, growth and coalescence of voids

o Voids nucleate at secondary phase particles due to particle/matrix debonding
and/or particle fracture
o Localization of plastic deformation is prior to failure
 Ductile crack extension in an Al alloy

Void Nucleation
 3. Thermodynamics of Damage
i. Definition of state variables, the actual value of each defining the present state of the
corresponding mechanism involved
ii. Definition of a state potential from which derive the state laws such as thermo-elasticity
and the definition of the variables associated with the internal state variables
iii. Definition of a dissipation potential from which derive the laws of evolution of the state
variables associated with the dissipative mechanism
 2.2. Typical Damages of Machine Parts
Based on nature of maintenance problem, the typical damages of machine parts:

1. General classification of maintenance problems(Damages of Machine Parts)

a. Mechanical Damages/Failure
b. Thermal Damages/Failure
c. Chemical Damages/Failure

2. Classification of maintenance problem based on time span

a. Short Run Maintenance Problem

b. Long Run Maintenance Problem
 A. Mechanical Damages/Failure
 Worn out bushes and bearings and other moving parts.
 Fatigue of machine members
 Creep of material at high temp
 Excessive forced vibration, misalignments etc.
 B. Thermal Damages/Failure
 Overheating of the component
 Lack of lubrication
 Inadequate of cooling
 Electrical insulation failure
 C. Chemical Damages/Failure

 Highly corrosive fluids containing abrasive particles

 Failure of protective linings like glass , rubber etc.
 Short Run Maintenance Problem
 Maintenance problem which are carried out in a sort period of time are known as short run
production system. It may be hourly, daily ,weekly and monthly.
Example:-
• Hourly-inspection of correct lubricant, level of coolant, sharpness of cutting tool.
• Daily-cleaning of m/c, tightening of nuts, correct cooling, inspection of various indicators,
minor adjustment of parts.
• Weekly-Major adjustment, lubrication, tightening of parts.
• Monthly-checking for insulation, corrosion, safety guards, checking of worn-out and
distorted parts.
2.3. Determination of the State of Damage

 To determine the state of damage there is no a single well-defined method; there are
many different processes and methods for performing (identification and analyze the
extent of damage) analysis that are defined by their approach or field of origin:

 There are a variety of damage analysis and problem-solving methods used to determine
the state of damages of equipment and system failures.

 These different methods are described and compared as a result of maintenance and
reliability, professionals can select the right problem-solving tool to produce the best
solution at the lowest cost.
 …Contd
 To identify problems and damage that require relief from those where we need
to prevent occurrence ,ask yourself a few questions:
 What is the current actual impact of the problem?
 What is the potential impact if the problem is not solved?
 What level of risk can we live with that is supported from a moral/legal/contractual
viewpoint?
 What is an acceptable outcome that balances risk, cost and benefits?

 common root/true cause analysis techniques/methods are:

 Five why – Asks why, why, why until fundamental causes are identified.
 Fishbone diagram – Causes and effects are listed in categories.
 Cause and effect analysis/Causal factor tree – The causal factors are displayed
on a tree so that cause-effect dependencies can be identified.

 Failure modes and effects/criticality analysis – Possible failure modes are

defined; the effects and probabilities of those failures are described to identify
appropriate countermeasures beginning with the most critical equipment.
 …Contd.

 Fault or logic tree analysis – A failure is identified and the failure modes are
described and tested until the roots are identified.

 Barrier analysis – Examines pathways through which a hazard can affect a target and
barriers in the pathways.

 Change analysis/Kepner-Tregoe – Comparing a situation that does not exhibit a

problem to one that does in order to identify the changes or differences that explain
what happened.

 Pareto chart– Shows the relative frequency of problems or failures in rank-order so

that process improvement activities can be focused on the significant few.

 Data analytics – Is a process of transforming and modeling data with the goal of
discovering useful information
 …Contd
Five whys scenario

Fishbone diagram
…Contd
…Contd
…Contd
…Contd
…Contd
 To identify problems and to evaluate state of damage, generally two common
inspection methods are used .
1. Visual inspection
2. Instrumental inspection
Inspection:-

 Inspection involves periodic checking of machines and equipment:

• To ensure safe and efficient operation,
• To make certain that equipment requiring work at specified periods receives proper
attention,
• To determine the repair feasibility and control of the quality of work accompanied by
maintenance group,
 Visual inspection
 Visual inspection will detect potential damage problems that can be physically observed.
 Routine visual inspection of all critical machinery parts and systems will enhance the
other damage detecting techniques and ensure that potential problems are detected
before serious damage can occur.
 All equipment and systems in the workshop/industry/plant should be visually inspected
on a regular basis since it is a key to detecting the need for preventive maintenance
requirements.

Visual inspection will detect potential damage problems:

 Worn out parts
 Rust
 Crack
 Loose and over hang
 Burn out
 Outside fluid leakages
 Levels and so on
 Visual inspection implies detection of faults before they develop in to breakdown of the
equipment.
 This can be done effectively by increasing our ability to identify the initial symptoms of
machine trouble as early as possible.
 The initial symptoms of the machine trouble may be revealed through noise, vibration,
dirtiness, leak or heat of the machine.

Note: - Body Senses are very common methods to detect different damages
accordingly:
 Sight
 Smell
 Sound
 Taste
 Touch
 Instrumental inspection
 After a visual inspection has been detected potential damage problems that can be
physically observed further specific inspection by the help of measuring instrument is
required.
 Instrumental inspection of all critical machinery parts and systems will measure the
actual value and compare to the manufacturer recommended allowance/ specification
and ensure that potential problems are detected before serious damage can occur.
 All equipment and systems in the workshop/industry/plant should be visually inspected
on a regular basis since it is a key to detecting the need for final decision.
 Mechanical Damages/Failure
1. Materials Defects
3. Deposits, Corrosion, and Erosion

 Magnetics
 Ultrasonic
 Penetrating dyes
 Radiographs
 Eddy currents
 Cathode's potential
 Radiographs
 Weight
 Ultrasonic
 Rockwell hardness
4. Fluid Flow
 Sonic resonance
 Corona listener
 Fiber optics bore scopes  Neon Freon detector
 Smoke bomb
 Gas sensor
2. Vibration Wear  Quick-disconnect gauges
 Manometer
 Accelerometer
 Stethoscope —Stroboscope
 Ultrasonic listening
 Laser alignment
Thermal Damages/Failure
Temperature based problems
 Thermistor
 Thermometer
 Crayons, stickers, paints
 Infrared
 Thermopile
 Heat flow

Electrical Damages/Failure
Electrical based problems
 Cable fault detector
 Outlet checker
 HiPot
 VOM
 Oscilloscope
 Static meter gun
 Frequency recorder
 Phase angle meter
 Circuit-breaker tester
 Transient voltage
 Chemical Damages/Failure
Chemical/Physical
 Spectrographic oil analysis
 Humidity
 Water or antifreeze in gases/liquids
 O2
 CO2
 PH
 Viscosity
 Metals present
Thank You