Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Word Formation in Pakistani English
Word Formation in Pakistani English
ROBERT J. BAUMGARDNER
Texas A&M University-Commerce
1. Introduction
2) No claim is made that the examples are exclusive to Pakistan; in fact, some go back to
British India and are found in word-lists of Indian English as well. For example some of the
lexemes in this paper also appear in Nihalani, Tongue and Hosali (1979), e.g. externment,
free ship, rewardee, and upgradation; the scope of that seminal work was, however, much wider
than word-formation.
3) Data in this paper is taken from the following daily, weekly, and monthly publications:
BT=(Balochistan Times, Quetta); D=(Dawn, Karachi [Dak Edition]); D/L=(Dawn, Lahore);
DE=(The Democrat, Islamabad [defunct]); DN=(Daily News, Karachi); FP=(The Frontier Post,
Peshawar); FP/L=(The Frontier Post, Lahore); FR=(Friday Review, Lahore [The Nation]);
H=(Herald, Karachi); HO=(Horizons, Lahore [The Frontier Post]; KM= (Khyber Mail,
Peshawar [defunct]); M=(The Muslim, Islamabad); MA=(Midasia, Islamabad [defunct]);
MAG=(Mag, Karachi); MC=(Men's Club, Karachi); MN=(Morning News, Karachi [defunct]);
N=(The Nation, Lahore); N/I=(The Nation, Islamabad); NL=(Newsline, Karachi); NT=(Nation
Today, Karachi); NS/K=(The News, Karachi); NS/L=(The News, Lahore); FO=(Pakistan
Observer, Islamabad); PT=(The Pakistan Times, Lahore); S=(The Star, Karachi); T=(The
Tribune, Karachi [defunct]); FT=(The Friday Times, Lahore); TR=(Tuesday Review, Lahore
[Dawn]); V=(Viewpoint, Lahore [defunct]); WE=(Weekend Magazine, Lahore [The News]);
WP=(WeekendPost, Lahore [The Frontier Post]); Y=(You, Lahore [The News]). Citations dated
1986, 1987, and through August 1988 are from newspapers purchased in Quetta; citations after
August 1988 are from newspapers purchased in Lahore. Citations of words in Appendixes 1-2
sometimes differ from in-text citations.
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 207
2. Analysis
2.1. Compounding
terror during the races make the camels run faster: "19,000 camel kids
smuggled to Arab Emirates" (PO 8 Jul 92:1/1); chocolate hero, a boyishly
attractive film hero; heavy amount, a large amount of money: "After deliber-
ations in the Cabinet meeting, he formulated a policy to return first amounts
of small depositors and then holders of heavy amounts gradually" (N 9 Sep
91:14/2); loot sale, large sale of surplus goods; Muslim shower, a hose and
nozzle which provides water in toilets in Muslim countries; shpotingball, a
game in which balls are fired from a gun at a figure target; side-hero/
heroine, a supporting actor/actress; soft-corner ('soft spot), a caique from
Urdu narm goshaa: "Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif has shown a soft corner
for one of his ministers who resigned early this week from the Ministry of
Youth Affairs" (FP/L 10 Aug 91:1/2), and wheelcup, a hub-cap: "The
opposition is so suspicious towards us that they blame the government even
if they lose the wheelcups of their cars" (PT 19 Aug 91:11/4).
Two lexemes from Appendix 1 — childlifter and rickshaw-wallah —
are representative of two very productive compounding patterns in PakE. A
"lifter" is a thief: "A child lifter, Abdul Karim, made an attempt to kidnap
two minor children at Kambar Mohalla, Tando Bago" (D 28 Feb 88:5/3).
Other "lifters" include: autorickshaw lifters (FP 4 Jan 86:2/3), bicycle lifters
(N 12 Jul 88:3/7), baby lifters (PT 23 Dec 90:4/8), book lifters (N 13 Mar
92:3/3), camel lifters (FP/L 20 Sep 89:3/7), car lifters (D/L 9 Aug 90:1/4),
goat lifters (D/L 9 Aug 90:1/4), luggage lifters (D/L 13 Nov 89:4/8),
motorcycle lifters (D/L 24 Dec 90:3/8), shoe lifters (FP/L 1 Aug 92:5/4), taxi
lifters (S 20 Feb 88:2/3), vehicle lifters (D 9 Feb 88:8/7), wagon-lifters (N 21
Feb 88:3/3) and wire lifters (NS/L 13 Sep 91:3/1). It is possible that these
formations are modeled after cattle-lifter (N 23 Jan 89:3/1), which is cited
(1860) in the Oxford English Dictionary (Simpson and Weiner, eds. 1989,2:
994). The only other "lifter" compounds in BrE and AmE are bottle-cap
lifter and shop-lifter (Lehnert 1971), both semantically different from the
cattle-lifter type in which the first noun in the compound is the item being
stolen or lifted.
The OED (19:852) cites wallah (also spelled walla, wala, and walah
and also used in the feminine form wall) as Anglo-Indian and deriving from
the Hindi adjective suffix -wala meaning 'pertaining to or connected with'.
In its substantive usage, wallah is attached to nouns and indicates 'one who
does sth.'; hence, a rickshaw-wallah is one who drives a rickshaw and a
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 209
There is also the pen-down strike and the tool-down strike, where workers go
to work but do not work, and the wheel-jam strike in which transport comes
to a complete halt: "Earlier, a five-hour wheel-jam strike on Thursday night
disturbed the whole train schedule" (FP/L 18 May 1992: 3/2). Multiple-word
compounds are also frequently formed using the Latin preposition cum
('with') — the type is widespread in International English, but seems to be
particularly frequent in South Asian English both in Pakistan and in India:
"Dacoits-cum-rapists still at large" (FP/L 27 Mar 92:3/1); driver-cum-
salesman (D 27 Jun 88:4/3); hired assassin-cum-dacoit (MN 28 Jan 87:3/1);
kidnapping-cum-robbery (M 18 Apr 90:1/6); palmist-cum-quack (N 20 Mar
89:4/3); and "Gul Muhammad starts work at 5 in the morning, at a small
workshop-cum-factory where they make marble tiles or chips or something.
He works as their odd-job man-cum-assistant-cum-peon-cum-chowkidar
[watchman]" (N 27 Oct 90:5/2).
Typical PakE compound verbs include:4 to airdash 'to depart quickly
by air', to head-carry 'to carry on the head' and to love-marry: "A youth,
who was taunted repeatedly by his kins for having love-married his girl-
friend, shot and injured his aunt, uncle and two cousins at his house in Misri
Shah here on Friday" (D/L 30 Mar 91:2,4/4). Compound adjectives include:
country-made 'locally made', riba [interest] free, over-clever 'smart-alecky':
"When challenged by the young polling agent, the SHO [Station House
Officer] told her not to be over-clever and threatened to turn her out of the
station" (FP/L 26 Oct 90:3/4), and soft-cornered: "There are also reports that
some 'soft-cornered' Senators may also be inducted in the cabinet" (PO 26
Jun 90:12/2).5
4) For comparison, it may be noteworthy that in BrE the N+V type exists only as back-
formations (typewrite < typewriter).
5) There is a group of common hybridized PakE noun compounds (not included in Appendix
1) whose etymology is not always entirely clear. These include kochwan, kundiman, number-
dar~lumbardar, and malgodown. A kochwan in PakE is the driver of a tonga, a horse-drawn
buggy: "It was, however, passers-by, cyclists, motorcyclists, scooterists, rickshaw walas, tonga
kochwans and wagon drivers who mainly responded to Edhi's clarion call" (N 27 Sep 91:5/8).
Qureshi (1989) labels kochwan (and alternate form kochban) as English and translates it as
'coach-driver'; Singh (1895/1983) translates the word as 'coachman' and calls it a corruption
of the English word. A kundiman in PakE is a person who cleans gutters; they are also known
as gutterwallas (N Eid Special 5 Apr 92:3/8): "Meanwhile, sewer cleaning work was carried
212 ROBERT J. BAUMGARDNER
2.2. Affixation
2.2.1 Suffixation
Suffixation is a very productive category of word-formation in PakE.
Appendix 2 contains a select list of common PakE words formed through
suffixation. The list identifies words formed with English as the base word
as well as words with Urdu (or in a few cases a regional language) as the
base to which an English suffix is added.
English-based formations are in most instances unremarkable, in the
sense that they follow established rules of word-formation and could hence
be found in any variety of English. Some of the words, in fact, are cited by
the OED as rare or obsolete or forms used in British regional varieties of
English, e.g. evictee, collegianer ("a collegianer, was standing..." FP/L 19
Mar 92:16/6), oftenly, weighment, cowardness, and lecturership. It is
difficult to determine if words such as these are cases of colonial lag or new
formations, since historical information on PakE is lacking. The majority of
out through machines and kundimen thereby easing the problem of overflowing gutters in these
localities ..." (D 17 Jan 88:2/8). Kundiman is a combination of the Urdu word for hook
[kaanTaa], presumably after the hook on the end of the sticks with which sewermen clean, plus
the English morpheme -man. The OED defines the Anglo-Indian word lambardar as the
registered headman of an Indian village, formed from the English word number plus the
Urdu/Persian suffix -dar meaning 'possessor of. Whitworth (1885/1981) terms lumberdar a
corrupt form of numberdar. In Pakistan, both forms of the word are still in use and refer to
either a low-level government official or a prisoner in the so-called lumbedari system: "One
cannot expect a banker in the private sector to allocate loans on the recommendation of a
lumberdar, a low level government official" (N 5 Apr 92:6/1) and "Juvenile prisoners have
provided harrowing details of crimes committed either by or at the behest of lumberdars, the
so-called 'responsible' people appointed from among inmates to share the burden of administra-
tion" (N 27 Mar 91:6/1). Like many Urdu borrowings in PakE, numberdar can be pluralized
either with an English or an Urdu (Persian) -an plural: "Political gatherings like the convoca-
tion of numberdaran was held a couple of months back which ushered in thousands of
numberdars and their supporters" (NS/L 5 Apr 91:7/7) — see Baumgardner, Kennedy and
Shamim (1993) for a detailed discussion of the grammatical aspects of Urdu borrowings in
PakE. Finally, the PakE word malgodown means a warehouse or store for goods: "They were
standing on the bye-pass road near Railway malgodown when Muhammad Zahid reappeared on
a motorcycle along with two others" (PT 29 Jul 90:2/6). The word is composed of the Urdu
word mal 'goods' plus the word godown, which the OED and Yule and Burnell (1886/1985)
cite as probably coming from Malay gadang via Telugu and/or Tamil; earlier gadangs were
often subterranean, hence the folk etymology godown.
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 213
6) Bauer (1983:244) notes that absentee may have been derived from an adjective. I do not
have ad hoc used as a verb in my data base, but Simpson and Weiner (eds. 1989,1:153) cite it
as a nonce word in BrE. The adjective ad hoc is, in fact, quite prolific in PakE. There are ad
hoc teachers, ad hoc lecturers, ad hoc doctors, ad hoc lady medical officers, all the result of,
according to not a few Pakistanis, the ad hocracy (N 20 Sep 89:3/3) and the ad hocism (FP/L
24 Dec 90:2/3) of their government. The OED's (1989,1:153) first citation for ad hocism (1968)
is from a South Asian source.
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 215
7) See also the section on "Conversion" for other forms with extern.
218 ROBERT J. BAUMGARDNER
dakoocracy (dakoo, Sindhi 'bandit'): "True Muslim society cannot come into
being without putting an end to feudalism, nor does the country need the
'dakoocracy' of a few over the masses" (NS/L 8 Aug 91:12/6). A related
example is the lexeme pointation (formed after the Urdu feminine noun
nishaan dehii 'pointing out, identification'). It is used to indicate that
someone furnishes the information which leads to the arrest of a suspected
person: "During investigation the accused disclosed that he along with his
other accomplices had committed many thefts in various parts of the city. On
his pointation police conducted raid and arrested Nadeem Khalid while their third
accomplice Mohammad Nawaz, a driver, managed to escape" (N 9 Jan 88:3/6).8
Finally, a substantial number of formations based on the word mullah,
or Islamic priest, all indicate the political influence of the mullah in Pakistan:
mullahdom, Mullahgate (after the Watergate scandal), mullahism, and mul-
lacracry: "If Pakistan had an irreverent tabloid press, the scandal now
gripping Islamabad would have headline writers hopping with delight.
'Mullahgate', they could trumpet" (NS/L 13 Nov 91:12/2). The inclusion of
Islamic laws (the Sharia) in the civil code is another issue in the Pakistani
political context; the editorial of Dawn (Lahore) of 4 August 1990 thus
opined: "The enactment of an all-embracing Shariat Bill — 'Shariatisation'
as it is sometimes called — [is not] a simple matter". Shariatisation would,
according to many Pakistanis, lead to chaddarism, or the state in which
women must wear a chaddar 'cover'. Two related -ocracy terms are Allah-
cracy and shooracracy, the latter coined by the late Pakistani President Zia-
ul-Haq "to characterize his regime and give it a democratic veneer" (Lemay,
Lerner and Taylor 1988:81). Urdu shoora (from Arabic) means 'advice,
consent or council': "Foiling General Zia's attempt at imposing shooracracy
in the country is a significant achievement of MRD [Movement for the
Restoration of Democracy]" (N 9 Jan 88:l/5). 9
2.2.2. Prefixation
Prefixes in PakE are used most productively with Urdu bases. Again, as in
the cases of Urdu bases plus English suffixes, many of these word-forma-
tions have also been borrowed into Pakistani Urdu. Productive prefixes
8) See Kennedy (1993) for a full discussion of the PakE "law and order" lexis.
9) See Baumgardner (1996) for a further discussion of innovation in PakE political lexis.
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 219
2.3. Conversion
When Benazir Bhutto married in 1987, the popular magazine Mag published
an article entitled "Benazir Better Halved" (6 Aug 87:16/1). Other attested
PakE noun-to-verb conversions include: to deadline (FP/L 5 Aug 91:4/1), to
firecracker (WP 4 Jan 91:8/4), to foulmouth (N 1 Dec 91:10/1), to hostage
(N 21 May 91:2/5), to pilferage (NS/L 30 Aug 91:20/6), to pot-shot (WE 28
Jun 91:3/2), to red-carpet (N 21 Feb 92:4/4), and to slogan (N 31 May
89:1/1).
A number of conversions are found in PakE which the OED cites as
archaic, rare, or obsolete usages, e.g. the lexeme aghast as a verb, labeled
"obsolete" (1596 citation). "What actually aghasted and infuriated me was
the fact that the food which could not occupy the stomach was treated in the
most abominable fashion" (MAG 5 Dec 91:46/5). Similarly, the OED cites
to coy as archaic (1828 citation): "There is a powerful lobby in Pakistan
today that says we should detonate a nuclear device and we should not coy
about it" (N 28 Apr 91:1/5), and to scarecrow meaning 'to frighten' (1593
citation) as obsolete: "Here're some more of awe inspiring, hair raising,
blood chilling and flesh creeping examples to scarecrow you away" (M
Magazine 28 Jun 91:7/4). Similar usages include: to creed (FP/L 22 Feb
92:16/2) [OED, 1652, obsolete]; to disrepute (NS/L 22 Mar 92:2/2) [OED,
1697, obsolete]; to influx (N 19 Jan 88) [OED, 1684/1710, obsolete/rare]; to
mischief (N 18 Jan 89:2/2) [OED, 1836, archaic]; to public (N 2 Dec 87:8/2)
[OED, 1570, rare/obsolete]; to sacrilege (FP/L 15 Feb 92:4/2) [OED, 1866,
rare]; to sympathy (PT 4 May 91:1/1) [OED, 1634, obsolete], to threat (NS/L
21 Jul 91:2/5) [OED, 1642, obsolete]; and to true (FP/L 17 Aug 91:16/4)
[OED, 1888, rare/obsolete]. It is unclear, as previously stated regarding PakE
suffixed forms, whether these are examples in PakE of neologistic conver-
sions or colonial lag.
PakE also contains a substantial number of Urdu or bilingual noun-to-
verb conversions, i.e. Urdu nouns which are shifted to verbs in PakE. The
most well-known example of this process is the PakE verb to gherao, which
means 'to surround in protest': "Later several hundred persons gheraoed
Market Police Station, demanding immediate arrest of the robbers" (D 1 Feb
88:3/4). Gherao comes from the Urdu noun and verb with the same meaning
and is cited in both the OED as well as the Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Current English (Allen, ed. 1990). Another common bilingual conversion is
to challan (see also challanable discussed above). A challan (cited also in
W O R D - F O R M A T I O N IN PAKISTANI E N G L I S H 223
the OED) is a citation: "The traffic police in its campaign challaned 237
drivers for violation of traffic rules and recovered more than Rs 18,000 as
fine" (NS/L 15 May 91:4/5). However, any Urdu noun can undergo the
process. A 1992 headline in Dawn (Lahore) read: "Two-year remission for
convicts who 'hifz' [memorize] Quran"; the article went on to explain: "The
Punjab Government has decided to grant two years special remission to each
prisoner learning the Holy Quran by heart during their confinement in jail
throughout the province" (D/L 28 Mar 92:2,4/5).10
The adjective-to-verb conversion to tantamount occurs frequently in
PakE: "Ms Bhutto too cannot accept such an option as that tantamounts to
an open admission of guilt and fear of punishment which will destroy her
party forever" (M 17 Aug 90:1/3) and "The critical remarks...were denied as
tantamounting to undermine the personality of the said Deputy Mayor" (N 6
Mar 90:2/1). The OED cites tantamount first as a verb (1628), then as a
noun (1637) and subsequently as a predicate adjective (1652), its current use.
Other examples of PakE adjective-to-verb conversion include fast asleep: "A
pir [spiritual guide] stabbed to death one Sajjad Ahmed and his mother in
Mohallah Abbaspura at the time when the deceased were fast asieeping" (NS/L
27 Feb 92:8/1) and roughshod: "Speculation about rough-shoding over the
Army's dissent is a canard spread by interested quarters" (N 12 Mar 92:6/5).
10) A related process is one in which the suffix -fy can be added to the imperative form of
an Urdu verb to produce a hybrid verb, hence jhoomofy is formed from jhoomo, the imperative
of jhoomna 'be enraptured, sway to and fro', plus the suffix -fy: "They all jhoomofy and roll
on the scented gao-takias [round, elongated cushions] in ecstasy" (FP/L 10 Jun 92:7/4).
Compound Urdu verbs can also undergo this process; seedha karnaa is Urdu for 'to correct, set
right, chastise'. The imperative form seedha karo serves as the base for this -fy formation:
"They really need to be seedha karofied too" (FT 4 Apr 91:24/5). To ratafy is formed from the
imperative form {rata) of the Urdu verb ratnaa meaning 'to cram (AmE) or mug up (BrE) for
an examination' plus the suffix -fy: "The paper was very simple. Students used to 'ratafying'
could not do it because one had to use one's brain" (N 13 Feb 90:7/6). Rattalization (rata + l
+ -ization) is the noun form of ratafy: "There is a common saying that 'rattalisation is the best
preparation for the matriculation examination'. If the students start appearing in separate exams
then they are going to forget the learning very soon as the 'ratta' does not last long" (HO 15
Oct 91:13/1). Finally, other suffixes are sometimes added to Urdu nouns in order to create new
formations. The Urdu word for tyrant is hilakoo; during the Persian Gulf War the following
sentence appeared in MAG in reference to Saddam Hussain: "Don't Let Him halaku-ise
Baghdad" (14 Feb 91:10/1). For a full treatment of bilingual conversion and related forms in
PakE, see Baumgardner (1992).
224 ROBERT J. BAUMGARDNER
Urdu adjectives can also be shifted. The adjective sabakdosh in Urdu means
'unburdened, absolved of responsibility', hence the adjective-to-verb form to
sabakdosh: "He has announced that he is more than eager to 'sabakdosh'
himself from the 'farz' [responsibility] of having her well-settled in matrimo-
ny" (Y 11 Feb 92:9/2). A PakE adverb-to-verb shift is up-hill: "He main-
tained that the image of the country had been up-hilled at international level
as a result of recent elections, and Pakistan was being ranked among cultured
countries" (N 20 Jan 89:12/2).
2.4. Back-formation
2.5. Clipping
2.6. Abbreviations/acronyms
Lower Jhelum Canal" [D/L 2 Jun 90:4/7]); f/o < "father of (N 3 Nov
90:10/8); FIR < "First Information Report" (FP/L 9 May 91:1/2); m/o <
"mother o f (N 2 Apr 92:3/5); NOC < "No Objection Certificate" (N 10 May
90:6/1); PBUH < "Peace Be Upon Him" (N 28 Sep 91:12/5); PO < "Pro-
claimed Offender" (NS/L 31 Mar 92:9/4) — a calque from Urdu ishtahari
mujrim; r/o < "resident o f (N 2 Apr 92:2/1); s/o < "son o f (N 24 Apr
91:4/6); SHO < "Station House Officer" (DE 26 May 90:8/3); TA/DA <
"Travel Allowance/Daily Allowance" (N 20 May 91:6/3); SM (and ASM) <
"(Assistant) Station Master" (N 6 Jan 90:1/5); and w/o < "wife o f (D/L 2
Jun 90:4/7). Urdu abbreviations used in PakE include the Arabic expressions
RA < Raziullah Anha 'God is pleased with him' (FP/L 23 Jul 91:3/2) and
SAW(S) < Salalaho alehe wasalam 'Peace be upon him' (N 25 May 90:4/6).
Established PakE acronyms include WAPDA < "Water and Power Develop-
ment Authority" (FP/L 23 Jul 91:3/2) and WASA < "Water and Sanitation
Agency" (FP/L 23 Jul 91:3/2).
2.7. Blends
3. Discussion
We have seen from analysis of the above data that PakE conforms for the
most part to established morphological rules in English, i.e. that it follows
what Katamba (1993:72) has termed rule-governed (vs. rule-bending)
creativity. Except for those instances where an Urdu element is involved in
the word-formation process, the vast majority of the lexemes discussed
above could be found in any variety of English. We have, however, seen
some cases of "rule-bending": (i) the creation of certain words was not
blocked (Aronoff 1976:43) by the presence of an already existing word, e.g.
abscondee for "absconder", collegianer for "collegian", defectee for "defec-
tor" and neighbourer for "neighbour"; (ii) instances of "rank reduction"
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 229
(Kachru 1983:136), where liquor bottle and matchbox are created from
"bottle of liquor" and "box of matches" in spite of the potential resulting
semantic confusion; and (iii) the use of an adjective as an -ee derivational
base, as in ad-hocee. The data also contains lexemes, which, while they
"accord with the norm" of English word-formation, violate some other
related constraint, for example, (i) the use of a Germanic rather than a
Latinate base in -ism derivations, e.g. brotherism, buddyism, jobism and
unclism, (ii) the occurrence of pleonastic compounds such as bed sheets and
challan ticket and (iii) the extensive use of cum in contexts where "it is the
combination of the particular two elements rather than the pattern that makes
the word unusual" (Gorlach 1989:300). Instances of such "violations" can
also be found in native varieties of English, but not to such a degree. Hence,
it would be accurate to say that Katamba's (1993: 72) rule-bending creativity
applies in only a minority of cases in the PakE data; the vast majority of
words discussed above conform to established patterns of English word-
formation.
This is precisely the conclusion drawn in two comparative studies of
word-formation processes in English as a Native Language (ENL), English
as a Second Language (ESL), and English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
varieties. Gorlach (1989) found few differences between the two former
types of Englishes; his later study on emigrant Englishes (Gorlach 1996)
reached a similar conclusion. The author does note, however, that in ESL
varieties [like PakE] there "are frequently more 'exotic' [formations] as a
consequence of a much looser understanding of the underlying word-forma-
tion rules" (Gorlach 1996:130). That this is the case is, however, to be
expected in such a language contact setting. English in Pakistan functions in
a multilingual context of use; therefore, any discussion of structural norms in
PakE must also include a consideration of linguistic rules in Urdu and the
other languages of multilingual PakE speakers of English. Take as an
example the propensity in PakE to convert freely adjectives to nouns {the
poors) and nouns to verbs (to firecracker) as discussed in the data above. In
Urdu, nouns can be shifted to a verb by the simple addition of a restricted
set of verbs to the noun; adjective-to-noun conversions are also common in
Urdu, and there are no structural restrictions on their use as there are in
English (Bauer 1983:230). This structural ease is surely a part of the Urdu-
English speaker's bilingual competence. Cook (1992), for example, believes
230 ROBERT J. BAUMGARDNER
that bilingualism (or multilingualism) is not simply the sum total of two (or
more) linguistic systems. None of the languages of the bi-/multilingual will
be exactly the same as that of monolingual speakers of those languages —
the languages co-exist in a symbiosis where linguistic boundaries can be
extended. What we have here then is a set of structural norms which are the
result of a language contact situation, and studies from Weinreich (1953) to
Gumperz and Wilson (1971) to Kachru (1983) to Milroy and Milroy (1985)
have aptly demonstrated what happens to linguistic systems at all levels in
such contexts. Yet another factor in this symbiotic linguistic relationship
between the two languages is the fact that Urdu is replete with English
borrowings. The majority of the compounds found in the English portion of
Appendix 1, for example, are also used in Urdu, which certainly reinforces
their use in English. It is not inconceivable that some of these as well as
some of the hybrid compounds in fact originated in Urdu.
The acceptability of these PakE lexemes — and the rise of an endo-
normative standard PakE — will of course ultimately depend upon the
acceptance of educated users of the variety itself. As Greenbaum (1996: 243)
has pointed out:
That English in South Asia has acquired its own characteristics cannot be
disputed. ... What is in dispute is the acceptance of the national characteristics
and their institutionalization. By acceptance I do not mean approval by native
speakers of English. Speakers of English in South Asian countries have to
become sufficiently self-confident and assertive about their own national
varieties. They do not require — and they will not receive — legitimization
by outside bodies.
And regarding the future of emigrant languages in general, Görlach (1996: 137)
further observes:
The stigma of local forms of English will disappear, with New Zealand, South
Africa, and the Caribbean following the lead of the U.S., Canada and Austra-
lia where national standards of English are already well-established. This
process will take much more time for, say, India or Nigeria, but there will be
no choice for these countries but to accept national norms at least for internal
communication.
In an earlier study (Baumgardner 1995), I reported on the results of three
questionnaires designed to measure the acceptability of various aspects of
PakE to Pakistani journalists, teachers and students. The results of that study
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 231
showed that while on the one hand speakers of PakE were still to some
extent under the influence of the exonormative "colonial cringe" (Gorlach
1996: 124), a Pakistani norm is also beginning to emerge. One of the three
questionnaires discussed in that article was administered to 150 teachers of
English (80 females and 70 males) in teacher training sessions conducted in
the cities of Islamabad, Karachi and Lahore during the three-year period of
August 1989 to August 1992. That questionnaire contained a total of ninety-
four items, forty-eight of which were related to PakE word-formation. Tables
1 and 2 present the results for individual lexical items in that questionnaire
(only overall category percentages were discussed in the 1995 study).11
Table 1 shows the acceptability of nine Urdu-based formations (compound-
ing, suffixation, conversion, and clipping), and Table 2 presents forty
11) Data in Tables 1 and 2 has been somewhat re-categorized from that in the 1995
publication in order to fit the word-formation framework of the present paper. The exact
wording of the questions which the subjects were asked to respond to was as follows: "In the
sentences below, please indicate by encircling YES or NO whether you consider the underlined
item part of Pakistani English".
232 ROBERT J. BAUMGARDNER
4. Conclusion
(1988) include shooracracy in their list of borrowings and coinages. With the
advent of the Internet, PakE and New Englishes in general of course have
the potential of reaching a much wider audience; most major Pakistani
English-language newspapers are now accessible on the World Wide Web
and hence available to millions of readers outside Pakistan. During a quick
perusal of the electronic edition of a recent edition (27 September 1997) of
Dawn (http://DAWN.COM), I found the following PakE usages: law and
order situation, out-door patient [out patient], proclaimed offender and Urdu
atta [wheat] and the hybrid compound baroni [arid] area — all lexemes
mentioned in this paper. In the Metro (Karachi) section in an article entitled
"Five arrested, arms recovered" the following sentence occurred: "On his
pointation, the RIC officials raided a graveyard, located near City Park in
the limits of Gulzar-e-Hijri police, and recovered two Kalashnikovs buried
there". It of course remains to be seen what effect the Internet will have on
the dissemination of the lexis of transplanted varieties of English like PakE
and what effect these varieties will in turn have on English in general. One
thing, however, is certain: the global English linguistic mosaic will not
remain the same.
References
Appendix 1: Compounds
I. Nouns
N+N (English+English):
air dash (M 10 Jun 90:1/2); bed tea (FP/L 27 Apr 92:8/6); bed sheet (FP/L 8 Jun 92:2/3);
big city allowance (D/L 22 Jan 89:8/8); blood camp (FP/L 22 Jun 90:4/1); bread earner (FT
29 Jun 89:3/4); camel kid (PO 8 Jul 92:1/1); cash memo (FP/L 30 Apr 92:9/2); cent per cent
(FP/L 31 Aug 91:6/4); childlifter (D 28 Feb 88:5/3); chocolate hero (FP/L 28 May 92:7/4);
cinema house (D 9 Aug 87:1/7); coat-trousers (FP 4 Nov 86:2/2); coolie charges (PT 10 Jul
88:4/7); country liquor (D/L 6 Mar 92:2/4); dandy boy (FP/L 9 Jan 90:2/7); date sheet (NS/L
16 Sep 91:20/1); dearness allowance (PT 28 Jun 88:1/8); death anniversary (NS/L 26 Aug
91:3/4); decoration piece (PT 5 Sep 89:7/1); desert cooler (FP/L 24 May 90:12/2); eartops (D
19 Jan 88:3/7); eve-teasing (M Mag 25 Aug 89:6/5); filth depot (N 19 Nov 91:4/7); guess
paper (N 29 Jun 90:8/1); history sheet (PT 22 Jan 90:3/7); house job (PT 17 Jun 90:7/3); ice
balls (N 11 Aug 89:3/8); ice candy (D 3 Aug 88:10/1); Kalashnikov culture (N 10 Jul 90:2/4);
knicker-shirt (PT 16 Apr 91:7/1); lady newscaster (MAG 28 Nov 91:5/3); lady wife (N 27 Oct
90:4/2); loot sale (N 8 Jul 91:7/2); love marriage (N 18 Nov 90:3/1); marks sheet (M 31 Mar
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI E N G L I S H 239
91:10/4); marriage party (M 23 Dec 90:4/6); medical hall (N 25 Feb 92:14/1); night suit (D/L
22 Sep 89:9/7); pant-shirt (D 18 Feb 88:8/5); paper-setter (N 30 Apr 92:4/4); playback singer
(N 9 May 91:8/6); quarter plate (D/L 6 Feb 92:8/6); question paper (N 31 Mar 89:2/4); result
card (FP/L 14 May 91:3/2); roadside hotel (D/L 2 Feb 89:1/8); sanitary shop (D 31 Oct
86:19/8); ,sex sandwich (FT 26 Mar 92:18/1); shoulder promotion (FP/L 22 Feb 92:1/8);
side-hero/heroine (MAG 1 Aug 91:14/1); sofa set (PT 1 Jun 90:2/4); speed breaker (FP/L 1
Dec 91:8/3); suit-piece (FP/L 14 Jul 90:5/5); sweepers' colony (NS/L 31 Mar 92:8/1); tea stall
(FP/L 6 Apr 91:3/7); tiffin carrier (DE 17 Jun 90:8/5); token tax (N 29 Nov 89:3/3); tractor-
trolley (FP/L 18 Nov 91:2/6); tubelight (FP/L 2 Jul 92:2/5); 7V lounge (H Nov 91:56/2);
wheelcup (PT 19 Aug 91:11/4); women seats (N 11 Mar 92:3/6).
N+N (English+Urdu):
bus adda (adda 'stand/station'; DE 19 May 90:2/1); fruit chaat (chaat 'spicy fruit and
vegetable salad'; N 14 Nov 90:2/6); fruit mandi (mandi 'market'; N 14 Nov 90:2/6); lorry adda
(adda 'stand/station'; NS/L 29 Mar 91:2/2); milk sabeel (sabeel 'road/path'; PT 5 Aug 90:2/6);
police chowki (chowki 'post'; FT 12 Jul 90:2/3); police muqabla (muqabla 'encounter'; DE 7
Jul 90:1/1); police thana (thana 'station'; DE 9 Aug 90:4/4); rickshaw-wallah {wallah 'one
who'; N 21 Jun 90:4/5).
N+N (Urdu+English):
adda tax (adda 'stand/station'; N 29 Nov 90:12/2); Auqaf Department (auqaf 'trust/
endowment'; FP/L 6 Aug 91:3/6); baba suit (baba 'baby'; S Supplement 11 Apr 91:1/4);
begaar camp (begaar 'forced labor'; FP/L 5 Aug 89:2/1); bara market (Bara 'city in NWFP';
N 27 Sep 91:4/4); booti mafia (booti 'medicinal herb'; N 1 Sep 91:8/1); chati race (chati 'large
clay vessel'; N 24 Dec 90:7/7); chhura group (chhura 'dagger'; FP/L 5 Jul 91:1/1); chithur
parade (chithur 'old footwear'; N 28 Jul 91:6/2); dak edition (dak 'post/mail'; PT 13 Jun
91:1/4); goonda elements (goonda 'thug'; PT 23 Dec 90:3/2); goonda tax (goonda 'thug'; D/L
17 Mar 92:2/3:2); gowala colony (gowala 'cattle'; PT 10 Aug 90:7/5); hathora group (hathora
'hammer'; N 6 Jul 91:4/1); Hadood Ordinance (hadood 'punishment'; M 16 Apr 91:9/7); Iftar
party (iftar 'Ramazan fast breaking meal'; M 14 Mar 91:6/1); Illaqa magistrate (illaqa
'district'; FP/L 12 Sep 91:6/8)', jagga tax (Jagga 'a Punjabi dacoit'; FP/L 8 Jul 91:8/1); jhuggi
dwellers (jhuggi 'straw/cardboard hut'; M 5 Mar 92:6/2); Jehez fund (jehez 'dowry'; PT 16 Aug
90:2/4); Jinnah cap (Mohammad Ali Jinnah; M 12 Sep 91:6/3); Jummah prayers (jummah
'Friday'; M 13 Aug 89:1/1); kharif crops (kharif autumn crop'; M 5 Jun 91:4/1); kharkar camp
(kharkar 'forced labor'; V 26 Oct 89:3/2); Kissan Board (kissan 'farmer'; PT 26 Jun 90:3/3);
lathi-charge (lathi 'baton'; N 31 March 91:3/5); lassi stall (lassi 'yogurt drink'; FT 16 May
91:19/1); mehndi stall (mehndi 'henna'; NS/L 13 Apr 91:5/2); murgha position (murgha
'chicken'; NL Jul 91:16/2); pan shop/stall (paan 'betelnut'; M 3 Jun 91:10/5); pye dog (<pariah
'outsider'; N 10 Dec 88:4/6); parchi fee (parchi 'slip of paper'; N 15 Sep 91:3/1); qabza group
(qabzah 'possession'; N 16 Apr 92:6/6); rabi season (rabi 'spring harvest'; M 3 Nov 90:6/4);
roti plant (roti 'bread'; FP/L 3 Jul 90:2/7); sehri-awakener (sehri 'Ramazan breakfast'; M 23
Dec 90:4/6); shadi hall (shadi 'marriage'; FP/L 3 Jul 90:2/7); shawwal moon (shawwal '10th
month'; M 16 Apr 91:1/5); tika shop (tika 'roasted meat/chicken'; N 4 Oct 91:3/5); tonga stand
240 ROBERT J. B A U M G A R D N E R
III. Verbs
N+V (English):
to airdash (D 16 Jun 87:1/8); to air-link (FP/L 14 Feb 90:12/3); to head-carry (PT 20 Jun
88:3/3); to love-marry (D/L 30 Mar 91:2,4/4); to shoulder-promote (NS/L 9 Feb 92:1/4).
V+particle (English):
to move-over (FP/L 31 Oct 91:2/5).
Particle+V (English):
to over-bill (M 5 Apr 92:5/6); to over-invoice (NL Jun 92:99/3).
Verb collocations (English):
to discuss threadbare (MN 13 Jan 91:8/7); to have a soft corner (FP/L WP 5 Apr 91:8/3);
to take out a procession (FP/L 14 Jul 91:2/6).
Verb collocations (English + Urdu):
to offer fateha (fateha 'opening chapter of Quran'; N 30 Aug 91:3/4); to commit zina
(zina 'adultery'; N 1 Dec 91:2/5); to perform ghusal (ghusal 'greater ablution'; N 23 Jul
91:3/3); to perform hajj (hajj 'greater pilgrimage'; PT 28 Dec 90:5/5); to perform umra (umra
'lesser pilgrimage'; M 16 Apr 91:10/4); to recite kalam (kalam 'verse'; FP/L 3 Aug 91:6/7).
IV. Adjectives
N (English) + past participle:
country-made (M 27 Nov 91:2/3); England-returned (N 30 Apr 92:6/6); time-barred (M
8 May 91:4/1); work-charged (FP/L 7 Jul 91:2/8).
N (Urdu) + past participle:
Bara-made {Bara 'city in NWFP'; S 11 Nov 86:1/5); burqa-clad {burqa 'cover'; DE 29
Jun 90:8/6); mullah-dominated {mullah 'priest'; FP/L 18 May 91:6/6).
N (Urdu) + adjective:
ribafree {riba 'interest'; NS/L 3 Mar 92:12/5).
past participle + past participle (English):
suited-booted (M 20 Sep 89:3/4).
242 R O B E R T J. B A U M G A R D N E R
particle + N (English):
under-matric (FP/L 21 Nov 91:5/3); undertrial (D 6 Jan 87:1/4).
particle + adjective (English):
over-clever (FT 21 May 92:28/3).
prepositional phrase (English):
out of syllabus (FP/L 19 Sep 89:6/5).
Appendix 2: Suffixation
-fy: Urdu-based: jhoomofy (jhoom, imp. 'sway'; FP/L 10 Jun 92:7/4); seedha karofy
(karnaa, imp. 'do'; FT 4 Apr 91:24/5); ratafy (rata imp. 'mug up, cram'; N 13 Feb
90:7/6).
-gate: Urdu-based: Mullahgate (mullah 'Islamic priest'; NS/L 13 Nov 91:12/2).
-hood: Urdu-based: Muslimhood (Muslim; FT 6 Feb 92:1/3); Pakistanihood (Pakistan; H
Sep 91:150/3); saleh-hood (saleh 'pious person'; N 14 May 91:8/3).
-i/-y: Urdu-based: filumi/filmi (filum < Eng/film'; TH 30 Jul 91:8/1); maliky (malik 'chief,
headman'; FP/L 2 Jan 90:6/2).
-ian: English-based: Aitchisonian (PT 18 Sep 89:11/5); Anthonian (FP/L 4 Mar 92:1/1);
Crescentarian (PT 16 Dec 88:2/6); Haitian (NS/L 17 Jul 91:3/4); Kemcolian (D/L
27 Oct 89:9/3); Pipian (N 21 Mar 91:8/4); PPPian (D/L 29 Sep 89:7/4); Queen
Marian (N 25 Feb 92:2/6); UETian (FP/L 15 Feb 92:7/1); Unikarian (D/L TR 1 Oct
91:11/2).
Urdu-based: Abdalian (Hasan Abdal College; M 16 Jan 89:1/4); Ayubian (Ayub
Khan; N 2 Oct 89:2/2); Benazirian (Benazir Bhutto; WP 11 Oct 91:3/1); Ijian
(Islami Jamhoori Ittehad; D/L 29 Sep 89:7/4); Islamabadian (Islamabad; M 28 Oct
89:3/6); Jhangian (Jhang; FP/L 16 Aug 90:8/1); mullahian (mullah 'Islamic priest';
D/L Mag 13 Sep 91:5/3); Muqomian (Mohajir Quaumi Movement; D 29 Sep
89:7/4); Nishterian (Nishter Medical College; PT 16 Dec 88:3:5); Quranian (Quran
'Koran'; FP/L 10 Mar 92:5/3); Ravian (Ravi River, Govt. College, Lahore; N 2 Feb
89:3/5).
-ise: English-based: fundamentalize (FP/L 3 Apr 92:9/5); jobize (WP 5 Jun 92:2/6);
museumize (D/L 16 Feb 89:8/8); obscurantise (FP/L 3 Apr 92:9/5); patriotise (MA
18 Nov 90:5/2); pedestalise (N/FR 12 Apr 91:19/1); Red Indianise (H Nov 88:60/2);
Sybartise (WP 5 Jun 92:2/3); Third Worldize (FP/L 14 Jul 89:5/8).
Urdu-based: babuize (babu 'clerk' (derog.); PO 26 May 92:9/4); maulvi-ise (maulvi
'clergyman'; NS/L 17 Apr 92:6/4); Musalmanize (Musalman; DE 10 Jul 90:2/7);
Panjabi-ise (Punjabi; D Mag 10 Apr 92:4/6).
-isation: English-based: apostatisation (FP/P 23 Apr 92:10/1); commoditisation (N 9 May
92:6/5); foreignisation (FP/L 1 Aug 92:5/3); forestrisation (PT 22 Jun 91:3/1);
heroinisation (FP/L 4 Jun 91:2/5); kalashnikovisation (DE 24 Jul 89:3/1); marketisa-
tion (N 27 Apr 92:6/3); patriotisation (MA 18 Nov 90:5/1); poly-technicalisation (N
30 Nov 90:7/4); Red-Indianisation (MAG 7 Jun 90:7/1); sermonisation (D 7 Nov
87:1/7); tractorisation (N 17 Jan 89:3/2); vocationalisation (FP/L 28 Dec 90:7/6).
Urdu-based: Pakistanisation (Pakistan; NS/L 15 Sep 91:9/1), rattalisation (rata,
imp.'cram'; HO 15 Oct 91:13/1); Shariatisation (shariat 'Islamic law'; HO 15 Oct
91:13/1).
-ish: English-based: wheatish (D 20 Feb 87:12/1).
Urdu-based: mullahish (An American Brat, Bapsi Sidhwa); Punjabi-ish (Punjabi; M
29 Oct 90:4/6).
-ism: English-based: barrenism (MN 20 Mar 88:10/3); blackmailism (FP/L 11 Apr 92:8/7);
brotherism (PT 25 May 90:11/6); buddyism (FP/L 6 May 91:6/6); clientelism (FP/L
WP 30 Aug 91:3/3); credoism (M Mag 10 May 91:1/3); declinism (MA 1 Apr
244 R O B E R T J. B A U M G A R D N E R
91:12/1); discreetism (MAG 12 Oct 89:10/3); farcism (FP/L 4 Mar 92:9/4); jobism
(WP 5 Jun 92:2/6); nincompopism (MAG 14 Feb 91:14/5); percentism (H Oct
91:13/1); repressionism (PT 20 Feb 89:1/5); scapegoatism (V 27 Dec 90:6/1); too
lateism (N 8 May 92:5/3); unclism (PT Mag 30 Dec 88:3/3); VIPism (M 15 Sep
89:4/3); white elephantism (MA 3 May 90:13/4).
Urdu-based: Bhuttoism (Benazir/Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; PT 29 Oct 90:1/1); biradirism
(biradari 'clan'; M 8 Nov 86:2/3); chaddarism (chaddar 'female Islamic dress'; FP
1 Apr 92:6/3); Chaudryism (chaudri 'Punjabi title'; FP 8 Jul 89:7/5); goondaism
(goonda 'thug'; N 29 Nov 90:12/2); ilaqaism (ilaqa 'constituency'; FP/L 15 Jun
91:4/7); Khanism (khan 'Pathan title'; FP 8 Jul 89:7/5); Mohajirism (mohajir 'Indian
immigrant'; D/L 15 Jan 89:2/1); mullahism (mullah 'Islamic priest'; D 27 Jun
88:8/6); munafiqism (munafiq 'hypocrisy'; MN 20 Mar 88:10/3); Nawabism (nawab
'Indian nobleman'; FT 8 Mar 90:5/1); Nawaz Sharifism (M. Nawaz Sharif; FP/L WP
19 Jul 91:2/1); Pakistanism (Pakistan; M Mag 23 Aug 91:3/8); Punjabism (Punjab/
Punjabi; M 5 Feb 89:4/6); sahibism (sahib 'title of respect'; D/L Mag 10 Nov
89:2/3); sardarism (sardar 'Balochi title'; FP 8 Jul 89:7/5); wadiraism (wadira
'Sindhi title'; FP 8 Jul 89:7/5); Ziaism (Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq; DE 22 Jul 90:4/1).
-ist: English-based: agitationist (M 6 Sep 89:6/5); coupist (FP/L 5 Dec 91:16/5); graffitist
(D 6 Jan 87:1/5); hooliganist (FP/L 18 May 92:6/6); New World Orderist (FT 6 Feb
92:24/6); sloganist (WP 15 Jun 90:3/4); subversionist (D/L 3 Jul 91:2,4/2).
Urdu-based: Kebabist (kebab; name of restaurant in Karachi); Mohajirist (mohajir
'Indian immigrant'; MA 19 Jun 90:6/1); Ziaist (Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq; MAG 4 Jan
90:4/5).
-istic: English-based: hooliganistic (N 17 Dec 90:3/7).
Urdu-based: Bhuttoistic (Benazir/Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; N 16 Oct 89:6/3).
-iter English-based: Formanite (D/L 24 Nov 90:3/7); hostelite (H Nov 91:56/1); Kayciite
(D/L 25 Aug 89:5/1).
Urdu-based: Bhuttoite (Benazir/Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; PO 26 Jun 90:12/1); IJlite
(Islami Jamhoori Ittehad Party; FT 13 Jul 89:6/1); Karachiite (Karachi; D/L 15 Sep
89:6/4); Lahorite (Lahore; NS/L 7 Feb 92:3/2); Peshawarite (FP 9 Jul 89:3/5);
Rawalpindite (PO 3 Mar 90:4/4).
-less: English-based: meatless (D/L 30 Jun 91:2,2/4).
Urdu-based: hijabless (hijab 'cover'; D/L 20 Apr 89:10/4); purdahless (purdah
'cover'; D/L 28 February 1990:2/2).
-like: English-based: Pajero-like (M Mag 1 May 92:6/1).
Urdu-based: goonda-like (goonda 'thug'; FP/L 24 Jul 90:6/7); jehad-like (jehad
'Islamic war'; N 2 Apr 91:8/1); mela-like (mela 'fair'; NS/L 29 Aug 91:3/7); maulvi-
like (maulvi 'Islamic clergyman'; FP/L 12 Jul 90:6/6); Zia-like (Mohammad Zia-ul-
Haq; FP/L 20 Jul 91:3/3).
-ly: English-based: oftenly (PT 3 Oct 92:16/6).
Urdu-based: darvishly (darvish 'dervish'; NS/L 6 Oct 91:6/6) .
-ment: English-based: externment (M 22 Jun 89:1/2); upliftment (MN 20 Aug 87:3/2);
weighment (FP/L 10 Jun 92:4/7).
WORD-FORMATION IN PAKISTANI ENGLISH 245
Appendix 3: Questionnaire
(Only those items pertaining to word-formation are included here. The full questionnaire also
included items on borrowing, archaisms, semantic shift, verb collocations, grammar, and
orthography.)
1. The police lathi-charged the demonstrators. 2. The hydel scheme was too expensive
to complete. 3. The culprits were arrested on the pointation of the accused. 4. We have a drugs
and Kalashnikov Culture. 5. The police arrested a notorious history sheeter. 6. Electricity rates
were recently raised by WAPDA. 7. The Pak army is on alert. 8. The minister airdashed to
Karachi. 9. Sehri-awakeners make their rounds to rouse fasters. 10. His action tantamounted
to treason. 11. The girl lost her eartops in the bazaar. 12. We took a flying coach to Islamabad.
13. Goondaism is on the rise in Lahore. 14. She has a soft corner for her uncle. 15. The SHO
was suspended for questionable behavior. 16. The police officer challaned the cyclist. 17. The
MNA was externed from the province. 18. The clerks had been observing a pen-down strike
for one week. 19. A local eveninger first reported the crime. 20. The police arrested three
youths for eveteasing. 21. The Vice-Chancellor was gheraoed by the students. 22. He sent his
246 ROBERT J. BAUMGARDNER
biodata to the company. 23. The price of cotton bushirts has gone up. 24. The undertrials
were remanded to police custody. 25. Four notorious child-lifters were arrested from Jinnah
Super Market on Thursday. 26. The culprits were chargesheeted by the police. 27. The
rickshaw-wallah asked for twenty rupees. 28. The flood affectees were shifted to safe grounds.
29. The faithfuls entered the mosque for prayer. 30. The lady newscaster read the news in
detail. 31. The organization called for a wheel-jam strike. 32. Hundreds of students protested
against the non-receipt of admit-cards. 33. The sweeperess did not come to work this morning.
34. In Kalash, the squalor borne of poverty is being museumised in name of culture. 35. The
denter was not able to repair the mudguard. 36. I agree with you cent percent. 37. Washing
will de-shape your woolen garments. 38. The death anniversary was observed with great
solemnity. 39. He bought the guess papers from the Urdu bazaar. 40. We were served bed-tea
in the morning. 41. Cases of dacoity are on the rise in the country. 42. The CCI has not yet
been convened. 43. Many Ravians have achieved successful careers. 44. They had already left
to attend a marriage party. 45. The law and order situation is deteriorating daily. 46. Both the
SM and the ASM were found responsible. 47. The student was awarded a freeship to study
abroad. 48. The dacoits were taken to the police thana.
Robert J. Baumgardner
Department of Literature and Languages
Texas A&M University-Commerce
Commerce, Texas 75429
USA
e-mail: Robert_Baumgardner@tamu-commerce.edu