Battikha-3rd.

book Page iii Thursday, August 24, 2006 1:20 PM

The Condensed
Handbook
of Measurement and Control
3rd Edition

N. E. Battikha
Battikha-3rd.book Page ix Thursday, August 24, 2006 1:20 PM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface .......................................................................................................................... xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

What Is Measurement and Control? ......................................................................1

Definitions .......................................................................................................1
Overview ................................................................................................................1
Historical Summary.........................................................................................2
Handbook Structure ........................................................................................3
Appendices .....................................................................................................4
Selecting Measurement and Control Devices ........................................................5
Accuracy and Repeatability ............................................................................9

Chapter 2 Identification and Symbols........................................................................ 11

Identification .........................................................................................................11
Instrument Line Symbols .....................................................................................15
General Instrument or Function Symbols ............................................................16

Chapter 3 Analyzers ..................................................................................................... 21

Overview ..............................................................................................................21
Location ........................................................................................................21
Tagging .........................................................................................................21
Implementation .............................................................................................22
Safety............................................................................................................24
Code Compliance .........................................................................................24
Selection .......................................................................................................24
Documentation..............................................................................................25
Sampling Systems ........................................................................................26
Enclosures ....................................................................................................30
Testing and Startup ......................................................................................34
Maintenance .................................................................................................35
Shipment and Delivery..................................................................................36
Comparison Table................................................................................................36
Amperometric ...............................................................................................36
Capillary Tube...............................................................................................36
Catalytic ........................................................................................................39
Chemiluminescence .....................................................................................40
Conductivity ..................................................................................................41
Electrochemical ............................................................................................43
Flame Ionization Detector (FID)....................................................................44
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) ................................................................45
Gas Chromatograph .....................................................................................46
Infrared Absorption .......................................................................................48
Mass Spectrometer.......................................................................................50
Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) ...........................................................................52
Paper Tape ...................................................................................................53

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Paramagnetic................................................................................................53
pH .................................................................................................................55
Polarographic................................................................................................62
Radiation Absorption ....................................................................................62
Rotating Disk Viscometer .............................................................................64
Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD)...........................................................65
Ultraviolet ......................................................................................................66
Vibrating U-tube ............................................................................................69
X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) ....................................................70
Zirconia Oxide Cell .......................................................................................71

Chapter 4 Flow Measurement ...................................................................................... 73

Overview ..............................................................................................................73
Classification.................................................................................................73
Measurement ................................................................................................74
Accuracy .......................................................................................................74
General Application Notes ...................................................................................74
Type of Fluid .................................................................................................75
Velocity Profile ..............................................................................................75
Piping Considerations ...................................................................................76
Line Size .......................................................................................................77
Measuring Solids ..........................................................................................78
Comparison Table................................................................................................78
Differential Pressure: General Information ...................................................78
Differential Pressure: Orifice Plate................................................................79
Differential Pressure: Segmental Orifice Plate .............................................82
Differential Pressure: Integral Orifice Plate...................................................83
Differential Pressure: Venturi Tube...............................................................83
Differential Pressure: Flow Nozzle................................................................84
Differential Pressure: Elbow .........................................................................85
Differential Pressure: Pitot Tube ...................................................................85
Magnetic .......................................................................................................86
Mass: Coriolis ...............................................................................................88
Mass: Thermal ..............................................................................................89
Turbine..........................................................................................................90
Positive Displacement ..................................................................................92
Vortex Shedding ...........................................................................................93
Variable Area (Rotameter) ............................................................................93
Ultrasonic: Transit Time, Time of Travel, Time of Flight ...............................95
Ultrasonic: Doppler .......................................................................................96
Weir and Flume ............................................................................................96
Target ...........................................................................................................98

Chapter 5 Level Measurement ..................................................................................... 99

Overview ..............................................................................................................99
Classification.................................................................................................99
Load Cells .....................................................................................................99
Units of Measurement.................................................................................100
Measurement of Solids ...............................................................................100
Comparison Table..............................................................................................100
Differential Pressure (or Pressure/Static Head)..........................................102
Displacement ..............................................................................................106
Float ............................................................................................................107
Sonic/Ultrasonic ..........................................................................................108
Tape (Float and Tape) ................................................................................109
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Weight and Cable .......................................................................................110

Gage ...........................................................................................................110
Radioactive (Nuclear) .................................................................................111
Bubbler (Dip Tube) .....................................................................................113
Capacitance ................................................................................................114
Conductivity ................................................................................................115
Thermal.......................................................................................................115
Radar ..........................................................................................................115
Beam Breakers ...........................................................................................117
Vibration......................................................................................................117
Paddle Wheel .............................................................................................118
Diaphragm ..................................................................................................119
Resistance Tape .........................................................................................119
Laser ...........................................................................................................120

Chapter 6 Pressure Measurement ............................................................................. 123

Overview ............................................................................................................123
Units of Measurement.................................................................................124
Gages .........................................................................................................124
Transmitters ................................................................................................124
Filled Systems and Diaphragm Seals .........................................................124
Installation...................................................................................................125
Comparison Table..............................................................................................126
Manometer..................................................................................................126
Bourdon Tube, Diaphragm, and Bellows ....................................................127
Capacitive Transducer ................................................................................129
Differential Transformer ..............................................................................129
Force Balance.............................................................................................130
Piezoelectric ...............................................................................................131
Potentiometer, Wheatstone Bridge .............................................................132
Strain Gage: General Information ...............................................................133
Strain Gage: Unbonded ..............................................................................133
Strain Gage: Bonded ..................................................................................134
Strain Gage: Thin Film ................................................................................134
Strain Gage: Diffused Semiconductor ........................................................135

Chapter 7 Temperature Measurement....................................................................... 137

Overview ............................................................................................................137
Units of Measurement.................................................................................137
Classification...............................................................................................138
Thermowells ...............................................................................................138
Comparison Table..............................................................................................139
Filled System ..............................................................................................139
Bimetallic ....................................................................................................141
Thermocouple .............................................................................................142
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) ...................................................146
Noncontact Pyrometry ................................................................................149

Chapter 8 Control Loops ............................................................................................ 151

Overview ............................................................................................................151
Control Modes....................................................................................................152
On-Off Control ............................................................................................152
Modulating Control......................................................................................153

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Control Types.....................................................................................................154
Feedback ....................................................................................................154
Cascade......................................................................................................155
Ratio ...........................................................................................................155
Feedforward................................................................................................155
Controller Tuning ...............................................................................................156
Automatic Tuning ........................................................................................159
Manual Tuning ............................................................................................159
Based-on-Experience Tuning .....................................................................162

Chapter 9 Programmable Electronic Systems ......................................................... 163

Overview ............................................................................................................163
Components ...............................................................................................163
Centralized Control versus Distributed Control...........................................165
Control Room Instrumentation ....................................................................167
Programming Languages ...........................................................................171
Fieldbus ......................................................................................................175
System Specification ..................................................................................177
Operator Interface.......................................................................................181
Special Design Considerations ...................................................................185
Network Topologies ....................................................................................188
Transmission Media....................................................................................190
Selecting Vendors.......................................................................................192
Testing ........................................................................................................192
Justification .................................................................................................192
Benefits .......................................................................................................194
Implementation ...........................................................................................195
Maintenance ...............................................................................................196

Chapter 10 Alarm and Trip Systems ......................................................................... 197

Overview ............................................................................................................197
Fail-Safe and Deenergize-to-Trip ...............................................................198
Safety Integrity Level ..................................................................................198
Elements .....................................................................................................199
Design.........................................................................................................203
Documentation............................................................................................208
Testing ........................................................................................................209
Commissioning and Pre-startup .................................................................216
Management of Change .............................................................................216

Chapter 11 Control Centers ....................................................................................... 219

Overview ...........................................................................................................219
Design.........................................................................................................219
Physical Aspects.........................................................................................220
Security .......................................................................................................222
Fire Protection ............................................................................................222
Air Conditioning ..........................................................................................223
Electrical/Electronic Considerations ...........................................................223
Communication ...........................................................................................224

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Chapter 12 Enclosures ............................................................................................... 225

Overview ............................................................................................................225
General Requirements................................................................................226
Documentation............................................................................................226
Fabrication ..................................................................................................227
Protection and Rating .................................................................................227
Nameplates.................................................................................................227
Electrical .....................................................................................................230
Pneumatics .................................................................................................231
Temperature and Humidity Control.............................................................231
Inspection and Testing................................................................................232
Certification .................................................................................................232
Shipping ......................................................................................................232

Chapter 13 Control Valves ......................................................................................... 233

Overview ............................................................................................................233
Shutoff ........................................................................................................233
Noise...........................................................................................................235
Flashing and Cavitation ..............................................................................235
Pressure Drop.............................................................................................235
Installation...................................................................................................236
The Cv ....................................................................................................................................236
Valve Bodies ...............................................................................................237
Rules of Thumb ..........................................................................................237
Cooling Fins (Radiating Bonnet) and Bonnet Extensions ...........................238
Bellows Seals and Packing.........................................................................238
Comparison Table..............................................................................................238
Globe ..........................................................................................................238
Diaphragm (Saunders) ...............................................................................243
Ball ..............................................................................................................244
Butterfly.......................................................................................................245
Eccentric Rotary Plug .................................................................................246
Trim ....................................................................................................................246
Actuators ............................................................................................................248

Chapter 14 Engineering Design and Documentation .............................................. 251

Overview ............................................................................................................251
Front-end Engineering ................................................................................251
Detailed Engineering ..................................................................................251
Document Quality .......................................................................................252
Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) ........................................253
Control System Definition ...........................................................................255
Logic Diagrams ...........................................................................................258
Process Data Sheets ..................................................................................263
Instrument Index .........................................................................................265
Instrument Specification Sheets .................................................................266
Loop Diagrams ...........................................................................................268
Interlock Diagrams ......................................................................................270
Manual for Programmable Electronic Systems...........................................271
PLC Program Documentation .....................................................................273

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Chapter 15 Installation ............................................................................................... 275

Overview ............................................................................................................275
Code Compliance .......................................................................................275
Scope of Work ............................................................................................275
Installation Details.......................................................................................276
Equipment Identification .............................................................................277
Equipment Storage .....................................................................................277
Work Specifically Excluded.........................................................................278
Approved Products .....................................................................................278
Pre-installation Testing ...............................................................................278
Execution ....................................................................................................279
Wiring..........................................................................................................279
Tubing .........................................................................................................281
Checkout.....................................................................................................284

Chapter 16 Maintenance............................................................................................. 285

Overview ............................................................................................................285
Implementation ..................................................................................................286
Types of Maintenance........................................................................................287
Personnel ...........................................................................................................287
Training ..............................................................................................................288
Records..............................................................................................................288
Hazards..............................................................................................................290
General Hazards.........................................................................................290
Hazardous Locations ..................................................................................291
Confined Space ..........................................................................................291
Electrical Isolation .......................................................................................292
Programmable Electronic Systems.............................................................292
Alarm and Trip Systems .............................................................................293

Chapter 17 Calibration................................................................................................ 295

Overview ............................................................................................................295
Procedures.........................................................................................................296
Instrument Classification ....................................................................................297
Class 1 Instruments ....................................................................................298
Class 2 Instruments ....................................................................................298
Class 3 Instruments ....................................................................................298
Class 4 Instruments ....................................................................................298
Calibration Sheets..............................................................................................299

Chapter 18 Project Implementation and Management ............................................ 303

Overview ............................................................................................................303
Process Control .................................................................................................304
1st phase: ...................................................................................................306
2nd phase: ..................................................................................................306
3rd phase: ...................................................................................................306
Communication ..................................................................................................307
Standard and Code Compliance ........................................................................307
Control Strategy .................................................................................................308
Plant Business Strategy .....................................................................................309
Implementation of a New Control System..........................................................310
Scheduling and Time Management ...................................................................312

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Cost Estimate.....................................................................................................313
Document Control ..............................................................................................314
Engineering ........................................................................................................314
Front-End Engineering .......................................................................................315
Detailed Engineering..........................................................................................317
Quality ................................................................................................................318
Purchasing Equipment .......................................................................................318
Vendor Documents ............................................................................................319
Training ..............................................................................................................319
Equipment Installation........................................................................................320
Commissioning ..................................................................................................323
Startup ...............................................................................................................323
Project Closing ...................................................................................................324

Chapter 19 Decision-making Tools ........................................................................... 325

Overview ............................................................................................................325
Auditing ..............................................................................................................326
The Auditing Function .................................................................................327
History, Frequency, and Record of Audits ..................................................331
Auditing of Management .............................................................................332
Auditing of Engineering Records ................................................................332
Auditing of Maintenance .............................................................................333
Auditing of Process Control Systems .........................................................334
Evaluation of Plant Needs..................................................................................334
The Brainstorming Session.........................................................................334
The Evaluation of Ideas ..............................................................................336
Issuance of the Report................................................................................337
Justification ........................................................................................................337
Hurdles in the Justification Process ............................................................339
Cost Justification.........................................................................................339
Costs - The Bottom Line .............................................................................340
Cost Justification.........................................................................................342
Justification Follow-up ................................................................................343
System Evaluation .............................................................................................344

Chapter 20 Road to Consulting ................................................................................. 349

Overview ............................................................................................................349
Types of Consulting Services ............................................................................351
Types of services ........................................................................................352
Basic Tools ........................................................................................................353
Marketing ...........................................................................................................353
Defining your service ..................................................................................354
Indentifying your market .............................................................................354
Selecting a marketing method ....................................................................355
From Proposal to Purchase Order .....................................................................356
Inquiry Received .........................................................................................356
Meeting with the client ................................................................................356
Proposal submitted .....................................................................................357
Purchase order received.............................................................................357
Fees ...................................................................................................................358
Daily/hourly rate contract + expenses.........................................................358
Fixed-Price Contracts .................................................................................359
Performance Contracts ...............................................................................359
Maintaining client relationships ..........................................................................360

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Appendix A — Units Conversion Tables ................................................................... 361

Appendix B — Corrosion Resistance/Rating Guide ................................................. 373

Appendix C — The Engineering Contractor .............................................................. 383

Appendix D — Packaged Equipment ......................................................................... 385

Appendix E — Typical Scope of Work ....................................................................... 387

Appendix F — Development of Corporate Standards and Guidelines ................... 391

Appendix G — Typical Job Titles and Descriptions ................................................. 405

Appendix H — Sample Audit Protocol ....................................................................... 415

Appendix I — Sample Audit Report............................................................................ 421

Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 425

Index.............................................................................................................................. 429

xvi The Condensed Handbook of Measurement and Control 3rd Edition