ISBN 978-7-5031-7398-1

ISBN 978-7-5031-7398-1

CHINA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GROUNDWATER SERIAL
MAPS OF ASIA

Hydrogeological Map
Groundwater Resources Map
Geothermal Map

- - Explanation

Sinomaps Press
2012
Organizer: China Geological Survey (CGS)
Sponsors: International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAR)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Implementer: Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology (IHEG)
Cooperator: China Institute ofGeo-Environmental Monitoring

Editors: Zhang Fawang Cheng Yanpei DongHua Huang Zhixing

Ni Zengshi GaoYun Tang Hongcai LiuKun
Zhang Jiankang Tian Tingshan Zhao Jichang Chen Li
WenXueru Liang Guoling Bai Xiongfei Liu Wensheng
He Jing Niu Lei HanZhantao Lin Wenjing
Cao Wengeng Zhang Ruolin Yi Qing

Cooperative Foreign Specialists:

Russia VA. Vsevoloshskiy, Khaustov Alexandr, Wei Lei

Iran A.Khorsandi

India D.K.Chadha

Vietnam Nguyen The Tiep, Do HuyCuong

Japan Tang Changyuan

R.O. Korea Jeongsang Hahn

Mongolia Jadmbaa Namjil, Ddjidrnaa Damdinorj

lAB Willi Struckrneier, Shaminder Puri , Shivandra Nath Rai
UNESCO RJayakumar, Abdin M.A.Salih
 Preface

With the rapid development of social-economy, Asia is facing serious resource and
environmental issues: energy crisis, resources shortage, environmental degradation
and geological disasters, especially water resources safety and geological environmental
conditions, pose an imminent threat to the regional sustainable development. The
growth of regional economy has brought about increasing demand for water resources
security and environmental protection. Under these circumstances, the Groundwater
Serial Maps of Asia (1:8 000 000), organized by China Geological Survey and
compiled by the Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology of CAGS,
have been published in Chinese and English versions. It marks another significant
outcome achieved by Chinese hydrogeologists in the field of international
hydrogeological study since the advent of the first Hydrogeological Map of Asia
(1:8000000) in 1997.
The compilation of the Groundwater Serial Maps ofAsia, taken as a platform for
international exchange among IAH, IHP, UNESCO and other international
organizations, summarizes the research on groundwater system in Asian countries.
The Maps scientifically present the Asian continent and the surrounding oceans,
geographic latitude, climate and terrain vertical zonation. The regional groundwater
aquifer types are revised and divided according to new Asian geological research and
distribution characteristics of groundwater resources. Distribution law of groundwater
resources are revealed according to groundwater seepage conditions and aquifer
system water storage characteristics. Three types of modern volcanoes, uplift fractures
and sedimentary basins from the heat-control tectonics and volcanic activities are
classified, reflecting the distribution pattern and formation of geothermal resources
occurrence. Groundwater Serial Maps of Asia provide valuable scientific basis for
transnational natural resources utilization, water resources planning, geo-environmental
protection, disaster prevention and mitigation in Asian countries.

Chinese Academy of Science

Academician of Zhang Zonghu
Chinese Academy of Engineering
 Preface

Groundwater, as a precious resource hidden underground, is an important

component of the global water system. The large and growing number of
hydrogeological maps throughout the world is evidence of the trend to present both
data and their interpretation in graphic form. This method of presentation permits a
rapid aerial evaluation of the hydrogeology linked to the advantages of a topographic
base.
The current project on groundwater series maps from Asia is a major initiative
which will be beneficial for regional evaluation of groundwater resources. In this
series three maps were compiled in I:8,000,000 scale on the following themes:
Hydrogeological Map ofAsia, Groundwater Resources Map ofAsia and Geothermal
Map ofAsia in both English and Chinese language.
This compilation of maps is organized by the China Geological Survey, the
Institute of HydrogeoIogy and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of
Geological Sciences with the support of International Association Hydrogeologists,
UNESCO-International Hydrological Prorgamme (IHP), and other international I
regional institutions. It reflects information and research outcomes in terms of
groundwater resources in Asian countries.
This project used the methodologies devised by UNESCO-IHP, CGMW, IAH,
IAEA and BGR for compiling the Groundwater Resources Map of the World and
adopted legends from the International Legend ofHydrogeological Maps.
The three main maps and attached inserted figures are complementary to each
other, containing rich content and reflecting the storage type, characteristics and
regularities of resource distribution. The geothermal resources in Asia have been
divided into three types, namely, modem volcano type, uplifting-faulting type and
sedimentary basin type.
As these Maps contain highly condensed and synthesized information, their
contribution to research and policy formulation in Asia is immense.
The Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, CAGS and all other
participating institutions and individual experts, have made a valuable contribution to
global and regional data-sharing. These Maps provide useful information on
groundwater resources and their occurrence in Asia. They should serve as an
important tool for improving management of groundwater resources in Asia and in
informing practice in other parts of the world.

Abhlmanyu Slngh
Director UNESCO Office in Beijing and
UNESCO Representative to China
 Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Geographic base map of Asia .4

3. Basic characteristics ·of groundwater in Asia 5

3.1 Occurrence of groundwater and its characteristics 5

3.2 Groundwater resources 5

3.3 Geotherrnal type and distribution 6

3.4 Background of groundwater environment 9

4. Basic features of groundwater system of Asia 10

4.1 Division of groundwater system 10

4.2 Brief groundwater systems in Asia 12

5. Hydrogeological map of Asia 23

6. Groundwater resources map of Asia 25

6.1 Groundwater resources zonation 26

6.2 Groundwater resources in Asia 27

7. Geothermal map of Asia 31

8. Conclusions 39

References .43
1. Introduction

Asian continent covers about 29.4% of the total global land area and it is the
largest continent in the world including 49 countries and regions. The majority of
continent is located in the Eastern and Northern Hemisphere with the complex natural
geographical and geological conditions. The population accounts for 61 % of the total
population in the world.
The dividing line between Asia and Africa is the Suez Canal, of which Asia is to
the east; and the dividing line between Asia and Europe is the Ural Mountains, Great
Caucasus Mountains, Caspian Sea and Black Sea. Asia is east of the Ural Mountains
and the Great Caucasus Mountains, south of the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. The
continent is east to the Cape Dezhnev of Bering Strait (longitude 169 0 40 ' W,
latitude 66 0 5' N), south to the Cape Piai (longitude 103 0 30 ' E, latitude I 0 I 7' N),
Cape Baba to the west (longitude 26 0 3 ' E, latitude 39 0 27' N), north to Chelyuskin
Horn (longitude 104 0 18' E, latitude 77 0 43' N).
Tortuous coastline of Asian continent with a total length of about 69 900km is the
longest coastline in the world, and the coastal type is relatively complex. There are
lots of peninsulas and islands among which the Arabian Peninsula is the largest
peninsula and Kalimantan is the third largest island over the world. The
characteristics of Asian terrain is undulating, mountains together appearing at the
central continent and mountains, plateaus and hills cover three quarters of the
continental area, with an average elevation of 950m, the highest except Antarctica.
The continent centers on the Pamirs, extending a series of high mountains, of which
the highest is the Himalayan Mountains. There are so many plateaus and basins in the
mountains, outside of which are distributed vast plains, the lowest land depression and
lakes as the Dead Sea. On Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the peaks over 8 OOOm are all
located in the Karakoram Mountains and the Himalayas, of which the highest peak -
Qomolangma, stands at an elevation of 8844.43m.
The continental climate is controlled by topography, while water cycle and
precipiration have been impacted by the terrain. The spatial and temporal distribution
of atmospheric precipitation is uneven, roughly decreasing from the southeast where it
is wet, to the northwest where it is dry, and the West and Central Asia suffers a lot,
and become the most arid desert regions.
East of Asia is the Pacific, north the Arctic Ocean, south the Indian Ocean, west the
i
Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, the Great Caucasus Mountains, Black Sea,
Turkish Straits (Bosporus and Dardanelles) as boundaries to Europe, south-west the
Gulf of Aden, Mandeb Strait, the Red Sea adjacent to Africa, the northeast the Bering
Strait separating North America. Many big rivers originate in the central Asian
mountains, flowing into the Pacific, Indian Ocean and the Arctic Ocean respectively.
Known as the "roof of the world", the Parnir - Qinghai-Tibet Plateau take as the
water source for China and Southeast Asia. Chang Jiang (the Yangtze River) and
Huang He (the Yellow River), and some other important international rivers such as
the Lancang - Mekong River, Nujiang - Salween, Irrawaddy, Brahmaputra, Ganges,
Indus originated from Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. According to the view point of Mr. He
Darning from Asian International Rivers Center of Yunnan University, international
rivers originate in the Tibet Plateau and flow out of the territories accounting for
two-thirds. 12 out of 15 major international rivers originate in China, and the annual
amount of water out from China totals about 400 billion km3 , which equals to the total
annual runoff of the Yangtze River. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau provides the high-quality
water for China and Southeast Asia and South Asia along rivers. Continental rivers are
mainly distributed in central and western Asia, inland salt water lake are the majority
of tail river.
The longest river is the Yangtze River in Asia about 6 397 km long, followed by
the Yellow River, 5 464 km long and the Mekong River, 4 500 km. The longest
inward flowing river is the Syr Darya, followed by Amu Darya and Tarim rivers. The
Lake Baikal is the largest freshwater lake in Asia and the deepest lake in the world.
Groundwater and environment are dominated by the Asian atmospheric
circulation, hydrological and geological influence. As the world economy continues
to accelerate, the global environment changes, population growth, resource
shortages, rampant disasters have severely restricted development of economy and
social harmony. It is particularly important to comprehensively respond to the global
changes and to research groundwater and environmental conditions in Asia.
Compilation of 1:8000000 Hydrogeological Map ofAsia, Groundwater Resources
Map of Asia and Geothermal Map of Asia is based on the continent geological
features and natural geography conditions to analyze the relationship between
groundwater, continental structure and the surrounding ocean system, geographic
latitude, climate and topography with horizontal-vertical zonation, and to reveal the
features of continent hydrogeology, groundwater and geothermal resources, and
reflect the conditions of groundwater occurrence, productivities and water quality,

2
groundwater resources, geothermal distribution.
Groundwater Serial Maps ofAsia led by China Geological Survey are compiled by
Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, CAGS. During the
compilation, the wide-spread attention has been paid by the relevant international
organizations and academic institutions. The compilation established the relationship
between the China Geological Survey, the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences
and other research institutions with International Association of Hydrogeologists
(IAH), UNESCO, the International Hydrological Program (IHP) and other
international organizations and universities. During the compilation, the Institute of
Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, CAGS has established the relationship
with Institute of Marine Geophysics, Vietnamese Academy of Sciences, Mongolia
Water Resources Advisory Committee, Moscow State University, Chiba University,
Japan, Water Resources Management Committee of India, and hydrogeologists from
Iran, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Indonesia and other countries for a future cooperation and
signed cooperation agreements. The compilation is formally listed in the project plan
ofIAH map compilation and is supported by UNESCO. Constructive suggestions and
ideas were obtained in the 36th, 37th and 38th International Conferences of IAH.
UNESCO Beijing Office, the UNESCO IGC's President Salih provided a great deal of
technical information on the West Asia. Professor Khaustov Alexandr and Dr. Wei Lei
from Russia's Friendship University in Moscow, Director and Dr. Do Huy Cuong
from Vietnam Nguyen Offshore Marine and Geophysics Institute; Professor
Jeongsang Hahn from R.O. Korea; professor Jadmbaa Namjil from Mongolian
Ministry of Water Resources; professor D.K. Chadha from Indian global consulting
firm; Professor Ahmad Khorsandi Aghai from Iran University of Hydraulic and
Electric provide technical and information support.
According to research and information on international and domestic results of
groundwater resources and geological environment data, the compilation focused on
new outcomes, including reports, related maps, spatial databases, and information
related to a systematic collection in the final classes, translation, comparative analysis
of hydrogeology, groundwater resources and geothermal map compilation from the
continents in the world. The Groundwater Serial Maps of Asia are co-operation
achievements by hydrogeologists from Asian countries. During the compilation of this
serial maps, the authors summed up the Asian hydrological geology research
conditions, provided the scientific basis for groundwater resources security and
environmental protection.

3
2. Geographic base map of Asia

Geographic base map of Asia is the base map of groundwater resources and
environmental geological map at scale of 1:8 000 000. Geographic coordinate system
is WGS-84, oblique azimuthal equal-area projection, the center I E90 0, fN40 0, scale
1:8000000, graticule 10 ° x 10°. Equal area with angle deformation of concentric
circles is suitable for the mapping of Asia.
Geographic base map takes the Hydrogeological Map of Asia as the geographic
base map and is edited and updated with the I: I million digital terrain data of the
world. Based on the Central Asia and Adjacent Areas Geological Map at I:2.5M and
Geological Map ofAsia at 1:5M in 2008, and other information, geographic base map
includes the city, the main surface water system and notes, lines and other deep-sea
marine name, major mountain ranges, big springs, glaciers, volcanoes, reef islands,
etc. (Table I).
Table 1 Settlements Classification
No. Class Symbol Status Remarks
Capital © Capital of the country Such as Beijing
2 Big city © Pop. 2:1 000000 Some big cities
3 Medium city 0 500 0009'op. 9 000 000 Other cities
4 Small city 0 Pop.< 500 000 Important small cities

Rivers
I st level: longer than 2 500 km, such as the Yangtze River, the Yellow River.
2nd level: from I 000-2 500 km, such as the Tarim River, the Irrawaddy River.
3rd level: from 400-1 OOOkm, such as the Selenga River, the Yalu River, Song
Hong and so on.
4th level: less than 400 km.
2nd level rivers and above are all displayed on the map, 3rd level rivers are
selected in case they do not affect the surface, and the 4th level rivers contain only the
important tributaries, such as source and so on.
Lakes
I st level: Caspian Sea;
2nd level: Aral'skoye Lake, Baikal Lake, Balkhash Lake;
2
3rd level: larger than I 000 km , such as Qinghai Lake;
2
4th level: less than I 000 km ;

4
 The retained one can be expressed by some way;
Transportation line not shown on the map;
Boundary lines only the Asian continent boundary shown.

3. Basic characteristics of groundwater in Asia

3.1 Occurrence of groundwater and its characteristics

The Asian tectonic structures set geological environment and geomorphology with
complexity including the formation of folds and fault, mountains, plateau, depression
and plains and basin, hills and island arc groups in the Pacific Ocean. Groundwater in
the Asian continent is affected by tectonic geomorphology, the surrounding ocean,
surface hydrological network, geographic latitude, climate and topography with the
sub-vertical zone. It can be divided according to occurrence conditions into basic four
types: unconsolidated pore water, carbonate karst water, rocks and igneous rocks
fracture-pore water and fissure water. According to the global water cycle perspective,
analysis of the Asian hydrogeological conditions, groundwater systems and the spatial
structure, groundwater formation, distribution and migration, water-enrichment and
water quality characteristics, natural supply resources and mining resources has
revealed the regularities of geographic latitude zoning and the vertical differentiation.

3.2 Groundwater resources

According to the hydrogeological conditions, groundwater recharge, runoff and
discharge, climate factors impacted on groundwater recharge, precipitation, surface
water and groundwater of conversion relationship can be analyzed. Water balance
method and groundwater runoff (hydrology division) modulus method can be used to
estimate groundwater resources in mountainous and hilly areas and plain basins with
different hydrogeological parameters.
Natural groundwater recharge is the groundwater in the modern water cycle and
water alternation that can be restored and renewed. The total amount of natural
groundwater recharge excludes return flow from irrigation. The uniform natural
recharge modulus (104 m3/knl.a), which does not estimate the groundwater resources
in the regions will use the recharge intensity (rnm/a) converted into a unified natural
groundwater recharge modulus. According to topography, mean annual precipitation,
hydrology, vadose zone, aquifer media conditions, divisions of groundwater
infiltration are made coefficient, and then converted into a unified natural

5
groundwater runoff modulus. Exploitable groundwater resources is the largest amount
of water pumped from aquifer per time unit in the design of the pumping period with
reasonable technical and economic exploitation, without causing deterioration of
environmental geology problem. It is the groundwater exploitable amount.
Groundwater seepage water system under the conditions of water features makes
the apparent difference among unconsolidated sediment, fractured aquifers and karst
fissure-cave intermittent or sporadic aquifer. Continuous aquifer water quality has
isotropic continuous distribution. The bedrock fissure, fissure-caves in the karst have
water flow discontinuous distribution. The other media is relatively impermeable and
the aquifer is scattered. Asian groundwater seepage in the aquifer system can be
divided into three aquifer systems by way of the regional water balance method for
assessment (Table 2): 1. Unconsolidated sedimentary continuous aquifer in the plain
and inter-mountainous basin; 2. Bedrock interrupted aquifer in the hills and mountains;
3. Other sporadic aquifers. Natural groundwater recharge modulus (l04m3 / km2 a) is
divided into: <10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-50 and> 50, which can show the amount of
groundwater resources (or natural unit zoning) and exploitable resource.
Table 2 The total groundwater resources of Asia Unit: I09m3/a
Water-bearing system }/aturalrecharge Exploitable
Plain, intermittent basin loose sediments
2424.65 1 697.25
Continuous water-bearing system
Hills, mountains,
1 866.95 1 306.86
Discontinuous water-bearing system

Other water-bearing system 386.14 270.29

Total 4677.74 3274.40

3.3 Geothermal type and distribution

Geothermal resource is a kind of energy from the internal Earth. The basic
structure of thermal storage had been constituted since the Mesozoic orogeny in Asia,
which has the obvious control of the geothermal distribution. The Himalayan
movement keeps the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau uplifting, and frequent neo-tectonic
activities exacerbates changes of heat storage conditions. Difference between western
Pacific volcanic island arc geothemal zone and Himalayas-Mediterranean suture
geothermal zone is apparent. The volcanic lava is up to 1200 QC - 1300 QC out of the
crust. The temperature of natural springs is mostly higher than 60 QC, and some as
high as 100 QC - 140 QC, such as many Cenozoic volcanic rocks along the Pacific
islands, often form asymmetric ring aquifers, and a large number of hot springs flow

6
out. Neotectonic movements in Yunnan have made high temperature springs with
favorable thermal-storage conditions in the reservoir area.
Geothermal resource can be classified as: I. high, medium and low temperature;
2. steam, water, ground-pressure, dry-hot rock and lava types; 3. convective
geothermal system and the conductive geothermal system; 4. high temperature
convection (> 150 'C); medium (90-150 'C) -low«90 'C) temperature convection;
medium-low temperature conduction. The above geothermal classification is based on
the different researches and application for different purposes. The compilation
focuses on the regional geothermal characteristics of the macro-distribution in Asia
based on the previous classification, geological conditions, heat storage form and
geological environment and divides the goethermal resources into: the modern
volcano, uplifting fracture and sedimentary basin types; the geothermal resources are
divided into high, medium and low temperature accordingly (Table 3).
Table 3 Classification of geothermal temperature
Temperature t
Temperature class Usage
Boundary, 'C

High-temperature geothermal resource 12:150 Generating, heating

Industrial use, heating,

Medium-temperature geothermal resource 909< 150
generating
Heating, industry
Hot water 609<90
processmg
Low-temperature
geothermal Medical, bathing, green
Warm water 409< 60
resource house
Irrigation, feeding, soil
Water 259<40
warmmg

A. High-temperature zone at modern volcano

Asian volcanoes concentrate along the island arc of the western Pacific, another
belt is from Myanrnar, the Himalayas, the Central Asia, the West Asia till the
Mediterranean. Now more than 90 percent of active volcanoes lie in both belts. The
regional geological structures include the Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate and the
western Pacific island arcs between the Indian Plate jointed with the Eurasian Plate
(suture line). The northeast part of Asia starts from the Aleutian Islands, the
Kamchatka Peninsula, Kuril Islands, Japan Islands to Taiwan of China, southwards to
the Philippines and Indonesia, and then one turns to New Zealand, another to
Malaysia, Myanrnar and Tengchong area in Yunnan. The deep trench structure is

7
characterized mostly 4000 - 7000m deep as the Pacific Plate thrusts below the
Eurasian Plate in the region, where the crust is thin with the thickness of 6 - 30km
made of basaltic, granitic and sedimentary rocks, of which the granitic crust is thinner
than that of the continental tectonic and not continuous. The outer edge along island
arc has a strong compressed deformation, and the inner edge has a frequent volcanic
activities. It is essentially a mixing zone of the continental and oceanic crust. There
are intense seismic activities with shallow earthquakes near the trench, the focal depth
increasing towards the mainland; the lowest heat flow values at the trench, generally
less than 41.7mW/m2 (lHUF), island arc medium, the highest at the marginal sea.
Japan's 9.0 earthquake occurred near the eastern deep trench on March 11,2011. The
west of the geothermal area is Himalayan region linking to the high-temperature
geothermal areas at the Mediterranean Sea. This area mainly includes the southern
Indian Plate collided to the Eurasian Plate to form the Himalayan Mountains and the
plain south of the mountains. Its structure is characterized by nearly EW long-distance,
deep fault with wide distribution of high-temperature springs, geothermal fields. Most
of the volcanoes were formed in the early Cenozoic, and some volcanoes just several
thousand years, local with modem volcanic eruption.
B. Medium-Iow geothermal field in the uplift fractured zone
Asian uplift fracture zones are widespread. The neo-tectonic fault is developed,
deep cut, and geothermal springs outcropping. The major fault uplift can be divided
into three parts: first, Siberia Plateau east of Russia, Lake Baikal, Changbai Shan
region in China, Xiao Hinggan Ling region and Mongolian Plateau, Tianshan
Mountains; second, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Nanling region,
the Mekong River region in the north of Southeast Asia, especially the highest
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau with wide distribution of uplift fractured zone; third, the
Deccan Plateau in India peninsula. There are some dead volcanoes though the uplift
fractured zone exists. They were erupting at the late Tertiary to the early Quaternary.
There are many hot springs in some areas such as the Lake Baikal region in the
northeast fault zone, usually 50-75 ·C, the highest 80-90 ·C. Heat flow values are in
45-141mW/m2 , an average 97 mW/m2 Geothermal gradient is 3-4 ·C/IOOm, which
shows the high-temperature geothermal anomaly zone. Sikhote-Alin in Russia extends
southwest to the Changbai Shan, Da Hinggan Ling in northeast of China, and to the
Mongolian plateau. The region is characterized by the high-medium temperature
geothermal features. However, some of the local areas have a high temperature, such
as the Changbai volcanic area, the temperature up to 82 ·C. Generally, the temperature

8
 2
goes at 50-82 "C, heat flow values 40-100 mW/m , an average value 70 mW/m2,
geothermal gradient 2.5-3.0 "C I lOOm.
C. Medium-Iow geothermal field in the sedimentary basin
This type refers to the surface without hot show. Geothermal resource hosts in the
geothermal water in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary basin. Many sedimentary
basins, especially the occurrence of large sedimentary basin in China are rich in
geothermal resources. The features are as follows: the large sedimentary basin is very
thick and conducive to hold hot water. The main basins are West Siberian Basin and
North Siberian Basin; the Northeast China Basin, the North China Basin, Sichuan Basin,
Qaidam Basin, Tarim Basin in China, etc.; the Ganges Basin and the Indus Basin; the
Persian Gulf and the Mesopotamian Basin, Saudi Arabia Basin. The regional heat-flow
background value is of importance to the geothermal water of the basin.

3.4 Background of groundwater environment

Asia's geographic latitude and topography have significant differences, which
impacts the environment background of groundwater. Most of the middle-Iow latitude
mountains and plateau areas in the North Asia, such as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,
have a strong continental climate. Ground temperature becomes constant at zero or
negative, and periodic frost-thawing often occurs at the upper soil. Therefore, the rock
is destructed, permafrost deformed, which can form the Ishikawa, stone sea, ice
mound and thermal subsidence, etc. Groundwater physical effects have not only the
low altitude-high latitude perennial continuous frozen land distribution, but also the
low latitude-high altitude perennial frozen distribution in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
The ice dune runoff pays a very good regulation and the high frost-thawing water has
an active recharge to groundwater.
The chemical composition of shallow groundwater is impacted by alternating
water-rock influence, mainly the change in water quality. Topography precipitation
impacts on the water cycle, mountain groundwater migration is strong with quality
water environment. Asian mid-latitude and semi-humid and semi-arid zones such as
the West Siberian Plain, the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, Song-Liao Plain and some
intermountain basins make groundwater recharge from the piedmont region to the
low-lying areas with significant horizontal hydrochemistry, and water quality
becomes worse, especially in southern Siberia and Central Asia where Tertiary
gypsum layers are widely distributed. Groundwater dissolve gypsum and S04 increaes.
The middle reaches of the Yellow River passes the loess region of the Loess Plateau.

9
The variety of erosion is formed as gully and ditch on the plateau called locally Yuan,
Liang, Mao and Ping, etc. The phreatic water in loess recharges and discharges locally
in place. Runoff is very short. Salinity depends on the climate and the soluble salt
content in the loess. The Kushui River south of Ningxia is the one that dissolves
sulfide components much in groundwater. Meanwhile, the ancient geography has
obvious vertical zoning control to groundwater. Shallow freshwater has storage of
some brackish water lens in the favorable position with fresh water. The Central and
Southwest Asia has the majority of inland dry climate, large difference of day-night
temperature, the prevalence of physical weathering, sand force shaping the
topography to form aeolian geomorphology. Because of the topography control of
water vapor flux, water cycle is stagnant, and groundwater suffers from strong
evaporation, salt accumulation increasing groundwater salinity. Groundwater salinity
is generally l-3g I L of brackish water, mostly in the central basin> 5g I L of salt water.
Tropical and subtropical regions in the Southeast Asia are hot, rainy and humid. The
chemical weathering is strong with wide developing thick red weathering crust. The
river network is scattering and surface runoff is strong, ground erosion much (Java up
to 3mm per year), rivers become the main force to shape valley terrain and form a
variety of water landscapes. lndo-China Peninsula and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau,
Guangxi in China has a profound Perrnian and Triassic limestone formation in the
warm and humid conditions, suitable for the chemical dissolution process. The
soluble rock has been destructed and transformed in a variety of karst landforms.
Alternating active groundwater circulation carries water soluble chemical composition
fully into account of migration, groundwater salinity is generally < Ig I L of fresh
water. The sea-land water mixing and alternation in coastal areas and islands have the
impact on water quality in the coastal area.

4. Basic features of groundwater system of Asia

4.1 Division of groundwater system

The Asian continent is vast, the regional hydrogeological conditions are
complicated. Groundwater systems are the formation of transport carriers of
groundwater resources according to the continental structure, climate, topography and
hydrogeological structure as the main basis for classification of 11 primary
groundwater systems, 36 secondary groundwater systems (Table 4).

10
 Table 4 Groundwater systems in Asia
Primary systems Secondary systems
Groundwater system in Ob River Basin of west
I I
Siberia Plain
Groundwater system m Yenisei River Basin of
Cold Temperate Groundwater I,
central Siberia Plateau
I System in Tableland and
Groundwater system in Lena River Basin of central
Plateau of North Asia
Siberia Plateau
Groundwater system in Kolyma River Basin of
14
eastern Siberia
Groundwater system in Heilongjiang River (Amur
Temperate Semi-humid River)
Groundwater System in
Il Groundwater system in Liaohe River Plain-Korea
Upland and Plain ofNortheast Il,
Peninsula
Asia
Il J Groundwater system in islands of northeastern Asia

Groundwater system in Huang-Huai-Hai

Temperate Semi-arid Plain-Shandong Peninsula
Groundwater System in North
[[[ Groundwater system in Shanxi-Hebei intermontane
China Plain, Upland and Loess [[[,
basin
Plateau
IIb Groundwater system in Ordos-Loess Plateau

IV I Groundwater system in Mongolia Plateau

IV, Groundwater system in Hexi Corridor

Groundwater system in Hi River Basin-Junggar
Temperate Arid Groundwater
Basin
IV System in Inland Basin and
Groundwater system in Tarim Basin
Hilly Area
IV, Groundwater system in Qaidam Basin

Groundwater system in Kazakhstan hilly

area-Turan Plain
Subtropical Arid and Groundwater system in Asia Minor Peninsula
Semi-humid Groundwater (Anatolia Plateau)
v System in Iranian Plateau-Asia
Minor Peninsula
v, Groundwater system in Iranian Plateau

Tropical Arid Groundwater VII Groundwater system in Mesopotamian Plain

System in Arabian
VI
Peninsula-Mesopotamian VI, Groundwater system in Arabian Peninsula
Plain

Alpine Frigid Groundwater Groundwater system in Kashmir- Himalaya-

VIII
VII System in Qinghai-Xizang Qiangtang Plateau
Plateau VD, Groundwater system in southern Tibet valley

11
11

Tropical Humid and VIII I Groundwater system in India River Plain

Semi-humid Groundwater
VIII System in Indus-Ganges River
Plain and Deccan Plateau of
South Asia
Tropical Humid Groundwater
IX System in Hilly Area of
Indo-China Peninsula
Subtropical Humid
X Groundwater System in Hilly
Area and Plain of South China
Tropical Humid and Arid
XI Groundwater System in
Islands of Southeast Asia
---:-:VIII=','-----G-ro-u-n-d-w-a-te-r-s.=.y-st-e-m-l-·n-G-a-n-g-e-s-R-iv-e-r-P-la-i-n----
VIII, Groundwater system in India Peninsula
Groundwater system in upland and plain of
Lancangjiang River- Salween River Basin
Groundwater system in upland and plain of
IX,
Lancangjiang River-Meikong River Basins
Groundwater system in upland and plain of Red
River Basin
Groundwater system in Qinling-Dabieshan
Mountains
Groundwater system in terraced terrain of west
x, Sichuan Plateau
Xl Groundwater system in Sichuan Basin
Groundwater system in hilly area of middle and
lower reaches of Yangtze River
X5 Groundwater system in karst upland of South China
Groundwater system III coastal hilly area and
islands of South China
XII Groundwater system in Malay Peninsula
Xlz Groundwater system in islands of Southeast Asia

4.2 Brief groundwater systems in Asia

I. Cold Temperate Semi-humid Groundwater System in Tableland and Plateau of
North Asia includes the River Ob at West Siberian Plain, the Yenisei River in the
central Siberia Plateau, the Lena River in the central Siberia Plateau and the Kolyma
River in East Siberia.
The West Siberian Plain is located in the west of the North Asia between the Ural
Mountains and the Yenisei River, the Kazakhstan hills to the south, the Kara Sea on
the North. The plain is vast about 2000 000 km'. The ground elevation is low than
lOOm with Jurassic to Early Tertiary marine strata. The Cretaceous sea flooding the
area had been connected to the ancient Mediterranean by Turgai Strait. The area was
impacted by the continental glaciers during the Quaternary Period, so that the rivers in
this area had been flowing into the Aral and Caspian seas. After the glacial period,
Turgai Strait became elevated to be a watershed, therefore, the rivers changed to flow
to the north. Nowadays, Turgai valley still remains the ancient river course. The
central Siberian Plateau is located between the Yenisei River and the Lena River, the
Yablonov and the Sayan mountains to the south. The main terrain elevation is the

12
platform lower than 600-700m. The structure is primarily on the ancient folded
basement, because several tectonic movements occurred since the Mesozoic, so the
river cut strong, vertical and horizontal valleys, terraces widespread, the valleys of the
Tunguska River and the Angara River have 9-14 terraces. Putorana Mountain consists
of dark volcanic rocks and tuff with altitude of I 70 Im. It is the highest point of the
plateau. The Kolyma River area in the east Siberia, lies west of the Lena River, the
Pacific coast on the east, is mainly referred to the Yana - Kolyma plateau. Most of the
area is higher than 500m above sea level in the east Siberia. Because it is far from the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean, the warm wind is blocked by the mountains, the
East Siberia has the typical continental climate. The specific feature shows a great gap
of summer and winter temperature, day-night temperature changes. Directly
influenced by the Arctic Ocean, the East Siberia becomes one of the coldest in the
world with long winter and short summer, late spring thaw and early frost in the fall.
The winter is as long as nine to ten months in the northern area and the soil and the
river can be melt only in three months in the summer. The ground warmth rushes the
plants flowering, and many plants grow a few years, even decades. Another
manifestation of the continental climate is less rainfall.
11. Temperate Semi-humid Groundwater System in Upland and Plain of Northeast
Asia includes Heilongjiang River (Amur River), Liaohe Plain - the Korean Peninsula
and Islands in the Northeast Asia.
Hills and mountains of the Northeast Plain have a humid semi-humid climate, from
the southeast to the northwest. Annual precipitation is from 800mm decreasing to
300mm. The plain is surrounded by mountains to the north and the central part.
Northeast of the geological environment of permafrost at high latitudes includes the
northern Da Hingganling and the north of the Yilehuli for the high-latitude permafrost.
It is cold temperate climate, most of the mountains are at 500-1 OOOm above sea level,
decreasing from south to north. The permafrost layer is developed at the thickness of
120m in the north and 30m in the south, and then as the island distribution. Because
the presence of permafrost, surface water infiltration is not easy, so the surface lies in
the wet surface state as the marsh. The Da Hingganling and the Xiao Hingganling,
Changbai Shan present an arc fold system with the main magmatic rocks. The middle
of the Da Hingganling is a low hill SN trending about 1 OOOm above sea level. West
of the Xiao Hingganling is the denudation platform, with an altitude between
400-700m. East is the hilly area. Changbai Shan has an altitude between 500-1 OOOm.
The region is located in the monsoon zone at the mid-latitude, and annual
precipitation is 400mm at the western slope of Da Hingganling and I OOOmm at the
east side of the Changbai Shan. Hulun Buir Plateau lies EW trend with an altitude

13
between 850-500m, presenting mainly the erosion accumulation of layered terrain.
The grassland is vast, fit for pasture. The sand dunes cover most land. The low-lying
areas are swamp. Sanjiang-Xingkaihu plain comes into being due to the alluvial
deposition from the Heilongjiang River, the Songhua River and the Usuli River. The
sediments are more than I 000 m thick in the plain. Generally, the elevation is about
80-100m, and it is the largest marsh plain, and oil prospective areas as well. Drainage
dewatering swamps and rational development of wetlands are important measures to
improve the local geological environment. The Songliao Plain covers thick dominant
sand and gravel Quaternary sediments. The central plain is low with saline
accumulation. Groundwater in Xialiaohe plain is abnormal of iron trace elements,
with an area of 19 200 km2 of high iron element higher than 0.3mg / L. The Yanshan
Mountain is about 1 OOOm above sea level, annual precipitation between 400-600mm.
Jiaoliao hilly area is just 200-400m above sea level, annual precipitation
600-1 OOOmm. It is the north, east edge of Sino-Korean platform. NNE trending
Tan-Lu fault is active as the basement uplifts, the average slipping rate about
oAmm/year, where 14 strong earthquakes occurred. The magmatic rocks,
metamorphic rocks, carbonates and clastic rocks are dominant within this area. The
Korean Peninsula is mountainous, and the mountains and plateaus cover 80% of the
total peninsula. The climate is temperate monsoon, the southern part is characterized
by marine climate and the northern is the continental climate. It is hot and rainy in
summer and cold and dry in winter. The annual average temperature is 8-12 "C,
annual average precipitation is 1 120 mm.
Japan consists of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu islands and more than
6800 small islands. It is known as the "country of thousand islands." The land area is
about 377,900 km2 Japan lies in a temperate and mild climate zone with four distinct
seasons. The mountainous areas make up 70% of the total, most of the mountains are
volcanic, including the famous active volcano, Mount Fuji, at an altitude of 3 776m. It
is the highest mountain in Japan, taken as a symbol of the country. Earthquakes occur
frequently in Japan, numbered about 1 000 each year, Japan is the country with the
highest occurrence of earthquakes, about 10% of the globle earthquakes occurred in
Japan and its surrounding areas.
HI. Temperate Semi-arid Groundwater System in North China Plain, Upland and
Loess Plateau. Groundwater system here includes: the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain -
Shandong Peninsula, Shanxi-Hebei mountains and intermountainous basin and Ordos
- Loess Plateau.

14
 The Huang-Huai-Hai Plain is the largest plain in China and north is Yanshan
Mountains, west is Taihang Mountains and Funiu Mountains, south is Dabie
Mountains, east is the Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea. The terrain is low about lOOm
above sea level with total area of 285 500km 2 It looks like a giant dustpan-shaped
plain. The arid and semi-arid climatic zone is to the north of the Yellow River, the
annual rainfall 500-600mm. South of the Yellow River is the warm temperate
semi-humid zone, precipitation 600-80Omrn. The plain is located in the east part of
Sino-Korean platform, composed of Quaternary alluvium. The tilt piedmont plain lies
thick unconsolidated deposits with aquifers of good quality and quantity. The Loess
Plateau covers an area of 400 000 km2 , I 500m to 2 OOOm at elevation. The average
annual temperature is 6 - 14 "C and the average annual precipitation 200 - 700mm.
The climate from the southeast to the northwest follows warm temperate semi-humid
and semi-arid and arid. Apart from a few rocky mountains, the Loess Plateau is
covered with tremendous thick loess layer about 50 - 80m, the thickest 150 - 400m.
Groundwater distribution is uneven, water quantity is weak. The loess soil is fine and
soft with rich mineral nutrients. The soil is beneficial to farming, and land reclamation
has a long history. However, the concentrated summer rains and storms cause water
erosion due to lack of vegetation, and the long-term erosion forms the broken ground
into ravines cross the plateau.
N. Temperate Arid Groundwater System in Inland Basin and Hilly Area include
Mongolian Plateau, Hexi Corridor, Yili - Junggar Basin, Tarim Basin, Qaidam Basin
and Kazakhstan Hills - Turan Plain.
Kazakhstan Hills, situated between the west Siberian Plain and the Turan Plain, are
ancient eroded low hills and dotted with salt marshes and sand dunes, only 300-500m
at altitude. The surface is relatively flat, only individual ups and downs somewhere.
Turan Plain is a vast inland basin with an area of I 500 000km 2, low-lying at the
elevation lower than lOOm and some places below sea level. The ancient
Mediterranean was still covering the area before Tertiary. The land appeared since
Miocene, and the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea are both the relics of transgression. As
the dry climate is dominant in this area, water erosion is rare in terrain, most of which
are sand dunes, Karakum Desert between the Caspian Sea and the Arnu Darya and
Qizilqum Desert between the Arnu Darya and the Syr Darya are the two deserts in
Central Asia.
The Mongolian Plateau is an ancient inland plateau. East is Da Hingganling,
south is Yinshan Mountains, west is Altay Mountain, North Sayan Mountain,

15
p

Khentii Mountain and Yablonov Mountains. The average elevation of the plateau is
I 580m above sea level, and the ancient erosion surface can be divided into three
levels: Khangai quasi-plane about 3 OOOm, Mongolia quasi-plane I 800m and Gobi
quasi-plane around I 500m. In addition to the mountainous terrain in northwestern
plateau, the other is simple and monotonous platform on which lies bare rock
ridges combined with shallow depressions. Mount is relatively 50-lOOm,
consisting of erosion surface of basement rocks. The shallow depression or playa
depression is mainly the accumulation from Cretaceous to Quaternary. The climate
in the plateau is very arid in the south, desert weathering and strong wind curved
the ground full of ridge, hill, pebbles, gravels and debris, which compose the stone
Gobi Desert.
V. Subtropical Arid and Semi-arid Groundwater System in Iranian Plateau-Asia
Minor Peninsula, where it is subtropical arid and semi-moist climate includes Asia
Minor Peninsula (Anatolia Plateau) and the Iran Plateau.
Anatolian Plateau is also known as Asia Minor Peninsula, which is a mountainous
plateau. Koroglu Mountains is to the north, composed of many parallel limestone
mountains at the elevation of 2 500-2 800 m; Toros Mountains is to the south, made
of the Eocene and Cretaceous limestone at the elevation of3 000-3 500m. The plateau
is a platform-type inland intermountain plateau at the altitude of I 300m. The plateau
has an arid climate and many deserts and salt flats.
Iranian Plateau is located between the Armenia volcanic plateau and the Pamirs
Plateau, which is constructed by both the north-south mountains and the
intermountain plateau and basin in between. The plain is a closed with many small
inland basins. The north is the Alborz Mountains and the Hindu Kush mountain range,
usually about 3 300m above sea level. Mount Demavend is a dormant volcano at
elevation of 5 671m, the highest peak in Iran. The Zagros Mountains and the
Sulaiman Mountains are to the south. The Zagros Mountains extends roughly parallel
to the Mesopotamia plain and the Persian Gulf. The mountains are I OOOkm long and
300km wide at the altitude of 3 OOOm, and the relative height between the
mountains and the plateau is I 200-1 800m. The slope is westwards fairly large with
more precipitation and strong erosion. Therefore, the limestone is exposed at the
gorge. The steep Sulaiman Mountains is also the inland river watershed of the Indus
River and the rivers on the Iranian Plateau. The Kabul River passes through the
mountains created the cross-valley of Khyber Pass between Pakistan and Afghanistan
as a traffic channel. The Iranian Plateau is relatively flat, most of the altitude of
900-1 500m.
16
 VI. Tropical Arid Groundwater System in Arabian Peninsula-Mesopotamian Plain,
including the Mesopotamian Plain and the Arabian Peninsula.
Arab Mesa is an old land with dry climate, many dry valleys, no perennial river,
and desert widespread in the south. Since the Cambrian, there has almost no change
by the fold, so the geological era in ancient sedimentary rock layers can be fonned
smoothly, nearly level with only the monoclinic structure. During early Quaternary,
large fault trench had been fonned in East Africa, Red Sea and Dead Sea, while large
number of mafic magma broke through rocks such as granite and sandstone along the
western region fault lines to fonn the majority of the lava plateau, such as the north of
Mecca open bar lava with an area of 1.6 million km2 , as a lava desert landscape. The
large-scale fracture and lava emission activity west of the mesa have resulted in
occurrence of terrain tilt from southwest to northeast, steep mountains near the Red
Sea from the east coast are up to 3 760m, but the platfonn is overall flat, steep only on
the edge.
Mesopotamian Plain is located in the central South-West Asia, East and West
between Iran and Syria plateau between the Arabian Peninsula and Annenian
volcanic plateau. The Plain extends from northwest to southeast and is similar to the
Great Plains of India on the structure as a new fold mountain. Plain was fonned part
of the Persian Gulf, mainly due to the acceptance of the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial
role in the fonnation of today's alluvial plain. "Mesopotamia" means "the area
between two rivers." It is low and flat, 200m above sea level. The constant alluriation
in the river mouth has been extending the coastline. Basra, in the fourth century BC,
was still the Persian Gulf, but today it has been more than IOOkm away from the
coast.
Armenian volcanic plateau is known as the Armenian mountains sink, the new
period of volcanic activity in this area is very intense, forrning-a volcanic lava plateau.
The volcanic plateau, fonned by the confluence of four mountains, 4 OOOm above sea
level is centered at Agri Dagi, up to 5 J65m. Magmatic activity in this area is severe,
hence there are many hot springs, geysers and earthquakes and so on. The southern
plateau where the lake was fonned by the lava plug, is at altitude of over I 600m.
West of the Plateau is windy and rainy, the fonnation of snow bet Heyuan, stream
erosion in the Rift Valley strong.
V1J. Alpine Frigid Groundwater System in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau includes
Kashmir - Himalaya - Qiangtang Plateau and southern Tibet Valley.
Pamirs is in the middle of the Asian continent, east of the Tarim Basin, west of the
Thran Plain. The south is the Hindu Kush Mountain Range, north to Alai Mountain

17
Range. Construction on the Pamirs Plateau is formed in the Tertiary orogeny,
generally more than 4 OOOm above sea level, the Somoni Peak has an altitude 7 495m,
the highest peak in the former Soviet Union. Absolute height in the eastern Pamirs is
more than 5 OOOm, but the relative height is mostly I 000-1 500m, having widespread,
glaciallandforms. The west part is humid, the river erosion is strong, with steep peaks
and large relative height.
The Tibetan Plateau lies in central and southern Asian continent, surrounded by
huge mountains:on the north by the Kunlun Mountains, Altun and Qilian Mountains,
south by the Himalayas, the Karakorum Mountains west by the east of Hengduan
Mountains. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has a broad undulating high plains area, generally
divided into two levels. A higher level for the mountain platean with an elevation of
5 000-5 200m formed in the early Tertiary from the surface or top round hill surface.
Oligocene to Miocene uplift of the Himalayan movement with wind, glaciers,
periglacial freeze-thaw erosion and other external force, have razed the early Tertiary
strata of sand page rock. Lower level for the lake plateau gully area consists of the
modern lake and gully between the undulating slopes of the composition, usually
4 500-5 OOOm above sea level, with exposed Neogene lacustrine layer as main
accumulation surface. In Quaternary, the plateau was lifted significantly.was widely
developed in Early Pleistocene lake thick conglomerate layer in the foothills, while
the endorheic area of the plateau surface was cut and damaged, and exorheic area of
the plateau surface was relatively intact.
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has huge mountain terrain characteristics. Mountain plateau
lies near the main east-west and near north-south groups. East-west mountain ranges
occupy most of the plateau from south to north, including the Himalayas, Gangdise -
Nyainqentanglha Mountains, Karakorum - Tanggula and Kunlun Mountains and so on.
The towering Himalayas, meandering in the southern edge of the plateau, with more
than 50 peaks higher than 7 OOOm, is the world's most majestic east-west arc of high
mountains. Himalayas in the geological structure can be divided into three zones: the
northern zone of the early Paleozoic to Tertiary rock composition, the snow line at
about 5 300m; the middle zone of high peaks, with exposing granite and gneiss,
modern glaciers and many peaks, snow line up to 4 900m; the southern zone is
located between the Great Plains of India and the Himalayas, mainly with low altitude
of about I OOOm, mainly Tertiary sedimentary rock. According to the plate tectonics,
the Himalayas was formed as aresult of collision between the Indian plate and Asian
plate. Since the Indian plate inserted into the Asian plate under the two sections
overlap with a small angle, the formation of the Tibetan Plateau has a thick crust and

18
high and steep the terrain.
VIII. Tropical Humid and Semi-humid Groundwater System in Indus-Ganges River
Plain and Deccan Plateau of Southeast Asia include the Indus plains, the Ganges plain
and India's Deccan Peninsula.
Indian River is part of the new structure on the Ganges plain fold mountains,
formerly part of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Plain measures about
3 OOOkm long, 250-300km wide, and is flooded mainly by the Indus and Ganges,
forming one of the world famous Great Plains. Quaternary Indian subcontinent
continueed to be uplifted and eroded, coupled with climate warming, a lot of
precipitation, thus making the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra River alluvial role
developed, and fmally forming a 300m thick alluvium plains. In addition to the plain
near the foothills and hilly desert and some occasional granite mound in some places,
most part of the plain are very low and level, between the Indus and the Ganges
watershed, the elevation is nomore than 240m.
Deccan Plateau, the main body of the Indian subcontinent is an ancient land,
well-eroded terrain from west to east, with an average altitude of about 600m.
Western Ghats form the western edge of the plateau, with an elevation of about
I 000-1 500m. Eastern Ghats form the eastern edge of the plateau, with a height
about 500-600m. by the End of the Cretaceous, Large areas of lava were erupted in
the northwestern Deccan Plateau with an aver age thickness of about 500m, the
thickness of up to I 800m, and large-scale magmatic activity.
IX. Tropical Humid Groundwater System in Hilly Area of Indo-China Peninsula
include Nujiang River - Salween River Valley Plain, Lancang - Mekong Plain and
Red River Plain.
The central plateau, known as Shan Plateau, is the ancient heart of the peninsula,
mainly composed of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic limestone, the core of a large
granitic intrusion. Contacting with the granite intrusions are gneiss, schist, crystalline
limestone and other metamorphic rocks. The plateau has an altitude above sea level of
I 500m, with widespread karst landforrns. Because it is very close from the Tertiary
fold belt, it is more affected by faulting, such as in the highlands west of the Salween
river valley and the plains, and there is a north-south extension of about 700km ,
about I OOOm above the plain. South Shan plateau is cut into several longitudinal part
of the river, the Mekong and Red River east of the Laotian highlands between the
average height of I 200m; between the Mekong and the Salween River to Chiang Mai
Highlands, more longitudinal terrain mountains and Rift Valley; Salween and
Irrawaddy plateau between the east Myanmar, as close to new fold mountain, in the
new geological uplift, erosion has cut deep Salween, resulting in a large depth of
about 1 OOOm of the valley. Tenasserim mountain range is a southern continuation of

19
the plateau, to the Isthmus of Kra, 56km wide.
X. Subtropical Humid Groundwater System in Hilly Area and Plain of South
China include Qinling - Dabie Mountains, the western Sichuan plateau slope, Sichuan
Basin, the lower-middle reaches of the hills and plains of the Yangtze River, karst
mountains and southern coastal mountains and islands in South China.
South China hilly - the Yangtze River Plain lies in southern China, including
Yangtze River and its Huaiyang mountains and south of the vast area. Dominated by
hills and mountains, the region is hot and humid with an altitude less than 500m. It
has a monsoon climate, annual precipitation generally greater than I OOOmm, very
favorable natural conditions, with many rivers and lakes, and is an important
commodity grain base. North of the Yangtze River is the lower plains of Quaternary
unconsolidated sediment distribution, mainly carbonate rocks to the west, east
metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks mixed distribution areas. In addition to strong
faulting in Taiwan, the other active fault displacement rate of annual average is less
than Imm. Seismic activity, the frequency of earthquakes in Taiwan is very high,
other areas on the whole, have fewer and weaker earth quakes.
Mountain is widely distributed in South China karst mountain and hills and
lowland regions. Located in the southern sub-tropical climate of the Pearl River basin,
with hot climate, abundant rainfalls, the area is suitable for karst development.
Carbonate rocks are widely distributed, thick quality of pure rock, karst is very strong,
the surface morphology with peak cluster, peaks, dissolution depressions, caves,
funnels and stone shoots, etc, are widely developed in the underground river,
Meanwhile, in tropical, subtropical humid, and humid climatic conditions and karst
development, in the context of disturbance by human activities, the surface vegetation
is destroyed, leading to serious loss of soil, gravel or lava accumulation of a large area
of bare land degradation. The formation of rocky desertification, is a karst area land
degradation in extreme forms.
The lower-middle reaches of the Yangtze River Plain includes Jianghan Plain,
Dongting Lake, Poyang Lake, Taihu Lake and the Delta of the Yangtze River. Terrain
elevation at 40m is at 40m from west to east by the gradient to 2m. The deposits are
mainly from the Quaternary river, lake, marine clay. The cumulative thickness of soft
soil is 3-6m. The climate is humid and warm. Natural resources are rich. Since
Eastern Han Dynasty, especially from the Tang and Song dynasties, a strong human
reclamation was so active. The sediments were increasing and leading to changes of
the river course, river silting, lakes becoming small.
The hilly area in Hunan and Guangxi includes Luoxiao Mountain which is west of

20
the Pearl River Delta, Xuefeng Mountains to the east of the sub-tropical karst area in
China with thick and pure quality and homogeneous structure of carbonate rocks. The
peak cluster and karst landscape are well developed.
Huaiyang Mountains - Southeast hills and mountains include Nanyang Basin,
Xiangfan Valley, Dahongshan Mountains, Tongbai Mountains, Dabie Mountains and
the south plain in the lower and middle reaches of the Yangtze River. The landform is
mainly hilly area, during which the mountain and valley basins are distributed. It is
the fold system in South China, basically metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks. The
active faults are developed along the coast area.
Taiwan is the largest island in China with mountainous, heavily forested more than
50% of coverage. Hills and plains grow tropical fruits, sugar cane with a long history.
There is called the East "sugar library". Minerals like gold, copper and other metal ore
in the east, coal and oil in west and Datun Volcano Group is a natural sulfur and
geothermal resources in the north. Quaternary unconsolidated sediments are
dominated with clastic rocks in the western coast. The Taiwan fault is developed there
with the average slip rate of 12.8mm / a. The seismic activity is very strong with high
frequency and intensity. It is the most intense earthquake zone in China.
Hainan Island is a unique island, tropical, subtropical, natural conditions in China.
Northwest is the basalt plateau and marine flat sediments. The central mountain is
granite-based 600-1 OOOm above sea level.
XI. Tropical Humid and Arid Groundwater System in Islands of Southeast Asia
including the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia islands.
The Miocene island-arc volcanic rocks are well developed III Philippines -
Malaysia - Indonesian archipelago. The climate span is big, the transition from the
high-latitude boreal south to the equator as a tropical climate, controlled by the Pacific
monsoon climate.
Philippine Islands, west of the South China Sea, east of the Pacific, is an
archipelago country with the total of 107 small islands. These islands, like pearls
flashes spreading in the boundless in the western Pacific. Therefore, the Philippines
has a name of "Western Pacific Pearl" in the world. The Philippine land area is
299,700 km2, of which Luzon, Mindanao, Samar and other II major islands cover the
total area of 96% of the country. The Philippine coastline is 18 533km long, with
some natural harbors. The Philippines has a monsoon tropical climate, hot and rainy,
average annual temperature 28 °C, rich plant resources, the forest area is 15.85 million
ha, 53% of coverage.

21
 Malaysia is located in Southeast Asia between the Pacific and the Indian Ocean
throughout the South China Sea into East and West Malaysia into two parts. West
region of Malaya in Malaysia is located in the Malay Peninsula, north is Thailand and
west is the Malacca Straits, east is South China Sea. East Malaysia is Sarawak and
Sabah regions collectively located north of the Kalimantan Island. The total coastline
adds up to 4 192krn. It belongs tropical rain forest climate. The average annual
temperature is 22 ·C -28 ·C in the mountains and 25 ·C -30 ·C in the coastal plain.
Malaysia has eight mountain ranges running from north to south, such as Trahan
Mountain, 2 190m at elevation, Crocker Mountain peak of Mount Kinabalu, altitude
about 4 10 Im, is Malaysia's highest peak and the highest peak in Southeast Asia.
Jagged peaks, majestic fortress are dominating the southern part looking far from the
sea. Mountain rushing streams in valleys, waterfalls and more rapids. Large forest
covers the island, accounting for 74% of the total area. It is near the equator, and more
for the original tropical rain forest, and it is the Peninsula, so hot and rainy. The rain
was sudden and stopped the same and the rain is abundant. It is a place with eternal
summer, eternal sunshine, and small temperature changes throughout the year.
Indonesia is located at the contact zone of the Eurasia and the Pacific plates, where
active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes exist. Therefore, the geothermal resources
are rich in the area where more than 400 volcanoes, of which more than 120 are active
volcanoes. It is one of the countries which have largest volcanic activities, accounting
for I / 6 active volcanoes in the world. Java that consists of 18 110 islands between
the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, is the volcanic island with frequent
earthquakes. They are mainly Kalimantan, Sumatra, man, Sulawesi and Java Island.
There are the rugged mountains and hills, only a narrow coastal plain, surrounded by
shallow seas and coral. Kalimantan stretches to the west from the central mountains
with a vast coastal plain, the southern marshes. Sumatra Island has mountains from
northwest to southeast oblique penetration, northeast of the coastal hills and wide
alluvial plains, the eastern plains and swamp. Java Island, north is plains, south is
mountains and plateau, broad basins between the mountains. The mountains lie in the
west of the Irian island. There is the highest peak of Puncak Jaya, elevation of 5 030m;
southern plains broad. Most are the tropical rain forest climate, high temperature and
rainfall throughout the year with high humidity. The annual average temperature is
25 ·C -27 ·C, the temperature difference very small, no summer and winter seasons.
The annual average precipitation is over 2 OOOmm with numbers of rivers and
abundant water quantities.

22
5. Hydrogeological map of Asia

The hydrogeological map of Asia has been revised and compiled based on the
"Hydrogeological Map of Asia" edited by Prof. Zhang Zonghu and published in 1997,
and the regional groundwater aquifer type has also been revised in combination with
the latest data of new Asian geological map and geological map of central Asia and its
adjacent areas on the scale of 1:2,500,000. Groundwater storage type has also been
adjusted accordingly.
Fissure-pore water has been added based on the former three types of groundwater,
namely: unconsolidated rock pore water, carbonate rock karst water, clastic rock
fissure-pore water and other rock fissure water.
Water abundance has been represented by specific yield or spring flow with 5
degrees (Table 5).
Table 5 Water abundance of aquifer
Extremely Extremely
Water abundance Strong Moderate Weak
strong weak
Specific yield m3/h.m >30 10-30 5-10 1-5 <I

Spring flow m3/h >60 30-60 10-30 5-10 <5

The basins of multilayer structure pore water, hidden karst water and fissure-pore
water have been shown correspondingly; and the effect of freeze-thaw action on
groundwater recharge has been emphasized. The large karst springs (lOOL/s) and
subterranean rivers have also been shown on the map.
Regional groundwater types in Asia include: pore water, karst water, fissure-pore
water and fissure water, which have different spatial distribution, water abundance
and water quality characteristics.
Pore water occurs mainly in the unconsolidated loose sediment pores. It is widely
distributed within the Quaternary strata in the accumulation plain and the
intermontane basin. Pore water IS main source of water supply for industrial,
agricultural and domestic usage.
The distribution, recharge, runoff and discharge of pore water depend on the
sediment types, geological structure and features. Different pore water exists in
sediments of different origins. In the alluvial fans formed near the piedmont, thick
phreatic aquifer exists in the gravel formation; in the plains or the interior of the

23
basin, the confined pore water aquifer occurs as a result of interbeds of gravel and
clay. In gravel layer of downstream areas of the plain, the strip pore water aquifer
exists with limited width and thickness. In the coarse sediments of lake origin, thick
and stable layered pore water aquifer usually occurs. In the ice outwash sediments
transported and sorted by glacier melted water, pore water aquifer with good
permeability exists. The aquifer is essentially in laminar distribution, under the
natural state, free water surface of groundwater is consistent with layered burial
pattern of the aquifer. Pore water occurs in all the loose layer deposition, such as
plain alluvial pore water, intermontane basin or the valley alluvial pore water,
coastal plain alluvial, marine pore water, inland basin sediment pore water and
desert aeolian sand dune pore water.
Karst water exists in the corroded fissures and caves of soluble rocks of carbonate
rocks. Its development degree and distribution characteristics show its most obvious
features that they are unevenly distributed, in groundwater run-off belt, usually
subterranean river and big karst springs develop, underground rivers and karst springs
with the flow more than IOOLls have been represented on the map.
Fissure-pore water consists of clastic rock fissure-pore water and lava fissure-pore
water. Fissure-pore water occurs in the Jurassic and Cretaceous clastic rocks, especially
in the Mesozoic sedimentary basin, such as: Erdos, Junggar, Hailar, red beds in
Southern China basin, as well as Lena-Vilyuy basin in the Far East, and the basins of
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Iranian Plateau and Khorat Plateau. Fissure-pore usually has
good water quality. The size, morphology and the development degree ofIntergranular
pores formed in the clastic sedimentation are mainly affected by clastic structure (grain
size, sorting, grinding and accumulation degree). Therefore, fissure-pore water will be
shown on the map as individual type. At the same time, in the areas with overlying
loose pore water and underlying fissure-pore water and karst water distribution area, the
double-layer or multilayer structure will be represented on the map.
Fissure water includes magmatic rock fissure water and metamorphic rock fissure
water. Fissure water occurs in the fissures of consolidated and semi-consolidated rock.
In these rocks, due to different development degrees of fissures, fissure water is not
evenly distributed, often without uniform hydraulic connection. The aquifer
distribution is constricted by development degree of rock fissures. It is an important
water source in hilly, mountainous areas.
In the vast plains of Asia's continent are distributed large sedimentary basins,
especially Quaternary accumulated loose sediments have good water storage space,

24
therefore, groundwater is widely distributed, sediment is thick and water abundance is
high.
The precipitation is less in inland arid area and the evaporation is intensive in basin
and desert areas. Due to the fact that the basin can get recharge from the adjacent
mountains, groundwater in piedmont is rich and has good water quality.
The Himalaya Range uplifts due to the collision ofIndia Plate and blocks the warm
air mass of Indian Ocean to move northward, so the Loess Plateau in Central Asia is
dry and has less precipitation, the average annual precipitation there is only 200-600
mm, it is characterized by numerous gullies, serious soil erosion and water scarcity.
Carbonate rock in Asia is widely distributed, and can be divided into tropical karst,
subtropical karst, temperate karst and arid karst. Its characteristics show that water is
abundant, unevenly distributed, and regional and spatial-temporal change of water
quantity is great. The development degree of karst and geomorphology directly
restricts the occurrence conditions of karst water.
The polar perennial permafrost belt is widely distributed, large ice dunes play a
regulation role on groundwater. Discontinuous permafrost, especially the melting
zone along the rivers can recharge groundwater. The perennial permafrost of high
elevation areas in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau can recharge groundwater in the melting
areas along the lake, especially when the climate is getting warm in recent years, and
the perennial permafrost changes accordingly, which also has a certain effect on
groundwater.
Regional groundwater quality of Asia shows the regularities that freshwater
changes to saltwater laterally and freshwater and saline water alternate vertically.
Especially in arid, semi-arid area of central Asia, salt content of shallow groundwater
is higher. The chemical type of groundwater is complex.
The Asian continent has extremely long coastline, since the Pleistocene epoch,
sea-land alternation events occurred many times. Seawater intrusion as a result of
overexploitation of groundwater is also the cause inducing shallow groundwater
salinization, which has certain effect on water environment.

6. Groundwater resources map of Asia

Groundwater resources mappmg content includes: groundwater resources

(according to the groundwater system) zonation, groundwater resources types, natural

25
groundwater recharge modulus, groundwater natural resources, exploitable resources
and storage deep groundwater resources with mining conditions.

6.1 Groundwater resources zonation

Groundwater resources zonation: the groundwater resources zonation has been
made with ocean system, climatic geomorphology, hydrogeology tectonic unit and the
main river system as main division basis, at the same time, the groundwater resources
evaluation results of each region (country) have been referred.
Groundwater natural recharge resource is referred to gravity groundwater in
groundwater system that joins in modem water cycle and water alteration, and can be
restored and renewed. Generally it is represented by total groundwater natural
recharge under current water equilibrium conditions (not including return recharge of
groundwater irrigation). The natural recharge (runoff) modulus (104m 3 I Jan2 a) has
been adopted, for the countries and regions without groundwater resources evaluation,
the recharge intensity (mm/a) will be converted into unified natural groundwater
recharge (runoff) modulus. Based on the different landform, the average annual
precipitation, hydrological conditions, vadose zone lithology, recharge conditions of
aquifer media, the groundwater infiltration coefficient zonation has been made, then
has been converted into a unified natural groundwater recharge (runoff) modulus.
Exploitable quantity of groundwater resources means the maximum exploitation
quantity during the designed exploitation period with reasonable exploitation scheme
and without causing deterioration and environmental geological problems, it IS

commonly used in characterizing exploitable quantity of groundwater source site.

According to the groundwater seepage conditions and water storage characteristics
of water-bearing system, loose sedimentary continuous aquifer differs greatly from
the intermittent or sporadic groundwater seepage field of bedrock fissures and karst
caves, the water point of continuous aquifer is continuously distributed; while the
water point in bedrock fissures and karst caves is mainly in vein-shaped flow
discontinuous distribution; other aquifers impeded by relatively impervious media are
in sporadic distribution. Groundwater has been divided into three kinds of
water-bearing systems for resources assessment: 1) continuous aquifer in plain and
intermontane basin deposits, 2) discontinuous aquifer in hilly and mountain rock, 3)
other sporadic aquifer. Natural groundwater recharge modulus (104m3 I Jan2 a ) is
divided into five degrees: <10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-50, and <50. The natural
groundwater resources quantity and exploitation quantity have been reflected by

26
underground water system (or natural unit zonation).

6.2 Groundwater resources in Asia

A. Effect of climatic factors on groundwater recharge
The climate and landform in Asia control continental water and vapor flux, and
orographic precipitation also has a great impact on regional water cycle. The
characteristics of atmospheric precipitation in Asia are: temporal-spatial distribution
is not even, roughly decreasing from wet southeast to dry northwest, in central and
west Asia the most arid desert area is formed.
In the tropical and subtropical humid monsoon climate zone of eastern and
southern Asia, the precipitation is mainly affected by the warm wet airflow of the
Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean, the uplift landform in the middle part controls water
vapor flux, along the rainfall line> 800mm/a from the islands of Japan - Korean
Peninsula-Qinling Mountains-Qinghai-Tibet Plateau-Deccan Plateau toward the
Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean, the atmospheric precipitation recharges groundwater
abundantly. In East Asia, South Asia, India Peninsula, Indo-China Peninsula,
southeastern China, Korean Peninsula, Japan islands and eastern coast of Siberia,
there is much rain in summer and it is dry in winter due to the monsoon, the annual
precipitation gradually decreases from south to north, within the range of 600-1 000
mm, these regions are famous for monsoon rain in summer in Asia. In the individual
windward slopes, the precipitation is particularly rich, such as the famous world wet
corner-Cherrapunji. In the Malay Archipelago and the nearby rainforest area, as
controlled by the equator marine airmass, the temperature is high, and the humidity is
great, so the rainfall exceeds 2 OOOmm. Due to the fact that the sun moves across the
equator two times a year, so there are also two rainfall peaks in the year, but generally,
the seasonal precipitation is relatively uniform. In addition, in some areas, there is
also much precipitation because of the landward wind in winter and the orographic
uplifting, such as the western part of Japan islands, the southeast coast of China, the
eastern part of Indo-China peninsula, the eastern coastal areas of India Peninsula.
There is less rainfall in the West Asia and Central Asia, for these areas are
possessing the arid and semiarid climate. The vast desert basin is surrounded by the
plateaus and mountains and the ocean water vapor channel is blocked by mountain
ranges. The precipitation is mostly< 200mm/a, while the evaporation is often several
times of the precipitation. The recharge by precipitation in the desert basin is little,
groundwater recharge mainly comes from the surface runoff in mountainous terrain.

27
The Arabia Peninsula and the Iranian Plateau are located in the northeast trade wind
belts with the precipitation within the range of 150 - 200mm, even some areas
become desert. Along the coast of Asia Minor and in the east coast of the
Mediterranean Sea, the winter cyclones usually passes through under the influence of
the Mediterranean Sea, with much precipitation, but in the Asia Minor inland the
precipitation is less. The Central Asia is generally refers to the former Soviet Central
Asia, Tibet and Xinjiang of China and Mongolia, the closed plateaus and basins are
extensively distributed since the region is far from the sea. To the east and south the
region is surrounded by the mountains and the sea wind is difficult to enter, so the
annual precipitation is less, generally around 400 mm, and in some parts even less
than 100 mm, there is vast extent of desert in the inland. The seasonal variation of
atmospheric general circulation also affects the seasonal distribution of precipitation
of Asia. In winter the land cold wind prevails, and the precipitation is less; when the
winter land wind passes through the sea and changes into the moist air to land again,
it can also lead to winter precipitation; In addition, the invasion of the Atlantic
cyclone in the western Asia in winter brings snow to the northwest of Siberia, in the
piedmonts of Asia Minor, Iran and Central Asia, the winter rainfall can also form, and
it rains easily due to the effect of the terrain and cyclones. The West Asia is connected
to the and North Africa and the Mediterranean, belonging to winter rainfall region and
dry region with less rainfall. Besides, the Asian terrain also affects the formation of
precipitation as well as the distribution and intensity of the precipitation. For example,
the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau affects extensively on the precipitation distribution of Asia,
reflecting the difference of orographic precipitation.
The most part of Siberia in North Asia belongs to the temperate, it is extremely
cold all the year round in the northern coast and islands in the Arctic Ocean. The
precipitation in the North Asia decreases from west to east, with the annual
precipitation around 500mm in the west, less than 350mm in other areas and about
200 mm in the east. The West Siberia Plain is low and flat, with subarctic, frigid zone
continental climate, extremely cold and extensively distributed with swamps. The
basin sediments have been cut into small areas by many rivers, especially in the
frozen layer developed area, water on the freezing layer discharges through the valley
and permeable melting zone, and the alternating freezing and thawing action is active.
The recharge to groundwater is significantly affected by the seasonal freezing and
thawing, the alternating freezing and thawing area distributed with the seasonal frozen
layer is better groundwater recharge area. In perennial frozen layer area, the
28
groundwater is recharged by the ice dunes, there is runoff under the frozen layer water.
The Siberia generally has less rain, for it faces the Arctic Ocean. The precipitation in
the northern Asia decreases from west to east, but to the Pacific coast, the
precipitation is much affected by the marine monsoon. It is cold in the North Asia
with weak evaporation and wide distribution of the permafrost. Although the
precipitation is less, it is still cold wet environment.
B. Effect of surface water runoff on groundwater
Three fourth of Asian continent is mountainous area, surface water runs outwards
into the sea in the radiating pattern. The surface runoff at the mountain outlet in low
water period represents groundwater natural discharge of the mountainous area,
whereas in the tropical rain forest area there is no obvious seasonal distinction, so the
water resource is very rich and the exploitation and utilization of groundwater are less.
River water in plain basin and groundwater inter-transformation is obvious, generally
the river discharges groundwater in dry season and recharges groundwater in rainy
season, for example, the river water in the lower reaches of the Yellow River
recharges groundwater all year round; and the groundwater table continuously
declines in the North China Plain due to the overexploitation and groundwater is
recharged by the precipitation; the Quaternary continental and marine deposits in
Siberia Plain is 100-200m in thickness, almost covering the whole mesa. In the south
of West Siberia beyond glaciation area(south of latitude 60 degrees ), the loess (ice
age) and paleosol layer (interglacial) and lake facies, alluvial deposits are formed
since the Pleistocene, constituting valley terraces of the Yenisei, Ob,Irtysh and Tobol
rivers. From south to north the river mainly flows to embankment side of glacier that
periodically occurs, ice shell edge forms wide and complex blocked lake waters.
Groundwater is recharged by the Ob and Yenisei rivers. Because the West Siberia
plain terrain is very flat, so the river flows very slowly. Every spring, the upper
reaches of the Ob River flowing from south to north is first thawing, the Ob River
runs through the whole territory with dense river network (about 2000 rivers), lakes
and swamps. While at this time the lower reaches is still in frozen state, thus, water
from upstream is unable to pass through and causes water flood. Groundwater is
perennially in saturated state, thus forming the vast swamps and wetlands.
C. Evaluation results of groundwater resources in Asia
According to the hydrogeological conditions, recharge, runoff, discharge
characteristics of groundwater in Asia, the analysis of the effect of climate factors on
groundwater recharge and the relationship between atmospheric precipitation, surface

29
water and groundwater have been made. In hilly areas, the water balance method and
groundwater runoff modulus method have been used, while in the plain basins, the
water balance method with different hydrogeological parameters has been used to
estimate the results as the first stage groundwater system (Table 6). The evaluation of
groundwater resources is based on the data of atmospheric precipitation and land
hydrology with the time span of 30-60 years before the end of 20 I0, the study results
are not available in some countries and regions, such as Iraq, Afghanistan, for these
areas, the relevant analogy extrapolation method has been used.
Table 6 Groundwater resources of Asia unit: 109m 3 / a
Groundwater resources quantity
code Primary groundwater systems
Natural Exploitable
recharge resource resource

Temperate Semi-humid Groundwater System

I I 007.45 705.21
in Upland and Plain of Northeast Asia

Temperate Semi-arid Groundwater System in

II North China Plain, Upland and Loess Plateau
323.42 226.39

Temperate Semi-arid Groundwater System in

III 165.86 116.10
North China Plain, Upland and Loess Plateau

Temperate Arid Groundwater System m

N 845.67 591.97
Inland Basin and Hilly Area

Subtropical Arid and Semi-humid

v Groundwater System in Iranian Plateau-Asia 157.51 110.26
Minor Peninsula

Tropical Arid Groundwater System m

VI 213.60 149.52
Arabian Peninsula-Mesopotamian Plain

Alpine Frigid Groundwater System m

VII 490.96 343.67
Qinghai-Xizang Plateau

Tropical Humid and Semi-humid

VIII Groundwater System in Indus-Ganges River 587.80 411.46
Plain and Deccan Plateau of South Asia

Tropical Humid Groundwater System m

IX 201.66 141.16
Hilly Area ofIndo-China Peninsula

Subtropical Humid Groundwater System in

x Hilly Area and Plain of South China
309.90 216.93

Tropical Humid and Arid Groundwater

XI 357.45 250.21
System in Islands of Southeast Asia

30
7. Geothermal map of Asia

The geothermal energy is one of energy resources deriving from the earth's internal
part. The temperature of lava ejecting from a volcano is up toI200'C-1300'C, the
temperature of the natural hot springs is mostly above 60'C, and can reaches
100'C -140'C for some springs. This shows that the earth is a huge heat reservoir
and contains tremendous heat energy. The heat comes out to the surface to form the
geothermal resource. The geothermal resource is a kind of clean and renewable
energy with broad development prospects.
The geothermal resources in Asia are stored in modern volcanoes, uplifting
fractures and sedimentary basins, the regularities of their formation and distribution
are as follows:
A. Geothermal resource in modern volcano area
The volcanoes in Asia are mainly located along island arc of the West Pacific,
secondly located from Myanmar, Himalaya, Central Asia, West Asia to the
Mediterranean, at present above 90% volcanoes of Asia are distributed in these two
belts.
The high temperature geothermal resources of modem volcano type in East Asia
are mainly distributed in Kamchatka of Russia, Japan, Taiwan of China, Philippines
and Indonesia. These regions are located on the borders between eurasian plate,
Pacific plate and India-Australia plate, thus, the tectonic movement and volcanic
activities are intense with frequent earthquakes and remarkable high heat flow,
constituting the geothermal belt of island arcs of the west Pacific, within which the
high temperature geothermal systems of various kinds are developed.
The geological structure of Asian continent mainly includes the Pacific Plate and
Eurasian Plate and jointing island arcs of the west Pacific between Eurasian Plate and
Indian Ocean Plate. The geotectonic belts extends from the Aleutian Islands in
Northeast Asia, via Kamchatka islands, Kuril Islands, islands of Japan to Taiwan of
China, then southwards to the Philippines islands and Indonesia, one belt turns to
New Zealand, another turns northwards to Malaysia, Myanmar, and into Tengchong
region of Yunnan in China. In this region the Pacific Plate dips beneath to the Eurasia
Plate, the tectonics are mainly the deep trenches, the most of which are 4000-7 000 m
deep. Here the crust is thin with a thickness of only 6 - 30km, composed of basaltic,
granitic and sedimentary rocks, among these rocks the thickness of granitic crust is
less than that of continental crust and it is discontinuous. Along the island arc edges

31
the tectonics shows a strong deformation and the volcano activity is frequent within
the edges. It is essentially the mixed zone of the continental crust and the oceanic
crust. The seismic activity is very intense and the shallow earthquake occurs near the
trenches, the earthquake focus depth gradually increases towards inland; the heat flow
value is minimum in the trench, generally less than 41.7mW/m 2 (lHUF), is medium in
island arc and maximum round the edges. A magnitude 9 earthquake happened in
Japan on March 11,2011 is located near the trench in the sea area east of Japan.
The western part of the geothermal area links Himalaya and Mediterranean
geothermal belts. This region mainly covers the Himalaya Mountains formed by the
collision of southern India Plate and Eurasia Plate, as well as the plain south of the
Himalaya Mountains. The structure is characterized by nearly EW long-distance, deep
fractures. In this region high-temperature hot springs and geothermal fields are widely
distributed. Most volcanoes were formed in early Cenozoic, some volcanoes exists a
few thousand years, accompanied by the modern eruption.
The geothermal features in volcano high temperature geothermal areas are mainly
represented by the distribution of many modern volcanoes (group), in particular, the
active volcanoes (group) of recent times. In the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia, there
are about 160 volcanoes, in the islands of Japan about 260 volcanoes, in Philippines
around 52 volcanoes, in Indonesia about 145 volcanoes, in Malaysia, Myanrnar and
Yunnan of China only about 10 volcanoes. At present (last 50 years) still active
volcanoes are:
There are 28 active volcanoes in the Kamchatka Peninsula, about 50 in Japan, in
addition to volcano crater in this area, the average terrestrial heat flow values are
84-95mW/m 2 , and average geothermal gradient is 3-4 'C/lOO m.
From the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, the volcanoes extend southwards to Taiwan
islands and the southeastern coastal areas of China, in this area the modern volcano
groups are distributed in Mingxi of Fujian, Datun, Keelung, and surrounding areas of
Taiwan, and the Leizhou Peninsula, Weizhou Island, and Qiongbei of Hainan. These
volcanoes show the existence of high-temperature geothermal resources. The
temperature of volcano group in Datun reaches 120'C, to the depth of 2 000 m by
drilling the temperature can reach 290·C. There is no eruption records during the past
one hundred years and the eruption occurred in the Quaternary. In the eastern islands
of Taiwan there are evident volcano activities, in which the Guishan Island and Lanyu
Island are volcano islands, just located in the subduction zone of Pacific Plate. In the
Taiwan Island and nearby islands, the heat flow values show that average heat flow

32
value of the Taiwan Island is 70 mW/m2 . In Lingxiao, Xinzhu, Guanyin/Datun on the
west coast, the heat flow value is 80-100 mW/m 2 , locally is 250 mW/m2 The hot
springs are often located in the east and north in nearly NS distribution, mainly
controlled by the NS tectonics. There are more than 60 geothermal springs known,
with the temperature 50-90"C, the geothermal field with temperature higher than
100·C is in Datun volcano area. The average geothermal gradient in Taiwan Island
is 3-4 ·C 1100 m, higher in Datun, Qingshui-Tuchang and Lushan, where the
temperature can reach 18 ·C/I 00 m. Influenced by the structure, mainland coastal
areas west of Taiwan Island also exist high temperature geothermal fields.
Volcano belts extend from Taiwan Island southward to Philippines islands.
Controlled by the faulting tectonics, Philippines consists of numerous islands, and
modern volcano are developed.
Influenced by the Pacific Plate, India Ocean Plate, Eurasian Plate and the
Australian Plate, Indonesia possesses numerous islands, there are a total of more than
400 volcanoes, among which 100 are active. The volcanoes in Singapore, Malaysia
northwest of Indonesia had erupted mainly since the Cenozoic, and are dormant in
modern times. However, the terrestrial heat flow value is still higher, being
80-100mW I m2
In the continental area where India Plate and Eurasian Plate is bordered, namely
Myanmar, and Yunnan and Tibet areas of China, in addition to the existence of strong
folded mountains and deep fractures, there are still modern volcano eruption sites. In
Myanmar, volcanoes are mainly in the Cenozoic, however, in Yunnan of China exist
the modern volcanoes, with Tengchong volcano group as a typical representative, it is
located in jointing area of the India Plate and Eurasian Plate, underground fractures
are very developed, magma activities are very intense, and surface heat and water
activities are strong, there are a total of 97 dormant volcanoes. There have been only
380 years since last eruption. This area is characteristic of wide distribution of
geothermal springs, of which 92 are in Myanmar.
In addition to many high-temperature volcanoes ill this area, the geothermal
springs with a temperature more than 90·C are also extensively distributed, among
which more than 200 are in the Kamchatka Peninsula, about 1000 are in Japan, more
than 100 are in Philippines and Indonesia respectively. As the geothermal area
extends northward to Myanmar, the volcano reduces and hot springs increases, which
are about 90, but the temperature ( < 100·C ) is lower than that in Malaysia.
The jointing area of Malaysia, Myanmar and Yunnan Province of China as well as

33
India still belongs to the interconnected area of the Indian Ocean Plate and the
Eurasian Plate. In the area are distributed large-scale deep fractures with the NW-
NNW stride, but into Tibet of China changing from NW to NWW. The hot springs
are developed in this area but the modem volcanoes are not developed. Only in east
coastal islands of India, northern Myanrnar and Tengchong area of Yunnan are
distributed the modem volcanoes. The surface temperature of hot spring area is
90-l00·C, and hydrothermal activity is very developed, with its representative
high-temperature geothermal field in Tengchong, Yunnan of China. Although the
modem volcano activity is less in Tengchong and the last eruption of volcano was
nearly 380 years ago ( Ming Dynasty), yet there are many high-temperature hot
springs (> 80·C) (28), of which many are boiling springs.
Because Myanrnar is located on suture zone of Indian Ocean Plate and the
Eurasian Plate, the north-South regional active faults are developed, the heat source
still comes from a shallow magma chamber. In Myanrnar there are more than 90 hot
springs distributed in a north-south fault belt, with the surface temperature 40-60·C
and underground temperature < 1OO·C. The structural belt borders Yunnan Province
of China to the north, and Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands and Sumatra Island to
the south, composing the southern part of the suture zone of Indian Ocean Plate and
the Eurasian Plate.
In the Himalaya mountain area (also known as the Mediterranean - Himalaya
geothermal belt), the hot springs are widely distributed and modem volcanoes reduce.
Because the Himalaya Range area is in the suture line of India Plate and Eurasian
Plate, so in the plain south of Himalaya Range in northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, the
geothermal field is widely distributed, and mountainous hot springs and modem
volcanoes are distributed. Among them, Tibet of China is the area with the strongest
geothermal activity, geothermal reserves ranks the first in China, various geothermal
sources display almost throughout the whole area, amounting to more than 700342,
many of which can be developed. The surface water temperature of vast majority of
springs is higher than 80·C. In the 169 thermal fields and water zones investigated,
the springs with temperature higher than 80·C accounted for 22%, the springs with
the temperature between 60 to 80·C accounted for 26%, and the springs with the
temperature between 40 to 60·C accounted for 35%. The modem volcanoes in Tibet
Plateau are mainly distributed in Ashikule, Heishibei Lake, Spring Gully,
Dahongliutan, Kangxiwar, Hohxih, Jampaowe, YurbaCo, Muztag, Xiongyingtai,
Jingyu Lake, Duogecuoren. The last eruption is Ashikule volcano (1952). Damxung

34
Yangbajain and Nagqu showed the characteristics of high temperature geothermal
fields. The surface temperature of the hot springs is higher than 90'C, at the depth of
200 m, the temperature can reach 120-150·C. In the south slope of Himalaya Range,
more than 100 hot springs are distributed in Puga and Manikaran of Northwest India,
with the highest temperature 80-90'C and terrestrial heat flow value> 100mW/m2, in
Puga valley area, the flow of more than a dozen hot springs is 30-40Vs, and at the
depth of 1000 m, the temperature is more than 200·C. In Tatopani of Nepal, the
temperature of hot springs is up to 100·C. The geothermal feature is similar to that in
Yangbajain of Tibet and the heat source also comes from the transfer of shallow
magma chamber.
In Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iranian Plateau, the recent volcanoes are developed,
mostly have erupted since the Cenozoic era, dating back to thousands of years. For
modern volcanoes, only Taftan volcano in Pakistan erupted in 1993, the temperature
of hot spring is within the range of 35-40·C. There are 10 geothermal development
prospect areas in Iranian Plateau, the geothermal resources with better prospect are in
Sabalan and Khoy-maku northwest of Tehran and Azarbaijan and Damavand
northeast of Tehran. In Sabalathe borehole with a depth of 3 200 m has been drilled,
the temperature of geothermal water is 240'C, the geothermal gradient is 7-8'CI bm,
and the terrestrial heat flow value is > lOOmW1m2
Iran and Turkey are the western part of the Mediterranean - Himalaya geothermal
belt, with rich geothermal resources. In Turkey, there are three geotherrnal belts,
namely west geothermal belt, middle geothermal belt and east geothermal belt. At
present, 170 geothermal areas and 1500 hot springs and hot water wells have been
found, the geotherrnal resources rank the seventh in the world. The geothermal
resources are mainly distributed in the Anatolian Fault Belts in the north and central
and eastern part of Anatolia volcano belt (Fig. 6), the temperature of geothermal
resource is 20-242·C. The study on the development and utilization of dry hot rocks
in modern volcano area of eastern Anatolia began to be conducted. The temperature
of water in the oil well at the depth of 2 400-3 850 m in southeastern Anatolia is
83-138'C, with the geotherrnal gradient 3.5-3.6·C/hrn. In Kizildere geotherrnal field,
the temperature of water amounts to 242'C, and the geotherrnal power station with an
annual generation capacity of20.4MWe has been built. The terrestrial heat flow value
in Selimiye geotherrnal field can reach I 66mW/m 2, in other areas is 50-90mW/m2
B. Uplifting fracture type geothermal resource area
The status of uplifting fracture type geothermal resource area can be revealed by

35
the number of hot spring natural outcrops, heat intensity and exposed conditions of
outcrops. According to the statistical figures of natural outcrop distribution of
geothermal hot springs, the geothennal hot springs are mainly distributed in southern
Tibet, western Yunnan, western Sichuan and Taiwan, and the hydrothermal activity is
most intense, the outcropped springs, hot springs, geysers and water hot blasts are also
distributed in this area; there are also many hot springs distributed in Fujian,
Guangdong and Hainan, with the temperature higher than 80"C; there are not many
hot springs in the Northwest China. In the North China and the Northeast China, there
are also not many hot springs except Jiaodong and Liaodong Peninsula; in the
carbonate rock area of southeastern Yunnan, southern Guizhou, and western Guangxi,
there are no hot springs. From the distribution of the hot springs, it can be seen that
the geothermal activity intensity weakens with distance from the plate boundary. The
western Yunnan and both sides of the central mountains in Taiwan are located
respectively on the Indo-China Plate and the Eurasian Plate, and the Eurasian Plate
and the Philippines Plate boundary and its adjacent area, where is one of area with the
most intense tectonic activities and has the necessary geological structure conditions
and thennal background to produce strong hydrothermal activity and incubate
high-temperature water heat system. Near this belt, the geothermal activity is intense;
away from the belt, the geothennal activity gradually weakens. The geothermal
activity in southwestern China is intense in the south and the west and weak in the
north; while in the eastern part, the geothermal activity is intense in the east and weak
in the west.
Tong Wei and Liao Zhijie found that the high-temperature water heat zone is
distributed quite different from the late Cenozoic volcano. From the distribution of
Late Cenozoic volcano group and modem high-temperature water heat system in
China, it can be seen that the high-temperature water heat zone is far from Late
Cenozoic volcano areas and the most latter of which are low-temperature water heat
zones. For example in Jilin and Heilongjiang which are distributed with many late
Cenozoic volcanoes, there are no indications of existing high temperature heat, and so
far the hot springs with the temperature more than 25"C has not yet found.
Wudalianchi volcano group, although very young, only exposes cold mineral water.
Some springs in Jilin are distributed near the Changbaishan Mountains and Longgang
volcano area, with the temperature of 40-78"C. Through the measurement of
geochemical temperature indication, no possibilities of the existence of heat reservoir
have been shown. This indicates that the recent volcano activity in China is not the

36
necessary conditions to create high-temperature water heat system, in the
high-temperature flux plate edge region away from the volcano distribution,
high-temperature water heat system can still be formed.
In carbonate rock distribution area, usually the low temperature geothermal spring
water occurs. The outcropped carbonate rocks are widespread in China, with the
outcropped area about 12.5% of the total land of the nation, amounting to 120 x
104km2. In its distribution area, the hot spring with a temperature more than 60·C is
relatively rare. This is related to the solubility of carbonate rock formation, karst
development of outcropped area, better water circulation conditions, circulation of
deep geothermal water to shallow formation, and heat absorption by shallow low
temperature water.
C. Geothermal resources in sedimentary basin
The geothermal resources in sedimentary basin refer to the geothermal resources
that exist in the Cenozoic sedimentary basin without surface heat indication. Many
sedimentary basins in China, especially large sedimentary basins store abundant
geothermal resources with the following characteristics:
The large-size sedimentary basins are favorable for the formation and storage of
geothermal water resources. The thickness of large-size sedimentary basin
sedimentary is large, which not only consists of reservoirs of high porosity and high
permeability composed of coarse clastic materials, but also consists of heat and water
insulation layers composed of fine materials. The large sedimentary basin is also the
collecting area of regional water, and it possesses the hydrodynamic environment
favorable for the storage of hot water, makes groundwater flow into the basin to
absorb the rock heat. The sluggish zone of groundwater runoff in the basin will
become the ideal environment for hot water storage and will be the advantageous
location, for the development and utilization of geothermal water resources, especially
in the areas with great thickness of sediments and coarse clastic sedimentary layer at
depth. In the middle part of the large sedimentary basins in the North China, such
conditions exist. The small basins, especially the narrow mountainous basins are
located in groundwater alternating circulation zone, controlled by low-temperature
water flow and unfavorable for heat insulation. Within considerable depth, the
temperature of hot water is not high, such as in the Taiyuan Basin.
The low temperature background value determines the basin generally only stores
the low-temperature geothermal water. The terrestrial heat flow is a heat source of
geothermal reservoir in sedimentary basin. The regional heat flow values play a

37
decisive and important role for geothermal water. The terrestrial heat flow
hackground value of main sedimentary basins in China is within the normal range,
between 40-75mW/m2, it means within the limited depth (3 000 m) there are no
conditions for the formation of high-temperature geothermal resources, only
low-temperature (less than 90'C), partially middle-temperature (90-150'C),
geothermal water resources can occur. The temperature measurement data with
different depths in the geothermal fields of Xi' an is representative.
The temperature in each layer of the earth is not the same. The temperature will
rise 3'C with every decline of depth by lOO m from ground surface, in the
geothermal abnormal area, the temperature increases more greatly with depth. Asia
extends across the two plate edge geothermal zones-Mediterranean - Himalaya
geothermal zone and island arc geotherrnal zone of the west Pacific, and the vast
region of the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate, so the geothermal
resources are very rich in Asia. Asia ranks the front row in the world in the
development and utilization of both high-temperature geotherrnal resources and
low-temperature geothermal resources. In recent years, the study on geothermal
resources has been conducted in a great number of countries in Asia. In a drilling
well in the North China Plain, the temperature is 46.8'C at the depth of I 000 m
and reaches 84.5'C at the depth of 2 100 m. In another drilling with the depth of
5000 m, the bottom temperature is 180'C. According to the data, the temperature
of the bottom crust and upper mantle is approximately 1l00-1300'C, and the
temperature of the core is about 2000-5000'C. The middle and high-temperature
geothermal resources in Tibet are mainly distributed in southern Tibet, western
Tibet and northern Tibet. Yangbajain geothermal field in Tibet is the largest
high-temperature steam thermal field of China. The geothermal resources in Tibet
are hot springs, geysers, intermittent springs, hot river and hot ground with the
characteristics as follows: I) High temperature. 36 sites of geothermal resources
above the boiling point have been found in Tibet. 2) Numerous types. There are
water heat explosions in Tibet, such as the hot pool in Yangbajain; intermittent
springs, such as the largest intermittent spring of China in Tagejia of Qiere in
Angren County; boiling springs in plateau, distributed in the Gangdise Mountains,
such in the tributary area of Rujiaozangbu of Dajiling in Saga County; boiling mud
springs, distributed in Buxionglanggu of Cuomei County and Wuquantang of Sajia
County; geothermal steam, distributed in the Gangdise Mountains and south slope
of the Nianqentanglha Mountains. 3) Wide distribution. The geothermal resources

38
have been found in every county of Tibet, They are mainly concentrated in
"Sanjiang" region of eastern Tibet, Ngari region and the Brahmaputra valley. 4)
High intensity of heat releasing. The intensity of geothermal heat releasing in
Tibet ranks the first in Asia.

8. Conclusions

The mapping of hydrogeology, groundwater resources and geothermal resources in

Asia has received the support from the international cooperation organizations and
international experts participating in the project. The data mainly come from
published maps, documents and network information. The latest international research
results have been used (before the end of2010).
The most recently referred basic map for Asia was "Geological Map of Central
Asia and Adjacent Areas" published in 2008 on the scale of I: 2 500 000. The data
cover longer time span and research degree is quite different; the data for atmospheric
precipitation and land hydrology are long series data of 30-60years before 20 I0; the
data for groundwater and environment are mainly based on the various research
results, documents and maps since 2000. For some countries and regIOns,
hydrogeological research is far from enough, such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Malaysia,
Philippines, in this case, the relevant analogy extrapolation method has been taken
and the appropriate treatment has been made.
The mapping is based on the principle of considering both regional groundwater
characteristics of Asia and the similar international maps comparability. The main
reference for the mapping method is " Groundwater Resources Map of the World"
(1/50000000 and 1/25000000) compiled by UNESCO - the International Hydrological
Programme ( UNESCO - IHP ), the Committee of Geological Map of the World
(CGMW), International Association of Hydrogeologists (!AH), the International
Atomic Energy Agency ( !AEA ) and the German Earth Sciences and Natural
Resources Research Institute ( BGR ), " International Legend of Hydrogeological
Map" and "Legend of Groundwater Resources Map of the World". Based on the
former study results, especially with reference to the recently published "Groundwater
Resources Map of China", "Groundwater Resources Environment Map of China",
"Groundwater Resources Map of the World" and "Saline Groundwater Origin Map of
the World", and in combination with the analysis of mapping pattern in the field of

39
groundwater and environmental geology in Asia, America and Europe, the mapping
content and method suitable for hydrogeology, groundwater resources and geothermal
resources of Asia have been made. At the same time, groundwater resources and
environment geological database and information management system of Asia have
been established.
1) The basic principles of the mapping:
The principle to unifying mapping technique and coordinating the zonation map
and overall mapping: a mapping outline has been unified, the mapping content and
representation method suitable for hydrogeology, groundwater resources and
geothermal resources map have been made out. The mapping unit division has also
been unified.
The principle to jointing the International map technique and considering
groundwater and environmental characteristics of Asia: To refer the published
international mapping results, especially hydrogeology, groundwater resources and
geothermal resources mapping mode in the United States and Europe, to closely
combine with the study of groundwater resources and environmental characteristics of
Asia.
The principle to promoting technological innovation and take account of traditional
mapping technique: Based on the analysis of former mapping method, the mapping
method has been innovated in some extent, at the same time, to consider data balance
problem as a whole so as to reflect areas both with abundant data and with deficient
data.
The principle to increase academic exchanges and promote the academic
development: namely to increase international exchange and subject development of
hydrogeology by mapping work.
2) The mapping precision:
The mapping outline and technical requirements will be unified and mapping
accuracy will be normalized (on a scale of 1:8 000 000), the zonation mapping will
be on the scale of 1:5 000 000, the information or map from individual country or
regIOn IS on the scale of I: I 000 000-1:4 000 000; the compilation has been
implemented with united implementation rules and the mapping method and
content.
3) The innovative ideas of mapping and technical theory:
More attention should be paid to global change, energy crisis, resource shortage,
deterioration of the environment and geological disasters that seriously threat the

40
global environment and sustainable development of economy in Asian countries,
especially to water resource security and geological environment since they will
directly influence the sustainable development. The relation between groundwater and
continental structure, surrounding ocean system, geographic latitude, climate
horizontal distribution and terrain vertical zonation has been established and regional
hydrogeology and groundwater resources and underground geothermal reservoir have
been linked to make out new mapping concept so as to reflect gross characteristics of
groundwater resources and geothermal resources in Asia.
Groundwater resources and environment in Asian countries have been analyzed
and compared, and then practical mapping outline has been compiled, which reflects
hydrogeology, groundwater resources and geothermal resources characteristics in
mapping content and form of expression.
The satellite remote sensing (RS) technology, USA MODIS and NOYA data, have
been used to make remote sensing interpretation and mapping, and to study shallow
water resources and its environment conditions in the areas with relatively low
research degree or without data.
The real time management information system of groundwater resources and
environment in Asia has been established with the application of geographic
information systems (GIS) to realize the data inquiry, sharing and updating.
With the theory and technology of analogy, research degree and information
difference in groundwater and environment in Asia have been balanced and compared
so as to solve unified unit division of intercontinental large scale mapping.
The mapping, based on the Asian continental geology, geomorphology and natural
geographical conditions, fully analyzes relationship between groundwater and
continental structure, surrounding ocean system, geographic latitude, climate
horizontal distribution and vertical zonation, reveals main geological characteristics of
groundwater of the Asian continent and geological environment, and objectively
reflects the occurrence conditions of groundwater, groundwater quality, distribution
of groundwater resource and geothermal resource.
Serial Maps of Hydrogeology, Groundwater Resources and Geothermal Resources
in Asia have been compiled through the international cooperation. Through the
international cooperation on compiling maps, the academic exchanges in Asian
countries has been promoted, the academic exchanges among Asian countries has
been increased as well as the development of disciplines has been promoted. At the
same time, a profound understanding that groundwater and its environment are

41
closely related to the human survival and development has been got. With the
deepening of research, the mapping of intercontinental geological environment
remains to be further probed.
Acknowledgements: The compiler expressed heartfelt thanks to Chinese
Academy of Geological Sciences, Geological Society of China, Hydrogeological
Commission of Geological Society of China, Institute of Geology of Chinese
Academy of Geological Sciences, Institute of Karst Geology of Chinese Academy
of Geological Sciences, National Geological Library, China Institute of Geological
Environmental Monitoring, Development Center of China Geological Survey, Jilin
University, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), China University of
Geosciences (Wuhan), Chang'an University, Shijiazhuang University Of Economics,
Sino Maps Press, Geological Publishing House, Guangxi Bureau of Land and
Resources, Yunnan Bureau of Land and Resources, Heilongjiang Bureau of Land
and Resources, Inner Mongolia Bureau of Land and Resources for their substantial
support and help, to Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Water Resources,
China Meteorological Administration, Ministry of Environmental Protection and
Ministry of Agriculture for their technical information and data. Just before the
publishing of Serial maps of Groundwater in Asia, the Academician of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Prof Zhang Zonghu wrote the preface. The director of
Unesco Beijing Office, Prof Abhimanyu Singh also wrote the preface. The compiler
is greatly appreciated to Prof Li Tingdong, Prof Ren Jishun and Prof. Lin Xueyu
who all are academicians of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Prof Yin Yueping and
Prof Wen Dongguang from the Department of Hydrogeology and Environmental
Geology of China Geological Survey and Prof Shi Jiansheng from Institute of
Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology for their advice and help. Many thanks
are also to Shen Zhaoli, Duan Yonghou, Ren Fuhong, Ji Chuanmao, Fan Benxian,
Qin Yisu, Shao Jingli, Zhang Guanghui, Wang Guiling, Sun Jichao, Dai Xisheng
and Li Duo for putting forward many good suggestions for the compilation outline
and draft manuscript. The compiler particularly thanks Prof. He Darning from
College of Life Science, Yunnan University for providing the monograph
"International Rivers" and other research achievements on trans-boundary water
resources and Lancang- Mekong River Basin, Prof. Feng Zhongke from China
Forestry University for providing technical support in geographic information
system.

42
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ISBN 978-7-5031-7398-1
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