Chapter 10

Pathogens and immunity

 What is a pathogen?
 A pathogen is a micro-
organism that can
cause harm to your
body. A disease is
caused when a
pathogen enters our
body and breeds there.
 Types of pathogens
There are many types of pathogens. Few of them
are listed below with their properties:
Group to which pathogen Examples of diseases
belongs which they cause
Viruses Influenza, common cold,
poliomyelitis, AIDS
Bacteria Cholera, syphilis, whooping
cough, tuberculosis,
tetanus
Protoctists Malaria, amoebic dysentry
Fungi Athlete’s foot, ringworm
Types of pathogens
How do pathogens enter the body?
 Pathogens enter the human body in two ways,
either by direct means or indirect means.
 Direct contact: Direct contact means that the
disease-causing microbe is passed from one
person to another when their bodies touch in
some way.
Indirect contact: Indirect contact happens when
microorganisms are carried to a person in some
way, instead of by actual body to body contact.
Indirect transmission takes place in three ways:
through respiratory passage, food & water, and
through vector.
 Indirect transmission
• Vector transmission involves an animal such as an insect.
For example, malaria is transmitted by a female anopheles
mosquitoes, dysentery by houseflies and plague by fleas.
• Food transmission Eating raw or undercooked food, or
drinking water contaminated by sewage means you take
large numbers of microorganisms straight into your gut eg,
Salmonella.
• Water transmission contaminated by sewage means you
take large numbers of microorganisms straight into your gut
eg cholera and amoebic dysentery. Anywhere without
proper sewage treatment and disposal is at risk of these
diseases.
• *contaminated : make impure by exposure to or addition of
a poisonous or polluting substance
 Transmissible Disease

• Therefore a Transmissible
Disease is a disease in
which the pathogen can be
passed from one host to
another.
 Body defences
• The body has several defences against pathogens so
we do not fall ill with the diseases they cause.
• The skin
• The skin covers the whole body. It protects the body
from physical damage, microbe infection and
dehydration. Its dry, dead outer cells are difficult for
microbes to penetrate, and the sebaceous glands
produce oils which help kill microbes.
 Body defences
• Blood clotting
• If microorganisms get into the body through a cut in the
skin, the most important thing to do is close the wound
quickly so that no more microorganisms can enter. A
scab does just that. The blood contains tiny structures
called platelets, and a protein called fibrin. A scab is
basically platelets stuck in a fibrin mesh.
• Mucous membranes
• The respiratory system is protected in several ways.
Nasal hairs keep out dust and larger microorganisms.
Sticky mucus traps dust and microbes, which are then
carried away by cilia - tiny hairs on the cells that line the
respiratory system.
 Body defences
• Stomach acid
• Hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills harmful
microorganisms that might be in the food or
drink that we swallow
 Food hygiene
• Keep your own bacteria and viruses away from
the food. Always wash your hands before
touching or eating food or putting your hands into
your mouth for any reason. Keep your hair out of
food. Never cough or sneeze over food.
Keep animals away from the foods. For example,
if we leave food uncovered and allow houseflies
to settle on them, then they bring with them
bacteria. As they continue feeding they spit their
saliva on the food and contaminate it.
Do not keep foods at room temperature for long
time or the bacteria start breeding in it.
Keep raw meat away from foods as it contains
bacteria.
Waste disposal
 Waste disposal
Waste is separated into biodegradable and non-
biodegradable wastes.
Biodegradable waste includes, waste food, animal
organs and remains of plants and animals. This waste is
collected and taken to landfill sites, and is covered with
soil.
The covered soil compacts the waste. Due to the
pressure above the soil, the water is squeezed out from
the waste, this water is pumped out and treated.
The waste is then decomposed due to the action of
bacteria present in the soil. This releases methane gas
and if trapped for a long time can result into explosion
hence it is taken out through pipes and is used as fuel
 Sewage treatment
Sewage is waste liquid that comes from
houses, industries, villages, towns and cities. It
includes mostly water. It also includes urine,
feces, toilet paper, detergents, etc.
Sewage is treated to remove pathogenic
organisms and most of the nutrients. When it is
treated, water can recycled.
 How immunity develops
During the body’s first encounter with a
pathogen there will be few lymphocytes with
specific receptors
It takes time to divide to form clones, B
lymphocytes to secrete antibodies, T
lymphocyte production
If the same pathogen invades again persisting
memory cells can give a faster, more effective
response
This is ACTIVE IMMUNITY

Secondary
response happens
more quickly, and
produces many
more antibodies
Natural immunity: active and passive
An infection is an example of acquiring natural
immunity. It is called ACTIVE as your body needs
to work to produce the necessary antibodies
When a mother breast feeds her baby she
passes antibodies to it. This is a way of acquiring
PASSIVE immunity as it is a way of gaining
antibodies without the immune system having to
produce them. The thick, yellowish milk
(colostrum) that is produced for the first few days
after birth is particularly rich in antibodies.
 Artificial immunity: active and passive
An alternative to natural
immunity
developing is to give vaccinations
(artificial immunity)
Antigen is injected into the body.
This may be in the form of an
inactivated bacterial toxin or
attenuated (not harmful) virus
which would promote ACTIVE
immunity;
or the injection of antibodies or
antitoxins which would promote
PASSIVE immunity
(eg Clostridium tetani)
 Passive immunity
Passive immunity doesn’t last as long as active
immunity (only weeks or months):
No lymphocytes are stimulated to clone
themselves
No memory cells have been made
This type of immunity can only last as long as the
antibodies/toxins last in the blood
 Antibodies
•Antigen binds with
variable region (specific)
•Have disulphide bonds
between different chains
of the antibody
•Also known as
“immunoglobulins”
shortened to Ig such as
IgA or IgE
•Different immunoglobulins
respond to antigens in
different ways…
 Antibodies
 Neutralisation: bind
with bacterial toxins

 Agglutination: make
pathogen clump
together

 Phagocytosis: often
follows agglutination
How lymphocytes react to pathogens?