Concentration: units in © g der + mol dm Relationship between pH values and concentration Bases: compounds that react with acids to form salts and water * Alkali: soluble bases that produce OH" ions in water * Strong alkalis: complete ionisation to form OH ions in water | + Weak alkalis: partial ionisation to form OH- ions in : water Properties of Bases: * Colour change with indicators React with acidsGREE, characteristics and Properties of Acids and — Gey ) The Meaning of Acids cording to Arrheni 1 The definition of acid: 5 Theory: an acid is a chemical compound im f) Foduces hydrogen ions, H’ or hydroxonium ions, HO” when iCdissolves in water. 2. Asubstance has acidic properties because of the formation of hydrogen ions or hydroxonium acids in water produces ons and anions. Examples: hydrocktoe ool : a) 9 chloride q) + NO.-(aq) rogen nitrate ion ion HNO{() nitric acid — vio H304ce 7 HSO, a AO, on (aq) + ‘80, (aq) sulphuric hydrogen sulphate acid ion ion motten [29 uid H. (d) CH,COOH(1) == H(aq) + CH,COO*(aq) ethanoic hydrogen —_ethanoate acid ion ion 4 In actual fact, the hydrogen ion, H* does not exist individually but is combined with a water molecule (hydrated) to form a hydroxonium = Oe” However, H,O* is usually written as H*(aq) in the simplified way eo - 6% - \a9 0 water fesonian ch ehlonge = pees moans *@ Figure 7.1 The dissociation (ionisation) of a hydrogen chloride molecule to produce hydroxonium ion in water. Acids and Bases | An acid is tance 5 Without the presence of hydrogen j substance aout not show any(aci a Dry I hloride gas, HCl(g) diet ina SS oen Such as methylbenzeng wd glacial eihanore acid and solid ethane acid do not show any acidic property, Acids can be divided into two types: ming acids and organic_acids. Mineral acids, obtained from minerals and most do gy contain the element carbon. Organic acids extracted from living things and contain jy element carbon. Table 7.1. Examples of mineral acids and organie acids Type of acid | : Hydrochloric acid, HCI, sulphuric acid, H,SO, and nitric acid, HNO, Ethagoichucid (CH COOH), ~ methanQig acid (HCOOH). ethanedidid acid (H,C,O,), citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid and Mineral acid Shrmy aod Organic acid Wear acd ascorbic acid. Lactic acid is found in sour mie fannic acid is found in te leaves that produces hydrogen ions in the of water Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid are #008 that are usually used in the school laboratones. stomachs contain hydrochloric acid that is required 1 digestion of food. Aspirin, which is used as an {a type of medicine for reducing pain), is also @ pet acid ,ee enning of Bases and Alkalis 1 A bases defined as a chemical substance that : a‘ eamtical substan canineuttralise an acid 10 produce salt and water only. For exampie, = aOH 4 NaCl + 10 V pase J salt water 2 Examples oGassire metal oxides and metal hydroxides that contain oxide ydroxic ns, QJandl hydroxide ions, spectively. Examples copper(l) oxide, magnesium hydroxide 3 The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation. In neutral ns or the OH” ions of a base react with 1¢ H’ ions of an acid to form water. *O?.QD- 11,0 Ly OH +H > HO" bee ok om 4 Most bases are not soluble in water, Bases that are soluble in water are known a alkalis) 5 An alkali is defined as a chemical compound that dissolves_in_water to produce freely ‘moving hydroxide ions, OH Mee 7.2 Venn dara fr aes ‘and alkalis | sg 5 t (a 6 A chemical substance has alkaline properties becatse of the formation of freely moving hydroxide ions©TDin water 7 In the presence of water, an alkali dissociates to ions and Pxamples 2 4*: on i al, NH,(8) LOU!) GEL pa) + OH (ag) ammonia, TMonium hydroxide Ho see > (b) KOH(s) ED im +©r{aq) Potassium: potassium hydroxide hydroxide ion ion S z (©) Gon(s) =F nar(aq) * Baa sodium sodium. hydroxide hydroxide ion ion Georgy) cx 20H « calcium hydroxide ion jon 8 Acompound does not show any alkaline property in the absence of freely moving hydroxide ions. Examples: dry ammonia gas, ammonia gas dissolved in organic solvent (such as propanone), solid sodium hydroxide and solid potassium hydroxide do not show alkaline properties Figure 7.4 The association (ionisation) of an ammonia molecule to produce a hydroxide ion ‘© An alkali is a compound that produces hydroxide ions in the presence of water. ‘+ Abase is a compound that neutralises an acid and Produces salt and water only,‘All bases react with acids to form ' alis) dissolve in water to produce hydro, mus paper to bluc ; salts. Only so bs A act with acids B_ Dissolve in water C_ Praduces hydroxide ions J Answer A D Change red litmus paper to blue 3, Examples of bases and their uses are given j » Ouray Life Bases and Alkalis in RET bases (alka ions that change red itn 1 Acids and bases are widely used in our everyday Table 7.3 Uses of bases life in agriculture, medicine, industry and in Bie the preparation of food. Le 2 Examples of acids and their uses are given in Table 7.2. | ——————— or" Reese usec Scie * Ammonia | To make | — | acid, grease remover and ‘Sulphur aid GTojmmake palnts; | to maintain latex in liquid === | detergents, polymers, || pom an | F Calcium am hydroxid le To make Sodium hydroxide lisers, nite limewater electrolyte in lead-acid | and to neutralise ‘the acidity accumulators | col Hydrochloric acid | To clean metals before re Tk ake ti sstri¢ } ae fo make toothpaste, gastr Nitric acid To make fertilisers, To make gastric medicine ‘explosive substances feaiacsay (such as T.N.T), dyes and ——___ ee __— vic acid A component of vinegar [Taare acid ~ | To make baking powder oe detergents are made from sodiu™ ewe ‘Acids and BasesET aAU LSA oons Sh) Pie To investigate the role of water in Showing the properties of acid: ‘statement Is water needed for an acid to sh properties? Conclusion DW its acidic 1. Aqueous ethanoic acid turns blue litmus pa red, indicating its acidic property 2 Ethanoic acid in a dry condition or dissolved An acid will only show its acidic prope in ong dissolved in water. nic solvents does not show any acidic property Tonisation of acids will only occur in the presence (© Maipalited variable: Types of solentswmer of water to produce hydrogen ions which are BY RGodoone 4 Sitomible forthe acc properties (b) Responding variable : Change in the colour of : poe re formation of hydrog ions which gives the acidic properties in an acid. blue litmus (© Constant variable: Type of acid and blue The hypothesis is accepted, litmus paper Discussion 1 In the presence of water, an acid dissociates into hydrogen ions that cause acidity in an acid. ‘ e 2 Dry acids do not show any acidic properties Glacial (dry) ethanoic acid, aqueous ethanoic acid, in the absence of water because dry acids exist ethanoic acid dissolved in dry propanone and blue as covalent molecules. Hydrogen ions are not litmus paper. produced. (Procedure etal] oo Solvents such as methylbenzene, propanone CHAPTER 7 : " 3 and trichloromethane cannot replace water for ue litmus is placed in a an acid to show its acidic properties. This is test tube. pee because an acid exists as covalent molecules in these organic solvents; H* ions are not produced in these solutions, Glacial ethanoic acid (CH,COOH) consists of acid molecules only. CH,COOH molecule is a covalent compound. Figure 7.5 shows the types of particles that are present in ethanoic acid dissolved in propanone and in water. aoe ©- : miei AA waltaceing 2% Gey Figure 7.5 Panicles in ethanolc acid disoled in (a) propanone (b) watereS a eta To investigate the role of water in showing the Problem statement Is water essential for an alkali to sh properties? An alkali will only show its alkaline properties when dissolved in water. ‘Nariables (a) Manipulated variable : Types of solvents~ and propanone Change in the colour of how its alkaline (b) Responding variable : red litmus paper (© Constant variable: Type of alkali and red litmus paper ‘Apparatus Test tubes and droppers. Dry ammonia gas stoppered in a test tube, ammonia gas dissolved in propanone, aqueous ammonia solution and red litmus paper. 1 A piece of dry red limmus paper is put into a stoppered test tube of dry ammonia gas and the test tube is then stoppered back immediately (Figure 7.6). 2 The effect of the dry ammonia gas on the red litmus paper is recorded. 3 Another piece of dry red litmus paper is put in ‘Som’ of aqueous ammonia solution in a separate test tube. 4 Step 3 of the experiment is repeated using ammonia dissolved in propanone to replace aqueous ammonia ‘ammonia ammonia co! propanene” mus Peper lms paper Figure 7.6 Testing for the alkalin tn ‘Safety precautions 1 Ammonia gas is poisonous. ‘This involving i experiment eee test tube must be stoppered immedi 2 The after the red litmus as paper is put in. 181 » alkaline propertic 2 The test tube must be stoppered immedi, after the red litmus paper is put in Results Condition of Observation Inference ‘ammonia | | Dy No colour Does not change inthe red show alkali fitmus paper. property ‘Aqueous Redlitmushas | Shows | (dissolved in changed to blue alkaline water) properties Dissolved in | No colour Does not propanone | change in the red | show alkaline litmus paper property (Gonelusion 1 Aqueous ammonia solution tums the red lima paper to blue, indicating its alkaline property Dry ammonia gas or ammonia gas dissolved i organic solvents does not show any alkali property. ‘An alkali shows its alkaline properties oaly iz the presence of water. When water is preset ammonia ionises to produce OH ions that «« responsible for its alkaline properties. Water is essential for the formation of hydroxite ions that cause alkalinity in an alkali. Te hypothesis is accepted. [Discussion 1 In the presence of water, an alkali ionises to fo hydroxide ions, OH- that change red litm™ paper to blue. Aqueous ammonia solution (ammonia dissolved in water) consists of NH,* ions, OH” ions NH, molecules, An aqueous ammonia solutioe® alkaline due to the presence of hydroxide ioe NH, +H,O —= NH +OH” | Dry alkalis, solid alkalis (such as solid call? hydroxide and barium hydroxide) and al dissolved in organic solvents (such as props” Cea any alkaline properis: Rite aun eg ee alkalis do not dissociate 2Glacial ethanoic acid is the pure and soldifies below its melting point CoS a a dry form of eth 1 If the electrical conductivity of ethanoic acid in pro ppanone and aqueous ethanoio acid is tested in turn, only the aqueous solution of acid conducts electri City (ight bulb is lighted. up or ammet deflected). 2 This shows the presence of freely moving ions in an aqueous solution of acid. CH,COOH() = CH,COO“aq) + Haq) ‘ethanoic acid ethanoate ion hydrogen ion Be .COO-ions Hs ions change blue yy Hts to red _ 3 Dry acids do not conduct electricity. This is because ‘there ate no freely moving ions. Dry acid exists as. Semumlocses, . nonia dissolved in propanone does not icity. It exists as covalent molecules. er needle is Test tube, test tube holder, spatula, Bunsen burner, delivery tubes with stopper and wooden splint, 1.0 mol dm sulphuric acid, copper(I) ‘oxide, zinc powder, sodium carbonate powder and limewater. 1A little copper(II) oxide is added to 5 cm’ of sulphuric acid in a test tube. The mixture is heated slowly (Figure 7.7) and any changes that Tittle zine powder is added to 5 cm? of dilute ‘sulphuric acid in a test tube. The gas evolved is "tested by placing a lighted wooden splint near ‘the mouth of the test tube (Figure 7.8). ‘ ttle sodium carbonate powder is added to 5 cm’ ‘dilute sulphuric acid in a test tube. The gas evolved is tested with limewater (Figure 7.9). acid. It is named ‘glacial’ because it app« an 1 Acids are sour in taste 2 Acid solut ues of 3 Acids change colours of indicators as shown in Table 7.4. 4 Acids can react with (a) bases to produce salis and water Cneutaur s to produce salts and hyde: nates to produce salts, carbon dioxide gas and water ni Table 7.4 Effects of acids on indicators [| Colour of indicator Lari in acidic solution Bue ims paper | Red Universal indicator | Orange and red Renta aes sulphuric ac copper oxida * heat Figure 7.7 An acid with Figure 7.8 An acid with a base a metal limewater sulphuric acid sodium carbonate Figure 7.9 An acid with a metal carbonate ‘Acids and Bases 3* Zine powder dissolved ‘Test with sodium carbonate | + Effervescence occurred dissolved * Gas evolved turned limewater milky * White solid of sodium carbonate Test. SGT oiaaibe | Inference ‘on acid rvatio Heating with copper(I) | * Black powder dissolved Pa station's oxide | + Blue solution is formed ; eee ES | formed | Test with zine powder _| + Effervescence occurred aS * Gas produced a‘pop’ sound whenitis | + Hydrogen gasis produced tested with a lighted wooden splint + Asalt solution is formed | « Carbon dioxide gas is produced | + Asalt solution is formed gol If the salt solution is evaporated until saturated, salt crystals will form upon cooling. Examples: {a) Black copper(II) oxide powder (a base) dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid to produce a ~ salt, copper(I} sulphate (blue colour) and water. (b) Copper(If) oxide dissolves in ethanoic form a salt, copper(II) ethanoate and water. Se hab TCO Nite seid reacts wih sium hyéroside fn ; : Solregiee> «el ABs nate end ‘Acids and Bases (b) Magnesium dissolves in ethanoic acid to form a salt, magnesium ethanoate and hydroges gas. ‘Mg(s) + 2CH,COOH(aq) > _ Mg(CH,COO),(aq) + H,(g) 3 A dilute acid will react with a metal carbonate to produce a salt, carbon dioxide gas and water, Examples: (@) Sodium carbonate reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to produce a salt, sodium sulphate, carbon dioxide gas and water. (b) Calcium carbonate hydrochloric acid to produce a salt, calcium chloride, carbon dioxide gas and water. reacts with dilute 1 Sulphuric acid reacts. with | i a base (coppertl) 2. Supnage mae Sal and wate. fe eacts with i ) : 10 provtuce a salt and hy a reactive metal (zi?)Noneactive metals such as cor with diute acid, Very reactive met potassium will react with dilute acid v produce an explosion, rously and may Which of the following c limestone pow Produce a gas that tui Gear ees eo = & “is _A Nitrogen dioxide gas -B Hydrogen chloride gas dissolved in tetra- chloromethane C Sulphur dioxide gas dissolved in propanone Sulphur dioxide gas dissolved in water Comments An acidic gas must first dissolve in water before reacting with calcium carbonate (limestone) powder to produce carbon dioxide gas which tums limewater milky. Answer D Generally, {2} metal oxides and metal hydroxides are basic. For example: ‘MgO + H,0 + Mg(OH), magnesium oxide magnesium hydroxide (b) non-metal oxides are acidic. For example, SO,, NO, orC0,. $0, +H,0>H,80, sulphurdioxide —_sulphurous acid Test tubes, test tube holder, spatula, Bunsen bumer, delivery tubes with stopper and red litmus paper. 2.0 mol or hydroxide solution, benzoic seid poe tis eat pe, 10 ol le benzoic acid powder is added to 5 cm’ of sodium hydroxide solution in a test tube. Any nd ° * & » Chemical Properties of Alkalis 1 Alkalis are bitter in taste and feel 2 Alkaline solutions have “of 3 Alkalis change the colours of indicators as shown in Table 7.5 below Table 7.5. Effects of alkalis on indicators Colour of indicator in alkaline solution Gedyitmus paper Blue Universal indicator Blue or purple Methylfor >) 4 An alk with an acid to produce salt and aes a aia example: A s KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) raiae +00), 5 When an alkali is heated with an ammonium salt, ammonia gas is produced. For example: Oya Obijtaq) > NH,(g) + H,0(1) ‘rom ammonium salt Indicator CHAPTER 7 6 An aqueous alkali forms metal hydroxide as precipitate when added to an aqueous salt solution. For example Cu(aq) + 2OH-(aq) > Cu(OH),(s) 4 %No,, [eae =“ sa ‘changes that occur are recorded. 2 A little ammonium chloride powder is added to 5 ‘em’ of sodium hydroxide solution in a test tube. ‘The mixture is heated gently, The gas evolved is tested with a piece of damp red litmus paper. 3.5 cm’ of sodium hydroxide solution is added to ~ 5 cm’ of iron(III) sulphate solution in a test tube. ~ Any changes that occur are recorded. ce Acids and BasesObservation | Inference hhite powder | A salt solution acid powder dissolves and | is formed added |acolourless | solution is formed | Heating with | A pungent gas | Ammonia gas ammonium that turns damp is produced chloride red litmus paper powder blue is evolved | With irondit)_|A brown Tron(II1) sulphate precipitate is | hydroxide is | solution added | formed formed 1 Sodium hydroxide reacts with benzoic acid to produce salt and water. 2 When sodium hydroxide is heated with ammonium chloride, ammonia gas which turns red litmus to blue is produced. 3 Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with an aqueous iron({Il) solution t0 produce a brown precipitate, iron(II) hydroxide. 1 Sodium hydroxide as an alkali reacts with benzoic acid, C,H,COOH to produce a salt, sodium I benzoate and water in a neutralisation reaction. acid is the number of moles of that are required to react with one mole of the ad. y 2 Since one mole of OH: ions reacts with one mole of H ion, the basicity of an acid is also the number of moles of H* ion that can be produced by one mole of the acid when it dissolves in water. 3. A monoprotic acid (or monobasic is an acid that will produce one Ghat eat ion when one mole of the acid dissolves in water. For example, although ethanoic acid has four hydrogen atoms in the molecule, only one of the hydrogen dissociates to form H’ ion in water. ‘Acids and Bases NaOH(aq) + C,H,COOH(s) C,H,COONa(aq) + H,0(1) 2 If the salt solution is evaporated in an evapo dish until a saturated solution is formed, yj." Crystals of sodium benzoate will be crys. upon cooling 3, When sodium hydroxide is heated with ammony chloride (an ammonium salt), ammon produced. NH,CI(s) + NaOH(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H,0(1) + NH,(2) In this reaction, ammonium ions hydroxide ions to produce ammonia + equation for this reaction NH,"(aq) + OH (aq) > NH,(g) + H,0() 4, Sodium hydroxide solution dissociates to hydroxide ions in water. NaOH > Na* + OH Hydroxide ions combine with iron(III) ions fron iron(II) sulphate solution to form insoluble iron(II) hydroxide as a brown precipitate. Fe®*(aq) + 30H (aq) — Fe(OH),(s) Iron(l) hydroxides ‘brown precipita ‘rom sodium ide 4 A diprotic acid (or dibasic acid) is an at! (GW that will produce two motes of Ht ions fo" one mole of the acid in water. For example: HSO,(aq) > 2H (aq) + $Q,"(09 supa 5 A triprotic acid (or tribasic acid) is a0 that will produce three moles of Hi from one mole of the acid in water. For example: HPO, (aq) = 311-(aq) + PO," (#4) aPOs mee! — | oe nae ae ry “ : a a * a ox a Cy Trae aa aes an Oe Geet arettar scTable 7.6 Examples of monoprot a ‘id and Hydrochloric acid aS. nit ] Re (isi for acid a, Ke diprotic acia Basicity of an acid is not the as the number of H atoms in the formula of the acid. 10,), ethanedioic acid (H. Sri eh iad basety i the ol 1.) and chromic acid ( Ht ions by one mole o ‘| 2 acid in water. 3 Identify the chemicals O, RX, ¥ and gas Z in the following reactions; mscos — (a) H,SO, + O73 MgSO, +H,0 + CO, (©) CalOH), + 2A" CatNo,), + 24,0 ~~ io ZA + 8X 2A\c1, +3H, Eee + wily (a. Y NHN, Pe 0,4 HO Aa eters SAN reactors bobs 4121 sulphuric acid and magnesium oxide ADP nitric acid and aluminium metal 4€F hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate df ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide ; Potassium hydroxide and ammonium a when heated ee 5 Effervescence occurs when magnesium powder added to aqueoystydroctioric 253. However, "noticeable change takes«pH GEETE, The strength of Acids 3 pit actually a measurement of * and Alkalis ration of hyd _ in auto, Cae) re high the ; emiqeerd the lower the P and the more BaTiisietl sate n e solution. Aci 1 The pH scale is a set of numbers used to : gher th anda my indicate dhe degree of acidity of alkalinity of ic a solution. r alkaline the solution. 2 The values of the pH scale range from 0 to 14 6 The relationship between the pH scale, aci © pH < 7 = acidic solution or alkalinity and concentration of H ions * pk = neutral solution shown below. og THT Jour ; TOU" | Mircroasinay akaine rid ° 4 eee ot ee pH scale L 1 1 i 1 | 1 a * Allalkalis have pH > 7 * The higher the pH value, the high concentration. ‘© Allacids have pH <7. ‘© The lower the pH value, the higher the H+ ion concentration. D> Measurement of pH Value ‘of a Solution 4 ApH meterisan electric =e : meter that is used to a pH value of a solution can be measured a the pH value sea eect pre: Bipriicer val show a pH meter (with or with bia : ae (with or without a computer tigre value when its bj moe te ae ye is immersed in a by j ee ae er of Eee solution to be tested. different pH values as shown in Table Ta . : ne a ae ste ee le exact pH value can be displayed on 5} ae. a computer screen when the pH meter is place’ (b) paper strips (also known as pH paper). a: ‘Table 7.7 i “ Colours of icator 0,1,2:[ 73: CB elle ce ae yellow u - ed ae greenish- a5 F age reat blue | blue = uple le Beakers® universal indicator solution, droppe standard colour chart of universal indicator, ' Soap solution, carbonated dri = pi Juice, distilled water, rink, tap water, one ydroxide and hy tochloric wine tea, dilute sod! ‘Acids and BasesProcedure 1 About 10.em? of soap solution is placed ina small beak Rae, ay eestor solution are added to the soap solution, The solution is chen sired. ge Prete is rationed against the standard colour chart of universal indicatoe. The comesponding pH value of the colour is noted and recorded. i 4 The experiment is, SRP ENE Gane co carbonated drink, tap water, orange fruit juice, distilled water, milk, tea, dilute sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid in place of the Peas eee ee Results | Soap | Carbonated | Tap | Orange | Distilled | Milk | Tea | Dilute Dilute | cate | water |. ini sodium hydrochloric “sil | hydroxide acid iyi | 5 6 | 4 7 eas} 13 1 \Condusion 1 Different solutions have different pH values. 2 The pH value of a solution can be measured using the universal indicator solution. D Degree of Dissociation 1 The strength of an acid or an alkali depends on the degree of dissociation (also known as the degree of ion: 2 The degree of dissociation measures the percentage or fraction of molecules that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water. 3 For example, the i hydrochloric acid is co that all the hydrogen chloride molecules in hydrochloric acid will ionise to form H- ions and Cl- ions when dissolved in water. 4 Ina 1.0 mol dm® aqueous ethanoic solution, only 4 out of 1000 molecules of ethanoic acid dissociate to form ions. Degree of dissociation ofa 1.0 mol dm” aqueous ethanoic solution is, wa = 0.004 or 0.496: 5 Acids can be divided into 2 categories: strong acids and weak acids, depending on their degree of dissociation. 6 Alkalis can be divided into 2 categories: strong, alkalis and weak alkalis, depending on their degree of dissociation. ’ 1A strong acid is a chemical substance that - dissociates completely (degree of dissociation 18 100%) into ions, H* in water. 2 Mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid are strong acids. © jog GHLCOOE ae oo. v3 1007. dirtociate = fults afesoccate Belew He cr i HNO, 3 H*+ NO, on on H,SO, > 2H" + SO, (The one-way arrow ~ indicates complete dissociation) Complete dissociation (100%) in water by a strong acid produces a high concentration of H: ions and hence a low pH. Weak acids are chemicals that dissociate pattially (incomplete dissociation) into hydrogen ions H’ in water. Most of the organic acids such as ethanoic acid, ethanedioic acid, methanoic acid, citric acid and tartaric acid are weak acids. 1007). eetd H,C,0, == 2H*+,02 (he two-way arrow == indicates reversible ae . aie) acid, CH ac BeQOl 0, i aticos ~ Phosphoric acid, H,PO, ania rous acid, H.SO,6 Ina wekk acid splution.a big portion of the weak acid existsas n@lecules gad only agiall portion dissociates to ions ‘A concentrated acid does not mean that it is @ strong acid. For example, concentrated ethanoic acid is stil a | weak acid. Consequently, a dilute acid does not mean that it is 8 ‘weak acid. For example, dilute hydrochloric acid is stil a strong acid. 7. For two different acids of the same concentration, the acid with the lower pH value is the stronger acid. 8 Partial dissociation of a weak acid results in a low Hi ion concentration. 9) Strong and weak acids have the same chemical properties, but the rate of reaction and electrical conductivity of a weak acid is lower as shown 3. Comparison between a strong acid (HCI) id a weak acid (CH,COOH) Shang acid Weab ac » Strong and Weak Alkalis Fy a) 1A strong alkali is a chemical substance i, dissociates completely (100%) to hydro, ions, OH in water strong alkalis are_ so 2 Examples of hydroxide and potassi Na@fi >} Na’ + OH KOU_Y K’ + OH (The one-way arrow —> indicates comple, dissociation) 3A weak alkali is a chemical substance thy dissociates partially (incomplete dissociation to hydroxide ions, OH" in water. ; 4 Examples of weak alkalis are aqueous i and magnesium NH, + OH * Ca®* + 20H (The two-way arrow indicates partial dissociation) 5 Partial dissociation of a weak alkali results it a low concentration of OH" ions, Hence th pH value of a weak alkali is lower than thatot __ astrong alkali with the same concentration. 6 Table 7.9 shows the comparison of properis of a strong alkali (sodium hydroxide solution) with fc weak alkali (aqueous ammonitDecreasing pl pie: ap Increasing pk 1 strong acids: Weak acids + Complete ionisation Pct lonttion ak alkalis: ‘ High H* ion concentration * Low H ion con il ionisation oncentration * Low OH: ion concentration H value: 1-2 * pH value: 3-6 Low OH ion concentrat * pH value: 8-12 Conclusion 50 cm’ beaker and pH meter. 1 Acids have pH values of less than 7. 2 Different acids with the same concentration have Materials different pH values. The pH of hydrochloric 3 oe 0.1 mol dm hydrochloric acid, 0.1 mol dm? acid is lower than ethanoic acid of the same ethanoic acid, 0.1 mol dmv aqueous ammonia and 1 s concentration. 0.1 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution. 3 Alkalis have pH values of more than 7. — 4 Different alkalis with the same concentration have Biocetine e different pH values. The pH of sodium hydroxide | About 15 em’ ror mol dm™ hydrochloric acid solution is higher than aqueous ammonia of the ___ is placed in a small beaker. same concentration | 2 The probe of a pH meter is rinsed with distilled water. 3 The pH meter probe is then immersed in the acid ; a ees Rbiiisifendii regisiert’Ga the pH 1 Hydrochloric acid, HCI, and ethanoic acid, Deb edcticaice ts cccetea CH,COOH, are both acidic as their pH values esi de cece, : ae less than 7. ed ena a Galctee eee 2 However, the pH value of HCI is Jess than that — : of CH,COOH with the same concentration hydroxide solution to replace the hydrochl | 5 Sore Uae indicating that the concentration of hydrogen eimA 3c. eae ions in HCl is higher than that in CH,COOH. tae 3 HCI is an example of a strong acid which undergoes complete ionisation. CH,COOH is an example of a weak acid which undergoes partial ionisation. 4 Ammonia, NH, and sodium hydroxide solution are both alkaline as their pH values are more than 7. 5 However, the pH value of NaOH is more than that of NH, with the same concentration indicating that the concentration of hydroxide ions in NaOH is higher than that in NH,. 6 NaOH is an example of a strong alkali which undergoes complete ionisation. NH, is an example of a weak alkali which undergoes partial | ionisation. | 7 The strength of an acid (strong or weak) and the strength of an alkali (strong or weak) depends on | the degree of dissociation, ‘Acids and Bases CHAPTER 7teh Oo fen below Information about two solutions is g Concentration of nfiric acid 3)1,0 mol dm Concentration of ie acid 31.0 mol daw" ‘ue about Which of the following statements are the two solutions given above? T patric acid is a stronger acid than carbonic acid. II The pH value of nitric acid is higher than carbonic acid. I Ahe degree of dissociation of nitric acid in water is higher than that of carbor acid. IV Afee concentration of H* ions in nitric acid is higher than that in carbonic acid. A Tand ITonly B MandIV only C (Mil and IV only D 1, II, MandIV Comments Nitric acid is a stronger acid ([ correct), has a higher degree of dissociation (III correct) and hence a higher degree of H* ions concentration (IV correct) but a lower pH value than carbonic acid, which is a weak acid (II incorrect). Which of the following statements describe a strong alkali? I Has a high pH value Il Tonises completely in water III Has a high concentration of hydroxide ions IV Exists as molecules jn water A Land Ionly 1 capeted. B [Land IV only C (fiand Mi only D Tl, Mand IV ‘Comments A strong alkali ionises completely in water to produce a high concentration of hydroxide ions in water and hence a high pH value, (1, II and III are correct) A strong alkali exists as ions in water, is incorrect) ' wi Answer C ‘Acids and Bases eu 1 Six solutions A a) ation of 1.0 mol 1 in the table We 4 2 i cle ele |pHvalues | 1379 10 40 10 35 \ {e) Which of the above solutions has {i the highest concentration of H’ ions? tration of OHtions? (i) the highest con {b) Which of the above solutions is () astrongacid? (ill) a weak acia? (i) astrong alkali? (iv) a weak alkali? (c) Which of the above solutions may be (i) sodium chloride solution? (i) hydrochloric acid? {ii aqueous ammonia? {iv) sodium hydroxide solution? 2 Using suitable examples, explain the terms strong acid and weak agld. Predict the differ in pl values of the two aélds with Me sane concentration pH water 4 eca ca 4 3 The degree of dissociation of _ethenoic acid is higher than that.of proparieic acid But is | aa that of methanoic acid. @) Arrange the above three acids in ascending order of the strength of acidity. (b) If the pH value of 1.0 mol dm® ethenoi acid is 3, predict the pH value of 10 ma 1 A solution is formed when a solute dissoh in a solvent. solute + solvent —> solution For example, when sodium hydroxide (sol? dissolves in water (solvent), sodium hyd Solution is formed. are htrationand molarityaremeasute™ ex Neer a Of solutes dissolved in 48" The amc Solvent when a solution is fo, fs nite of @ solute can be measu solution preren sor Mole: The quant iy ane ction a i usually measured !Solution pH values4 The concentration of a solution is thy (in grams) or the number of 1 dissolved in a solvent to form 1. cm’) of solution. He a solution can be defin of solute (000 € the concentration of led in two ways: * concentration = M288 of solute dissolved ( iba) Volume of solution (dm') ~ Number of moles of ie me solute (mol) ‘dm?) Volume of solution (dm) 5 For example, * 223.0 gdm* NaOH solution has 23.0 g of NaOH in 1.0 dm’ solution. * 20.5 mol dm* NaOH solution has 0.5 mol of NaOH in 1.0 dm’ solution. 6 Concentration in terms of mol dm” is more commonly known as molarity. In chemistry, the measurement of concentration in mol dm* (molarity) is more useful because all changes in chemical reactions occur in terms of moles. 7 Concentration (in g dm) can be converted @ © molarity by dividing concentration (in g.dm~) by the molar mass. The molar mass is the mass of 1 mol of substance, The relationship between the number of mols with ‘moleity, M and volume, V can be represented by the formula below: Mv. Number of moles 0. ‘where M = molarity of solution (mol dm) V_= volume of solution (cr). Mass of copper(II) sulphate = 5.00 Volume of solution = 500 em’ 500 1000 dm? =0.5 dm Hence, concentration of copper(II) sulphate solution 5.002 05 dm 0.0 gdm és ‘What is the mass of sodium carbonate required to dissolve in water to prepare a 200 cm’ solution that contains 50 ¢ dm? 5 Solution Volume of solution = 200 em? 200, Sin 3 Convert volume [000 om = 0.2. dm (a ae Concentration _ (gdm) Mass of Na,CO, required 50 g dm x 0.2 dm’ Mass = Concentration (gdm) Og ‘Volume of solution (am) Example @=Q Calculate the number of moles of ammonia in 150 em? of 2 mol dr? aqueous ammonia. Solution | M-=melatiy, V=volume in om Number of moles= Mit ‘A.250 cm’ solution contains 0.4 mol of nitric acid, Calculate the molarity of the nitric acid, 250 MV. Se ‘Number of moles = =555=™ * +99 0.4 x 1000 Molarity of nitric acid, M ==> — =1.6 mol dm0 Calculate the volume in dm’ sulphuric acid that contains 0.2 mol of H. of 0.8 mol dm? Solution Number of moles MV. ‘Number of moles = =759- lumber of moles =; 0.2 mol mame of sulphuric acid = 9 7 3 trie acid = 9 Spot dm =0.25 dm? ‘Molarity, M hydrochloric acid used in school laboratories 1s a concentration of 2.0_mol dm. chloride in 250 cm ‘The concentration of a potassium hydrorg solution is 84.0 g dm-, Calculate the number moles of potassium hydroxide present in 30) cy of the solution. [Relative atomic mass: H, I; O, 16; K, 39] Solution ‘Molar mass of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 Molarity of KOH 84.0 Molaty (mol dn) pals Conceiraton (3) 56 ‘Molarmass (g mor) = 1.5 mol dm* Number of moles of KOH3 Volumetric flasks are used to prepare st solutions. Beakers are not suitable for th beakers and measuring cylinders are , accurate. 4 Avolumetric flask can measure the volume of a liquid accurately, up to one decimal point andard not very stopper ~ graduation mark Figure 7.10 A 100 cm? volumetric flask Electronic balance, 100 cm’ volumetric flask, filter funnel, dropper and washing bottle. Sodium hydroxide solid and distilled water. 1 The mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) required to prepare 100 cm’ of 2.0 mol dnr? aqueous sodium hydroxide is ealculated as follows: Mass of NaOH required = Number of moles X molar mass of NaOH MV F000) * (23-+16+ 1) _ 2.0 x 100 Sean B gbix ‘sodium hydro- 1 280 pof -xide, NaOH solid is iid "weighed accurately in en a weighing bottle usin, balance an electronic balance. The steps involved in the preparation of a standard solution 1 Calculate the mass (m g) of the chemical required to prepare v cm’ of solution where vis the volume of the volumetric flask 2 Weigh out the exact mass (m g) of the chemical accurately in a weighing bottle using an electronic balance. 3 Dissolve m g of the chemical in a small amount of distilled water. 4 Transfer the dissolved ch volumetric flask. 5 Add enough water until the graduation mark. nical into the aqueous sodium 4 Using a filter funnel and a glass rod, the dissolved sodium hydroxide is transferred to a 100 cm* volumetric flask. 5 The sinall beaker, the weighing bottle and the filter funnel are all rinsed with distilled water and the contents are transferred into the volumetric flask. 6 Distilled water is then added slowly until the water level is near the level mark of the volumetric flask. A dropper is then used to add water drop by drop to finally bring the volume of solution to the 100 cm* graduation mark, 7 The volumetric flask is closed with a_ stopper. The volumetric flask is then shaken several times to mix the solution completely. The solution prepared is 100 cm of 2,0 mol dm aqueous sodium hydroxide. glass rod ‘iter funnel volumetric flask NaOH solution gr dropper: | ‘graduation ‘mark Acids and Bases CHAPTER 7The Correct Techni ndard Solution ies Used in the Preparation 1 The chemical is weighed in a weighing bottle and not on a piece of filter paper. Some chemicals such as sodium hydroxide can absorb moisture from the air and become wet and may stick to paper. 2 After transferring the dissolved solute to the volumetric flask the weighing bottle, the small beaker that contained the solution as well as the filter funnel are rinsed with distilled water. The content is then transferred to the volumetric flask to ensure that all the mass of the chemical that has been weighed is transferred to the volumetric flask. 3, Theaddition of distilled waterto the volumetric flask must be carried out carefully so that the level of the solution does not exceed the graduation mark of the volumetric flask. The last few cm’ of water should be added drop by drop using a dropper. 4 A volumetric flask and not a beaker must be ‘used to prepare a standard solution because a volumetric flask is calibrated to a high degree of accuracy. 5 The volumetric flask is stoppered after the standard solution is prepared to prevent the evaporation of water which can change the concentration of the solution prepared. 1 isa process of diluting a concentrated by adding a solvent such as water to a more diluted solution. 2 when a solution is diluted, the volume he number of solvent increases but op solute remains constant. Hence the of the solution 3 Ifa solution with volume of V, cm! and moa, of M, mol dm is diluted to become the new concentration of the diluted solu, M, mol dm-* can be determined as follons Number of moles of _ MV solute before dilution 1000 Number of moles of _ M,V solute after dilution ~ 1000 However, the number of moles of soiy, before dilution is the same as the number moles of solute after dilution, MY, MV, a or MY, =! 1000 ~ 1000 ee ‘The steps involved in the preparation of standard solution by dilution 1 Thevolume of the stock solution, V, required is calculated. 2 The required volume of stock solution is pipetted into a volumetric flask 3 Enough distilled water is added to the volumetric flask to the required volume, V, The formula used in cilution is M,V, = M,V, Where M, = Initial molarity of solution M, = Final molarity of solution Initial volume of solution V, = Final volume of solution MY, =M,V, 20% ¥, = 02 x 100 0. Y= 02100 10 cmt ae we Mi = Initial molarity of alkali | V a panal molarity of alkali 1 Initial volume of alkali V, = Final volume of alkali(B)To prepare 100 cm’ 0.2 mot g hydroxide by the dilution methox 1 Using a pipette and a pipette filler, 100 of 2.0 mol dm” sodium hydroxide solution n transferred 10 a 100 cm’ Volumetric flask 2 Using a washing botle, distilled waters ala to th alkali inthe volumetric flask until near the pradustion mark. A dropper is then used to ada w the volumetric flask up to the graduation ip between pH Values and of Acids or Alkalis 1 The pH value of an acid or an alk, on two factors, that is (a) degree of dissociation and (b) molarity or concentration. 2 At the same concentration, the pH value of an acid or an alkali depends on the degree of dissociation. er slowly in mark, alli depends ere 3 The flask is stoppered and is inverted several times to mix the solution, The solution prepared is 0.2 mol dm ° sodium hydroxide solution. Conclusion A 0.2 mol dm’ sodium hydroxide solution can be Prepared by diluting 10 cm’ of 2.0 mol dm of sodium hydroxide solution to 100 cm (a) The higher the degre an acid, the lower the pH value of the acid. (b) ‘The higher the degree of dissociation of a alkali, the higher the pH value of the alkali. 3 For an acid or alkali, its pH value depends on the molarity of the solution (a) The higher the molarity of an acid, the lower the pH value. (b) The higher the molarity of an alkali, the higher the pH value. CHAPTER 7 To investigate the relationship between pH values and the molarity of an acid or an alkali What is the relationship between pH values and the molarity of an acid or an alkali? (A) When the molarity of an acid increases, its pH value decreases. (B) When the molarity of an alkali increases, its pH value increases. I asi a id i ! Hydrochloric acids and sodium hydroxide solutions with molarties of 0.001 mol dm”, 0,01 mol dar’, 0.05 mol din, 0.08 mol dn? and 0.10 mol dm. 0.001 mol dm* hydrochloric acid as shown in Figure 7.11. 3 The pH value shown on the pH meter is recorded. 4 The pH values of hydrochloric acid solutions with Fi 7.11 Using a pH diferent molars eter to measure the pH fare measured one value beakers as in Steps 1 to 3. 5 The experiment is repeated using sodium hhydroxide solutions with different molarities to replace the hydrochloric acid. 0.001 | 0.01 3.0 | 20 0.05, | 0.08 13 [aoh of pH values versus molarity 4 shown = 1 The graph of pH values. versus molar ‘an acid is a decreasing curve as shown 1 Figure 7.12. 2 When the mola concentration of H* ‘and the solution becomes more [pH value decreases. 3. From the graph, we can predict (a) the pH value, if the concentration of H’ ions ‘ofthe solution is known. (&) the concentration of H* ions y of . th on of OH ions in the alkali inere ra ‘olution becomes more alkalin rity of an acid inereases, the afalthels ions in the acid increases acidic, Hence the inthe solution, if 1? 15} 0105 0.06 0.07 0.08 008 0 molarity of sodium hydrate ‘solution (mol dr) Figure 7.13 Graph of pH versus molarity of NaOH (Gomelusion 1 The higher the molarity of hydrochloric ac the lower the pH value. The pH value of an | decreases with the increase in molarity. 2 The higher the molarity of an alkali, the high the pH value. The pH value of an alkali inereass ‘with the increase in molarity. | hypothesis is accepted. | .2 mol dm soe iiss potassium hydroxi i 02 mol dr, jum hydroxide solution produes!Example) @ 500 cm’ of a solution that contain hydroxide is added to 1500 cm’ of a solution contains 4.0 mol sodium hydroxide is the molarity of the sodium hydroxive NS 2.0 mol sodium Calculate Solutio ee tion Solution Total number of moles of NaOH =20+40 a Calculate the total number of moles Cf alkali from the two solutions, | Total volume of NaOH 500 + 1500) cm? 2000 cm* Calculate the total volume of alkali ota from the two solutions Molarityof ——__ Number of moles NaOH produced ~~ Volume (dm) — 6.0 mol 2dm?* .0 mol dm 200 cm* of 2.0 mol dn hydrochloric acid is added to 300 cm* of 0.5 mol dm* hydrochloric acid. Calculate the molarity of the hydrochloric acid produced. Solution Number of moles in 200 cm* of 2.0 mol dm? HCI 2.0 x 200 1000 Calcite the total ‘numberof moles of Number of moles in 300 em? ed fram the two, of 0.5 mol dm? HCI seers, = MV _ 05x 300 10001000 -=015 f | Total number of moles of HCI = 0.4 + 0.15 = 0.55 Total volume of solution = (200 + 300) em* =500cm? gdm determined by __Mass of solute (g) Volume of solution (drm?) 1 Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide required 10 produce (2) 2.0 dm? of 46.4 g dm solution (b) 100 cm? of 2.0 mol dm solution [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; 0, 16; K, 39) 2 2.12 g of sodium carbonate is dissolved in 500 cm? of distilled water. What is the concentration of the solution in. (@) gdm? (6) mol drs? (Relative atomic mass: C, 12; 0, 16; Na, 23] |. 3 The concentration of sodium hydroxide solution is | 80g dma (e) What is the molarity of the solution? (b) What is the molarity of the solution produced when 100 cr? of distiled water is added to 100 ‘cm® of this solution? (©) What is the molarity of the solution produced ‘when 20 om? of 2.0 mol dir® sodium hydroxide solution is added to 100 om of this solution? [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O, 16; Na, 23] EXE, Newtralisation The Meaning of Neutralisation and the _ Equation for Neutralisation 1 Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water only, 2 Ina neutralisation reaction, the acidity of an _,acid is neutralised by an alkali, At the same "time, the alkalinity of the alkali is neutralised by the acid, Salt and water are the only products of neutralisation. Acids and Bases CHAPTER 73. Some examples of neutralisation reactions are as follows: water acid base salt HCl +NaOH -Nacl = +H,0 HS0, +@x0 > CuSO, + H,0 2HINO, + Ca(OH), > Ca(NO,), + 2H,0 4 In the reaction between ammonia and acid such as hydrochloric acid, ammonium salt is formed. iB Ni, + Hol > @H,01 Although there is no water formed in the above equation, in actual fact there is a little water formed together with NH,Cl. This is Decause a portion of ammonia, NH, exists as NH,’ ions and OH" ions in aqueous solution. OH* ions and H’ ions (from acid) react to produce water, H,O. 5 Acids, bases and salts dissociate to form free ions. Only water exists as molecules. For example, _ H'(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na‘(aq) + OH(aq) > from HCl from NaOH ) +H,00) water ~ from NaCl molecule "6 Since Na’ ions and Cl- ions do not undergo ___ any changes in the reaction, these ions can be _ omitted from the equation. Thus, the equation _ can be simplified. ok DApplietions of Neutaisation in Daily Lite Neutralisation is used in various fields such as agriculture, ion for neutralisation betig The ionic equa strong acids and strong alkalis is He(aq) + OH (aq) > 1,0(1) ali reaction, 1° ions § 7 In a neutr ions fj the acid react with OI duce water. The ‘a neutral condition is achieved ions from the base value for water prod and a Which of the following pairs of compounds wy react in a neutralisation reaction? 1 Hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide 11 Sulphuric acid and solid copper(II) oxide Ill Nitric acid and solid calcium carbonate IV Hydrochloric acid and zinc metal A Land Il only B Illand IV only C [Mand IV only D 1,0, Mand IV Comments Neutralisation is a reaction between an acid ands base to form salts and water only. Reactions in| and I are neutralisation because the two reactants react to form salts and water only. Reaction Ills not neutralisation because carbon dioxide gas is formed in addition to salt and water. Reaction IVis not neutralisation because hydrogen gas is formed in addition to salt. Answer A health and industries. Lime (consisting of calcium oxide, CaO) wich pode lun yond in water to control the acidity in aqua farming. 2 Plants do not grow well in acidic soil or rarer ote ‘Acids and Bases Calcium nedtang ag astum tydroxide re wed @Toothpastes contain magnesium hydroxide to neutralise n teeth 1 Food trapped in gaps between teeth decompose imo onganic acids by bacteria. An alkaline compound such as magnesium hydroxide in toothpastes neutralises the organic acids 1 Bacteria in latex produces organic acids which coagulate latex. Ammonia is used to neutralise the organic acids produced by bacteria to prevent coagulation, so that latex can remain in the liquid state. 2 Calcium carbonate is used as a base to remove acidic gas such as sulphur dioxide emitted by power stations and industries. 3 Effluent from factories which is acidic is treated with lime, which will neutralise the acids in it before being discharged. 4 Neutralisation reaction is also used in the industry to produce manufactured products such as fertilisers, soaps and detergents. In industries In health cll produced. This will prevent the corrosion of teeth enamel 2 Antacids are medicine which contain bases such asm aluminium hydroxide esitum hydroxide, calcium carbonate and calcium bicarbonate. Magnesia milk contains Magnesium hydroxide \s and 1 are used to the excess hydrochloric acid in th of gastric patients, 3. Alkaline creams or baking powder are applied to cure bee stings and ant bites which are acidic. Vinegar which contains ethanoic acid is used to cure alkaline wasp stings. ‘Acidic gas emitted by factories must be removed | before being discharged | 1 Titration is a quantitative analysis that involves - the gradual addition of a chemical, solution - from a burette to another chemical solution of ‘Anown quantity in.a conical flask. - 2 Inacid-base titration, the volume of the alkali __ is measured using a 5 au pails into a conical ‘The acid solution from a is ee slowly to the alkali in - the conical flask until neutralisation occurs. 3 Theend point ofa titration is when neutralisation that is, when the acid has completely he ects (0 an al nd iE aaa water) are all point of petal (a) ‘The use of acid-base indicators such as methyl orange, phenolphthalein and litmus paper which changes colour at the end point. (b) Measurement of the pH values during titration using a computer interface. 5 ‘Titration technique can be used to determine the concentration of an acid (or an alkali). rs in stile 1 Acid-base indicators are chemicals that show _. different colours when the pH value of the solution changes. 2. Table 7.10 shows the colour of three common, types of indicators at different pH values. ‘Acids and Bases, CHAPTER 7: 5 Table 7.10 Colours of three common types of indicators in alkaline, neutral and acidic conditions _, | Colour in | i Indicator CON" neniral Suk Wepre | solution Methyl orange range Red Phenolphthalein | Light pink |Colourless|Colourless | Red Litmus Blue Purple 3 Methyl orange shows a yellow colour in an alkaline solution. Atthe point of neutralisation, the colour changes from yellow to orange 4 Phenolphthalein shows a light pink in an alkaline solution. The first drop of acid that decolourises the light pink colour of phenolphthalein indicates the end point of titration. Paton Computer Interface in 1 When an alkaline solution is added slowly from a burette to an acid in a conical flask, the pH value of the mixture solution increases slowly. 2 In titrations using a computer interface, the probe ofa pH meter, immersed in the solution to be titrated, is connected to the pH module of the computer interface. the pH meter Sas The information is during titration. 1 computer by the interfa pH values along the pros Gisplayed on the computer scre ie iz In computer interface, the pH is displayed on a sq 4 Agraph of pH value versus volume of alk added is shown as in Figure 7.14. It is fou that the pH value of the solution chang sharply at the end point of neutralisation The neutralisation point can be determing from the midpoint of the sharp pH change pH value = -| «— ond point PH of FS neutralisation volume of alka at noutaisation cee ‘volume of alka (om?) Figure 7.14 Graph of pH value versus volume of alkali added neutralisation using an acid-base indicator | 25 cm* pipette, pipette filler, 50 cm" burette, retort stand, _retort clamp, conical flask, filter funnel and white tile. ‘Sulphuric acid of unknown concentration, 1.0 mol dm _ potassium hydroxide and methyl orange. 1 A clean 25 cm? pipette is rinsed with distilled water and then rinsed with a little of the potassi hydroxide solution, Eessen 2, 25:cm? of 1.0 mol dmr® potassium. hydroxide i | fs droxide is | transferred using the pipette to a clean conical | flask. Three drops of methyl orange indicator are added to the alkali and the colour of the solution is noted. Acids and Bases 3 A 50 cm* burette is rinsed with distilled water an! then rinsed with a little of the sulphuric acid. 4 The burette is then filled with sulphuric acid and is clamped to a retort stand. The initil burette reading is recorded. ‘The conical flask containing 25 cm of potassit™ hydroxide is placed below the burette. A pie? Of white tile is placed below the conical fas for clearer observation of the colour chats (Figure 7.15), Sulphuric acid is added slowly from the burel!?” the potassium hydroxide solution in the co lask while ‘swirling the flask gently. Titration is stopped when the methyl 0 fae colour from yellow to orange: ad Durette reading is recorded.8 Steps I 07 are repeated until accurate tigys values are obtained, that is, unt th a 1 differen 19.95 +20.05 in the volumes of sulphuric acid used in ieee consecutive experiments is less than 0.10 em! Hence, 20.00 cm! of H,SO, is required te burete completely neutralise 25.0 em’ of 1,0 mol dm KOH ; Discussion wi sulphuric acid as 1 In this experiment, the pipette has to be rinsed with Potassium hydroxide solution so that water droplets on the inner wall of the pipette do not dilute the conical fask concentration of the potassium hydroxide used. 25 cm? of potassium The burette is rinsed with sulphuric acid so that hydroxide + meth! orange water droplets at the inner wall of the burette do not white tle dilute the concentration of the sulphuric acid used. ene eaisi tiation ofsuiphuricacia winn 3 The conical flask does not need to be rinsed with potassium hydroxide potassium hydroxide so that the volume of the Potassium hydroxide in the conical flasks will (Results ately be 25.0 cm Otherwise, droplets of Ny titers ee cic tak . el cause the volume of potassium hydroxide to Final burette reading (em*) | 21.00 ees 0 E 2 4 The end point of titration is when the colour of Initial burette reading (cm')) 0.00 | — 4 the indicator changes sharply. The colour of i eter a acid | 21.00 | 19.95 | 20.05 methyl orange is yellow in potassium hydroxide ||used (em*) solution (because pH > 7). At the end point, the colour of methyl orange changes to orange (pH = 7), If methyl orange changes to a red 1 The volume of sulphuric acid used is calculated colour, excess sulphuric acid has been added. as follows: 5 In acid-base titrations, only 2 or 3 drops of ‘Volume of sulphuric acid used indicator should be used. This is because most = Final burette reading — Initial burette reading of the indicators are weak acid or base that will 2 Average volume of sulphuric acid used affect the pH of the solution if used in excess. neutralisation using a computer interface 3. A 50 cm! burette is rinsed with distilled water and then with a little of the sodium hydroxide solution. 4 The burette is then filled with sodium hydroxide solution and is clamped to a retort stand. 5 A magnetic stirrer bar is placed in the beaker containing 25 cm’ of hydrochloric acd. The beaker is then placed on a magnetic stirrer below the burete 25 cm’ pipette, pipette filler, 50 cm’ burette, retort Stand, retort clamp, 250 cm’ beaker, filter funnel, ‘magnetic stirrer, magnetic stirrer bar, pH meter, ‘computer interface and computer. JH meter is connected to a computer using hydrochloric acid and 1.0 mol dmv? 6 Beier interface. The pH meter probe is a “ then dipped into the acid, The magnetic ster is switched on and the computer is set to record | display the pHl Figure 7.16). : ee pee ee Lc 7 Panne solution is added drop by . Bees eras Hodsocblori sid Is drop fom the Bret consi ato he esa eit ea celle i ‘Acids and Bases CHAPTER 7PTER 5 8 A graph of pH change against the volume of when 50 cm? of sodium hydroxide is ad burotte sodium hydroxide NaOH solution ape | Figure 7.16 Using a pH meter 1 A graph of pH against the volume of sodium hydroxide in cm’ as displayed by the computer is shown in Figure 7.17. a 18 bs gags Pe | sm isa 8 | 8 SL. 6 8 4 3. 2 1 Oe volume of ‘ § 101520250035 40455055 NaOH (orm) Figure 7.17 Graph of pH against the volume of sodium hydroxide in cm? dium hydroxide in em’ is —inertace Frydrochorie acid, HC! ‘magnetic ster bar ‘magnetic stirer xd_a computer inter printed using the computer prin {ded to the beaker ‘computer face to measure pH changes during neutralisation 1 The pH value of hydrochloric acid is 1.0 at the beginning of titration. As sodium hydroxide j added to the acid, the pH value of the solution increases. 2 The pH value increases sharply at the end poin of neutralisation. The midpoint of the sharp pH change is 7. At pH 7, the volume of sodium hydroxide used from the graph is 25.0 cm’ 3. When 1.0 mol dmv sodium hydroxide is titrated against 25.0 cm* of 1.0 mol dm hydrochloric acid, the end point of titration during neutralisation ‘occurs at pH 7 when 25 cm’ of 1.0 mol dam" of sodium hydroxide solution has been added. 4 By using a computer interface to measue pH changes, the end point of titration during nuetralisation can be determined accurately. Describe an experiment to determine the concentration ofa solution of sulphuric acid by titrating it with a 1.0 mol dm? potassium hydroxide solution. Solution A titration experiment similar to Activity 7,7 is carried cout in which sulphuric acid of unknown concentration is titrated against 25.0 cm’ of 1.0 mol dm? potassium wydroxide using methyl orange (or phenolphthali a an indicator, Wea Let's say the volume of sulphuric acid required to neutralise completely 25.0 em? of 1.0 mol dnt” potas hydroxide is Vom’, e Number of moles of KOH in 25.0 em? of 1.0 mold? solution = yyy = 250 net ‘Acids and Bases ‘The equation for the neutralisation reaction betwee? Potassium hydroxide and sulphuric acid is 2KOH + H,S0, > K,SO, + 24,0 eeording tothe equation, 2 mol of KOH 18 0, of H,SO, for complete neutralisation. .025 mol KOH will require 4 tds, 025 X 5- = 0.0125 mol H,S0, Number of moles of H,s0, = MV. * 1000 Molarity of sulphuric acid, iv = 0.0125 x 1000”pine Neutralisation (Sw as represented by the equation below: ; aA products 2 Say, the molarity of an acid is M, mol dm! and the molarity of a base is Mf, mol di. 1f ina titration, V, cm’ of acid neutralises V, cm* of base dium hydroxide concentration required sulphuric acid for Caleulate the molarity In an experiment, 25.0 cm! of a solution of unknown 26.50 cm’ of 1.0 mol dm complete reaction in titration of sodium hydroxide Solution y b=? 2NaOH + H,SO, > Na,SO, + 2H,O ani where M, = molarity of NaOH 2.12 mol dm Hence, the molarity of sodium hydroxide solution is 2.12 mol dar,Do Calculate the volume (em') of 2.0 mol dm? _hydtrochtoric ac that is required to react completely with 2.65 g of sodium carbonate. {Relative atomic mass: C, 12; 0, 16; Na, 23]. ‘Solution ‘Molar mass of Na,CO, “A = 23 X 2) + 12+ (16 X 3) = 106g Number ofnieiteensyco,— sess ‘molar mass = 0.025 2NaCl + CO, + H,0 “1 mol of Na,CO, reacts with ‘In an aqueous SO ions in CH,COOH is lo concentration. This is be¢ partially in water However, both CH,COOH and HC concentration require the same amount for complete neutralisation. This is b monoprotic (monobasic) acids. In the NaOH, CH,COOH with NaOH. in an acid-base titration, the prefer putin the burette is the acid. This is react with silica in glass to form silicate, thus. the thin glass wall of the burette slow ig 1. Complete the blanks in the equations below: > ta) 2HCl+Mg 3 +0) (b) H,SO,+Zn(0H),-9[— + () [_]+NaOH = CH,COONa + H,0 (@) G+) caso, +240 reacts with magnesium hydroxide soutor © magnesium nitrate, MaINO,Lqhe table below shows two solutions of acids @ Name of acid Concentration (mol dm*) Hydrochloric acid 0.100 Ethanoie acid 0.100 Suggested Answer Hydrochloric acid will give a lower pH value than ethanoic acid Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid that undergoes complete dissociation to produce a higher concentration of H’ ions. Ethanoic acid is a weak acid that undergoes partial dissociation to produce a lower concentration of Hrions. A high concentration of H’ ions will result in a lower pH value Se a ties of Acids and ae The two acids in the table have different pH values. Which solution gives a lower pH value? Explain your answer Tip Take note that the two acids are of different strengths: Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and ethanoic acid is a weak acid. At the same concentration, a strong acid will produce a higher concentration of hydrogen ions on complete ionisation. The pH value depends ‘on the concentration of hydrogen ions. D_ X dissolves in water to produce H ions. 9 the fol fetes Bases 2. Which of the following . a % , statements is true of all bases? - 1 Chemical xis an aid. Which of (BI A Dissove in water * Beeeges0 ey Con beL Ns B Contain hydroxide ions sae aaneas “A) Apink colour is produced when phenoiphthalein is > added to a solution of X 12and 13, C Have a pH value of between Produce ammonia gas when heated with ammonium salts ‘Which of the following is solution Bi A Glacial ethancic acid Hydrogen gas is evolved when B Ethanoie acid in Zinc powder is added to 2-3. The-cagrem shows the setup = methylbenzene solution of X | ‘of apparatus for the reaction i ) Concentrated ethanoie acid. © Assoluton of Xreacts with an (06) between solution Z and |B Hygiogen chore dissotved in | magnesium ribbon, | propenone | alkali to produce salt and water, © CHAPTER 7