topic 3 Infection n response

antibiotic resistance
bacteria reproduce asexually making genetically identical copies of them selves.

sometimes in this process a mutation can occur.

this can either be harmful, neutral or beneficial to the bacteria.

the beneficial mutations allow the bacteria to be resistant to the antibiotics.

so when a person takes the antibiotics it can’t kill the resistant bacteria.

the bacteria will clone itself making many colonies of resistant bacteria which cannot be
killed by antibiotics

making monoclonal antibodies

the antigen is injected into the mouse
the mouse will have an immune response making white blood cells.
some of these are lymphocytes which will make antibodies

the lymphocytes that make antibodies specifically against the antigen has been extracted
from the mouse

these lymphocytes are fused with tumor cells to create hydridomas. these hybridomas are
cloned to make a lot of hybridoma cells that can produce these specific one type of
antibodies

how vaccination works

a dead or weakened pathogen is injected into the person.

the dead or weakened pathogen has a similar antigen to the dangerous pathogen.

these similar antigens trigger an immune response which means the receptors on a
lymphocyte will recognise the antigen bc the receptors and antigen have a
COMPLEMENTARY SHAPE to each other

the lymphocyte will be activated and will make many clones of itself.

Some of these cells will make antibodies and some will make memory cells which will
stay in the body for many years
if the harmful pathogen with harmful antigens enter the body, then the memory
lymphocyte will recognise the similar antigen and they will make antibodies in a shorter
time. these antibodies will help destroy the pathogen

*having memory cells can give u immunity cos u have large amounts of them to make the
antibodies like faster

how does phagocytosis even work tho

the phagocytes engulfs the pathogen or infected cell.

enzymes inside the phagocytes are then used to digest the pathogen or infected cell so it
is no longer harmful

Defense the human body has to stop pathogens from

entering
Skin- acts as a barrier and also secretes antimicrobial substances which kill pathogens

Nose- hairs to trap mucus particles that contain pathogens

Trachea and bronchi - lined with mucus and cilia, the mucus traps the pathogen and the
cilia wafts this mucus to the back of the throat where is can be swallowed

Stomach- hydrochloric acid kills pathogens

but like how do viruses make us ill

so the virus attaches to a cell at the cell surface membrane. this cell now becomes the
host cells.
this virus inserts it genetic material (DNA or RNA) into the host cell .
the viral DNA becomes incorporated into the host cells DNA.
now the host cell is instructed to make copies of the virus.
this is called replication.
between 200 and 2000 new viruses can be made per cell.
the host cell will burst and each new virus will attach to a new cell.
the bursting will make u ill

how does bacteria make us ill?

bacteria are prokaryotes which divide by binary fission.
pathogenic bacteria release toxins. these toxins damage cells and tissues overall making
us ill.
antibiotics kill bacteria but can’t kill viruses as they cannot reach INSIDE the cell

disease caused by virus

measles)
SPREAD-> inhaling droplets from an infected persons sneeze or cough
SYMPTOMS-> red rash, high temp, cough, seizures, pneumonia and death
PREVENTION-> isolation, covering mouth, washing hands, clean surfaces

HIV)
SPREAD-> sexual contact or by exchanging blood
SYMPTOMS-> flu like symptoms then it can lead to aids
PREVENTION-> use a physical barrier of contraception eg condom, use antiretroviral
drugs to slow down virus replication process

tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

SPREAD->into wounds via being touched by contaminated hands/items and also via seed
of infected plants
SYMPTOMS->smaller size, mosaic pattern, discolouration on leave (less chlorophyll
less photosynthesis less growth)
PREVENTION-> infected plants thrown away, wash hands and tools, remove the soil

disease cause by bacteria

samonella)
SPREAD->eating food contaminated w bacteria
SYMPTOMS-> pain when urinaring , green discharge form vagina or penis
PREVENTION-> vaccinate the chickens, wash hands before cooking, infected person
should not prepare food or drink for uninfected

gonorrhoea)
SPREAD-> a sexually transmitted disease by sexual contact

SYMPTOMS-> fever, stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhoea

PREVENTION-> use a condom (a kind of barrier), use antibiotics

diseases cause by fungi

rose black spots)
SPREAD-> spread via water (spores on the leaf)
SYMPTOMS-> purplish black spots, leaves falling early
PREVENTION-> use fungicides which are sprayed on the plant
disease by protists
malaria)
SPREAD-> via a vector eg mosquitoes ( an organism that passes the pathogen from one
organism to another)
SYMPTOMS-> episodes of a fever
PREVENTION-> insect repellent, using a mosquito net

how are antitoxins produced

some of these antibodies act as antitoxins which means that they can neutralise toxins
released by pathogens, leaving them harmless