Contents

Deflagration Vs Detonation arresters....................................................................................................7

...............................................................................................................................................................8
Stable Detonation..................................................................................................................................8
Stable Vs Unstable Detonation..............................................................................................................9
Elmac Flame Arrester Models..............................................................................................................10
Vertical Vs Horizontal Installations..................................................................................................10
Element Design................................................................................................................................10
LCA in-line deflagration arresters....................................................................................................10
Drain ports.......................................................................................................................................11
LCA Spare elements.....................................................................................................................11
SGE in-line deflagration arrester......................................................................................................11
BGE (SGE).........................................................................................................................................12
ERB end of line units........................................................................................................................12
End-of-line Flame Arresters.............................................................................................................12
Weather Hoods...............................................................................................................................12
ESA Flame arresters.........................................................................................................................12
SV end of line...................................................................................................................................12
DFC Flame Arresters........................................................................................................................12
FE Flame arresters...........................................................................................................................13
Endurance Burning Vs Short Time Burn Flame Arresters.....................................................................13
Temperature Sensors..........................................................................................................................13
Temperature sensor Transmitters...................................................................................................13
Atmosphere Explosives........................................................................................................................14
ATEX Directive:................................................................................................................................14
PED (Pressure Equipment Directive)................................................................................................14
Pressure ratings...........................................................................................................................14
Sweet and Sour Service.......................................................................................................................14
Sweet Service..................................................................................................................................14
Sour Service.....................................................................................................................................15
Hazardous area classification..............................................................................................................16
EN IS0 16852 – Flame arrester testing standard..................................................................................19
Material restriction......................................................................................................................19
In-Line unstable detonation.............................................................................................................20
The use of flame arresters in manifold tanks...............................................................................20

1
 Regulations for use of flame arresters for a Manifold piping system..........................................20
Recommended practices for installation of detonation arresters in manifolds and examples:...22
Protection Strategy – layers of protection (number of independent measures).........................22
Pre-Volume flame arresters.............................................................................................................24
MESG (Maximum experimental safe gap).......................................................................................24
INSERT Explanation on how MESG is calculated experimentally.................................................24
Gas mixture MESG Calculation....................................................................................................24
Elmac Standard Units of Measurement...............................................................................................25
Pressure...........................................................................................................................................25
Flow rates........................................................................................................................................25
Flow rate in Nm3/h – speed of flow in pipe.................................................................................26
ASTM Codes.........................................................................................................................................26
Testing.................................................................................................................................................27
PMI Testing – Material testing.........................................................................................................27
DPI Material testing.........................................................................................................................28
MPI Material testing........................................................................................................................28
Cleaning flame arresters at ELMAC.....................................................................................................29
Incoterms – Delivery Options..............................................................................................................29
EXW – Ex Works...............................................................................................................................29
FCA – Free Carrier............................................................................................................................29
CPT – Carriage Paid to.....................................................................................................................29
CIP – Carriage and Insurance Paid to...............................................................................................29
DAT – Delivered at Terminal............................................................................................................29
DAP – Delivery at Place....................................................................................................................29
DDP – Delivery Duty Paid.................................................................................................................29
FAS – Free Alongside Ship................................................................................................................30
FOB – Free On Board.......................................................................................................................30
CFR – Cost and Freight.....................................................................................................................30
CIF – Cost Insurance and Freight.....................................................................................................30
Valves and Combination Units.............................................................................................................31
Aluminium Valves............................................................................................................................32
Proximity sensors on valves.............................................................................................................32
3B Controls..................................................................................................................................34
The requirement for detonation arrester beneath relief valves to pipe away................................34
Bursting Discs......................................................................................................................................35
Metal Rupture Discs........................................................................................................................35

2
 Bursting discs...................................................................................................................................36
Pros..............................................................................................................................................36
Cons.............................................................................................................................................36
Emergency relief vents....................................................................................................................36
Pros..............................................................................................................................................36
Cons.............................................................................................................................................36
Setting Emergency Relief Vents When No Set Pressure Has Been Given.............................................36
Detonation arresters for emergency venting..................................................................................36
Case study....................................................................................................................................38
SWA Purple Book (Scottish Whisky Association)..............................................................................38
Flash point...................................................................................................................................39
Wetted Surface Area – Tank Design................................................................................................39
Commercial.........................................................................................................................................40
Sodeco.............................................................................................................................................40
Element Pricing................................................................................................................................40
Mark-up on products bought in.......................................................................................................40
Price Mark-up Vs Margin.............................................................................................................40
Price Mark-up – Donadon SDD....................................................................................................41
Pricing..........................................................................................................................................41
Flame arresters with a carbon steel body but with stainless steel housing.................................41
Testing.............................................................................................................................................41
Warranty.........................................................................................................................................41
Lead time.........................................................................................................................................42
Lead time on valves in stock........................................................................................................42
Commission codes...........................................................................................................................42
Quotes reference codes..................................................................................................................42
Performance Bond...........................................................................................................................42
Project Documentation...................................................................................................................43
Proximity Switches..........................................................................................................................43
Pressure tapings..............................................................................................................................43
Hydrogen sulphide...........................................................................................................................43
Pressure Vacuum Relief Valves for Digester & EH Gas Systems..........................................................44
Pressure Relief Valves......................................................................................................................44
Anti-Vacuum Valves.........................................................................................................................45
Pressure vacuum relief valves.............................................................................................................47
Valve Sizing......................................................................................................................................47

3
 Valve Weights..................................................................................................................................48
Valve Leak Rate................................................................................................................................48
High pressure differential on the set pressures...............................................................................48
Material of construction..................................................................................................................49
Ball Valves............................................................................................................................................49
Finishes and Coatings..........................................................................................................................50
Halar ECTFE......................................................................................................................................50
Material...............................................................................................................................................51
Standard Carbon Steel.....................................................................................................................51
Sour Carbon Steels..........................................................................................................................51
Duplex Stainless Steel......................................................................................................................51
Norsok M650...................................................................................................................................51
Material Codes................................................................................................................................51
Stainless Steel..................................................................................................................................52
Low temperature carbon steel ASTN A350 LF2...............................................................................53
Stainless steel cast CF8M.................................................................................................................53
Dual Certification of austenitic stainless steel tubing......................................................................53
Killed Carbon Steel...........................................................................................................................53
Normalised......................................................................................................................................53
Temperature rating of A105........................................................................................................53
Forging.............................................................................................................................................54
Casting.............................................................................................................................................54
Galvanic Corrosion...........................................................................................................................55
NACE – National Association of Corrosion Engineers......................................................................55
Calculations of the Pipe Internal Diameters (ID)..............................................................................55
Connection Types................................................................................................................................56
BSPT connections............................................................................................................................56
BSPP Connections............................................................................................................................56
Size Conversion................................................................................................................................56
NPT Connections.............................................................................................................................56
Flanges.............................................................................................................................................57
Weld neck & slip on raised face flanges.......................................................................................57
PN10 & PN16 Flanges......................................................................................................................57
Hammer Unions...................................................................................................................................58
Spool Piece..........................................................................................................................................59
Piping schedules..............................................................................................................................59

4
 NACE................................................................................................................................................59
Painting............................................................................................................................................59
Free vents – Model coding system......................................................................................................59
Emergency relief vents........................................................................................................................60
3B ERV’s...........................................................................................................................................60
ERV spares.......................................................................................................................................60
ERV ATEX Rating..................................................................................................................................61
Testing.................................................................................................................................................61
X-ray / Gamma non-destructive testing...........................................................................................61
Ferrite Testing..................................................................................................................................62
HIC Testing.......................................................................................................................................62
Test for Hydrogen Induced Cracking................................................................................................63
Intergranular corrosion testing............................................................................................................63
Catalytic effects...............................................................................................................................64
Carbon monoxide........................................................................................................................64
Oxygen – Nitrogen ratio...............................................................................................................64
Projects................................................................................................................................................64
Customers...........................................................................................................................................64
Tecnair.............................................................................................................................................64
Ethanol (Alcohol) IIA Gas Explosion Group Technical Sheet............................................................65
Certification.........................................................................................................................................66
CUTR................................................................................................................................................66
EAC..................................................................................................................................................66
EN 10204 Type 3.2 Certification......................................................................................................66
Surface Treatments.............................................................................................................................66
Pickling and Passivated....................................................................................................................66
Miscellaneous......................................................................................................................................67
PREN Number..................................................................................................................................67
Acronyms.............................................................................................................................................67
Commodity Code.............................................................................................................................67
Packing specifications......................................................................................................................67
Lifting Lugs.......................................................................................................................................67
Jacking Screws.................................................................................................................................67
94/9/EC............................................................................................................................................67
CRM.....................................................................................................................................................68
Pressure Pile-up Protected Side on the Flame Arrester – Positioning Restraints................................68

5
Liens....................................................................................................................................................69
Type Testing........................................................................................................................................69
Applications.........................................................................................................................................70
Detonation Arresters that we have supplied...................................................................................70
Gas flare...........................................................................................................................................70
Distilleries........................................................................................................................................70
FPSO’s floating production storage and offloading..........................................................................70
Oil rigs (platforms)...........................................................................................................................71
LNG Tankers.....................................................................................................................................71
Biogas..............................................................................................................................................71
Eccentric vs Concentric for Biogas...............................................................................................71
Aluminium in Biogas........................................................................................................................72
Cowhorn Arrangement – Thames Water Specific Case................................................................73
Waste Water Treatment Plant.........................................................................................................74
NFPA 30 – Flammable & Combustible Liquids Code............................................................................76
Fire case emergency venting (B.L.E.V.E)..............................................................................................76
References...........................................................................................................................................76

6
Deflagration Vs Detonation arresters

Firstly, to understand the difference between a deflagration and a detonation event in a pipe it is
best to initially look at how a flame front propagates down a pipe upon first ignition of the
flammable gas.

When the gas is firsts ignited the flame front propagates at a speed below the speed of sound in the
vapour, and this is known as a deflagration. As the flame front is in a confined pipe its speed and
associated pressure increases until it reaches a critical point where the flame front transitions from a
deflagration into a detonation. This stage of the transition is characterised by the flame coupling of
the flame front and the pressure shock wave. As the flame front and shock wave continue to speed
up they progress into stage known as an overdriven detonation in which the flame front is
propagating at a speed in excess of the speed of sound in the vapour. Such an event is a short-lived
phenomenon and the detonation will stabilise into stable detonation, as can be seen on the below
graph.

Deflagration Detonation
Arrester Arrester

As can be seen above a different type of flame arrester will be needed to deal with each deflagration
or detonation situation.

7
As our detonation arresters are manufactured to be more advanced with a sturdier construction in
order to withstand the much higher impact pressures, and associated shock waves of a detonation
event, the arresters themselves are intrinsically more expensive to design and manufacture.

Our detonation arresters are market leaders in flow performance, as can be seen below in the
pressure drop vs flow curve for the 6” model below. This means that our flame arresters have a
lower pressure drop, are less susceptible to clogging and therefore will require less maintenance in
comparison to competitor brands.

Stable Detonation

It is important to emphasise that a stable detonation event can only occur after an unstable
detonation has occurred. The point at which these events occur is heavily dependent on pipe
diameter, piping configuration, pipe type (e.g. smooth welded, or rough with flanged joints),
gas/vapour type, gas/vapour concentration in air, operating temperature and operating pressure.

Only in controlled laboratory conditions with stoichiometric test gases can the position of these
events be predicted with some certainty. In process plant it is far more likely that gases/vapours
other than the standard test gases (propane, ethylene or hydrogen) will be handled, in
concentrations towards the lean or rich limits of flammability and in pipe containing numerous
bends, valves etc. These factors will affect how explosion protection, in particular detonation
arresters, is applied.

8
Stable Vs Unstable Detonation

The following explanation is provided to help understand the important distinctions between unstable
and stable detonation arrestors.

In enclosed venting systems where flammable vapours are present, flame propagation post ignition
will essentially start as a slow deflagration, and if the system permits, will accelerate to a detonation
via a phenomenon known as “Deflagration-to-Detonation Transformation” (DDT). DDT will occur when
the highly pressurized vapours ahead of the flame front encounters the flame front.

When this takes place, an explosion occurs and the pressure wave ahead of the flame front becomes
a shock wave. This shock wave produces tremendous compression of the gases from the initial point
of DDT and a flame driven shockwave propagates at or above the speed of sound. The flame front
then in a dynamic state known as an unstable or overdriven detonation. This is the most severe state
of flame propagation which moves at supersonic or even at hypersonic velocity while generating
extremely high localized pressure before stabilizing into a stabilized detonation event. These key
events are depicted in the below schematic.

According to ISO 16852, device approved as "stable detonation arresters" have not been tested
against the severe mechanical and thermal effects of multiple unstable detonations. Stable detonation
arresters are built to lower standards than the unstable types and when subjected to the DDT will be
often be mechanically destroyed because of the extremely high dynamic loads exerted with unstable
detonations for which they are not designed for. Therefore stable-only detonation arrestors alone do
not provide adequate protection against the most severe detonation events. Flame arresters which
are designed for stable detonations require up to 2 additional independent measures of protection
(according to EN ISO 16852) which add to capital, installation and maintenance costs.

9
Because of the unpredictability of detonation events, in practice no other device can give the universal
protection without the need to consider possible location and use of additional protective systems.
Therefore, using stable detonation arresters in isolation potentially risks loss of life in conjunction with
putting the plant process equipment at risk.

We would strongly recommend that flame arrestors that have been tested and certified as
effective for protection against unstable detonations be used in vapour recovery applications.

Please also find attached our fuel distribution product guide for your perusal along with two
aminations found in the links below:

 https://vimeo.com/242470460
 https://vimeo.com/218989894

Anand Email
“We know that Protego and our prices are similar, and competitive. But, since FNC are involved we
have heavily discounted the prices. We request you keep your margins at a reasonable level to try to
win our first order together.

Please note that we have offered high temperature unstable detonation arrester, which to our
knowledge, FNC does not have. Protego might offer stable detonation arresters which are unsafe as
per the latest ISO 16852 standards for flame arresters. Please submit the below information to client
in your bid.

ISO16852 clearly states the following;

 7.4.4 Detonation flame arrester

 Detonation flame arresters may be used for open and closed pipe work on the unprotected side.
Detonation flame arresters tested at pTB are suitable for operational pressures p0 u pTB in the same or
smaller pipe size when the application is limited to mixtures with an MESG equal to or greater than
that tested.

Unstable detonation flame arresters (Type 1 and Type 2) are designed and tested for stopping
deflagrations and stable and unstable detonations; there are no limits imposed on their installation.

Stable detonation flame arresters (Type 3 and Type 4) are designed and tested for stopping
deflagrations and stable detonations; they shall only be used in combination with additional protection
measures. This fact and suitable additional measures shall be addressed in the instructions for use
(see 11.1).

 It goes on to explain these “additional protection measures;

 11.1 Instructions for use

 h) stable detonation flame arresters shall only be used in combination with additional protection
measures, e.g. flame arresters and/or explosion isolation systems in series, as well as measures for
concentration control and for ignition source control; the integral safety of the combined installation
shall be assessed, taking account of any hazardous area classification and of the likelihood of
possible ignition sources (see Annex D for guidance);

 It is much safer as “there are no limits imposed on their installation” and commercial advantageous
(only one piece of equipment to be installed & no additional concentration or ignition control
measures) to install an Unstable Detonation Arrester.

Please feel free to contact me for any clarifications. “

10
Elmac Flame Arrester Models

Vertical Vs Horizontal Installations

For vertical installations we would recommend a concentric flame arrester body design as this body
type will have a more uniform flow through the flame arrester in comparison to the eccentric flame
arrester.

Concentric body designs should also be favoured preferentially over eccentric body designs with
regards to the larger flame arrester sizes due to the more balanced weight distribution which will
put less stress on the piping.

Element Design

Advantage of e-flow design in flame arresters

Greater free surface area than competitors, less restriction on air flow so lower pressure drop due to
an optimized cell height.

In an unstable detonation the flame font propagates at a supersonic velocity and is characterised by
a shock wave. Approximate flame speeds are 3000 m/s and the shock wave can exceed 120bar.

Elmac unstable detonation arrester contains a high energy dissipation system (HEDS) which
attenuates the shock wave and protects the flame element. This also acts as an orifice plate which
reduces the volume of gas flow in turn speeding up the flow rate in order to reduce the pressure
drop.

LCA in-line deflagration arresters

LCA – 080 A S – 150 – 1.2 (-S) (-E)
 LCA – Model
 080 – Size in MM
 A – Connection type
 S – Housing material
 150 – Element size
 1.2 – Operating pressure
 (-S) – Short time burn
 (-E) – Elevated temperature

L is used to denote ‘In-line deflagration’

C is used to denote concentric reducer
A is used to denote gas group A

11
 2 banks = Normal LCA 3 bank = High pressure LCA

 Pressure >200mbar quote 3 bank FA

Add £120 for one thermocouple sockets.

Drain ports
Drain ports cost to us without mark-up £30.00

LCA Spare elements

Mark up LCS Spare Elements by 15%.

SGE in-line deflagration arrester

 SGE50IB DEF
 SGE50IB DEF/E – Eccentric
 SGE50IB DEF/V – High temperature
 SGE50IBS DEF – Stainless steel
 SGE50IBS DEF/E
 SGE50IBS DEF/V

BGE (SGE)

A BGE is an SGE which was marketed as specifically towards the Biogas industry – the B standing for
Biogas.

ERB end of line units

*ERB -050AS-125(W) – Connection ANSI #150 RFSO (Raised face slip on flange)

*ERB-050FS-125(W) – Connection NPT (Female)

12
*ERB-050PS–125(W) – Connection BSP-P (Female)

RFSO – Raised face slip on flange

RFWN – Raised face weld neck

NB = Nominal bore = Inside diameter (1D)

End-of-line Flame Arresters

Weather Hoods

End of line flame arresters have been tested in conjunction with a weather hood to ATEX and so the
hood is part of the design. The weather hood provides protection to the element against
atmospheric explosion and so removing the weather hood will void the certification.

ESA Flame arresters

Are not supplied with a cable for the temperature sensor and just come with the sensor unit as
standard.

SV end of line
SV25MH – Male connection – hood

SV25FH – Female connection – hood

This range is 11B3 end of line flame arrestors.

DFC Flame Arresters

DFC-050AD-2 D stands for cast carbon steel

DFC-050AT-2 T stands for cast stainless steel

FE Flame arresters

FE-IE inline flame arrester

When using the FEIE model for inline combination valve use FEEXH pressure drop calculator on the
intranet and multiply the pressure drop value by 1.2 to adjust for the FEIE model.

FEEX (H) end of line flame arrester

13
Endurance Burning Vs Short Time Burn Flame Arresters

Stabilised burning is a phenomenon that can occur when a flammable mixture of gas/vapour and air
which is passing through the flame arrester ignites and, due to certain process conditions e.g. the
flow rate, continues to burn on the surface of the flame arrester element. This situation is more
likely to occur during uncontrollable venting of atmospheric storage tanks and flame arresters used
in such applications often need to be endurance burn proof, which means that they can withstand
premixed burning for an indefinite period.

As per ISO 16852, if the flame is stabilized on the element for more than 30 minutes, then an
endurance proof flame arrester can be used; we cannot specify what the client requires as it is up to
them to dictate their process requirements. Whilst endurance burn arresters are available, their use
in must be questioned since it effectively allows an undetected fire to burn indefinitely on the
element which can be a fire hazard. This stabilised flame on the unprotected side of the arrester
housing causes the element to glow red hot and even when the flame is extinguished the gas stream
can reignite on contact with the element as it flows through the flame arrester.

We would advise that short time burning flame arresters with temperature sensors should be used
preferentially to endurance burning arresters. Opting for short time burning arrester with the
temperature monitoring equipment is a far safer approach to prevent prolonged burning on the
flame arrester element. Fitting a temperature sensor is, in any case, essential to raise an alarm and
stop the flow of gas through the flame arrester to prevent any major accident.

According to regulations such as TRbF 20, using detonation arresters with a suitably long vent pipe
can ensure that burning cannot occur on the arrester element.

Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors are supplied with 1/2 “BSP ports and cost us £58.28 per sensor. Selling price is
£350 per port and temperature sensor.

Temperature sensor Transmitters

If a transmitter is needed there are two types:

ATEX In-Head Transmitter £70.56 (Cost to us) Selling Price: £130

Safe Area In-Head Transmitter £41.90 (Cost to us) Selling Price: £90

Atmosphere Explosives

ATEX Directive:
2 EU directives describing what equipment and work environment is allowed in an environment with
an explosive atmosphere.

14
The ATEX directive consists of two EU directives describing what equipment and work environment
is allowed in an environment with an explosive atmosphere. ATEX derives its name from the French
title of the 94/9/EC directive: Appareils destinés à être utilisés en ATmosphères EXplosibles.

There are two ATEX directives (one for the manufacturer and one for the user of the equipment):

The ATEX 95 equipment directive 94/9/EC, Equipment and protective systems intended for use in
potentially explosive atmospheres;

The ATEX 137 workplace directive 99/92/EC, Minimum requirements for improving the safety and
health protection of workers potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres.

PED (Pressure Equipment Directive)

Pressure equipment Directive – EU set of standards for design and fabrication of pressure
equipment.

International Organisation for standardization (ISO) – World’s largest developer of international

standards and facilities, World trade by providing common standards between nations.

Pressure ratings

Flame arresters up to 4” can operate up to a gas pressure of 0.6barg. Any flame arresters larger than
4” only have a pressure rating up to 0.5barg.

Sweet and Sour Service

Sweet Service

The terms sweet and sour are a reference to the sulphur content of crude oil. Early prospectors
would taste oil to determine its quality, with low sulphur oil actually tasting sweet. Crude is currently
considered sweet if it contains less than 0.5% sulphur.

Sweet crude is easier to refine and safer to extract and transport than sour crude. Because sulphur is
corrosive, light crude also causes less damage to refineries and thus results in lower maintenance
costs over time. Due to all these factors, sweet crude commands up to a $15 dollar premium per
barrel over sour.

Sour Service

"Sour Service" refers to a well environment containing Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2S), which is hazardous
to human health and could significantly impact steel drilling tubulars performance. It is well known
that H2S is hazardous.

Sour crude oil will have greater than 0.5% sulphur and some of this will be in the form of hydrogen
sulphide. Sour crude also contains more carbon dioxide. Most sulphur in crude is actually bonded to

15
carbon atoms, nevertheless, high quantities of hydrogen sulphide in sour crude can pose serious
health problems or even be fatal.

16
Hazardous area classification

Hazardous area – an area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is or may be expected to present, in
quantities such as to require special precautions for the construction, installation and use of
equipment. Hazardous areas are classified into 3 zones based upon the frequency if the occurrence
and duration of an explosive gas atmosphere as follows:

ZONE 0 – Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is [resent continuously for long periods of time.

ZONE 1 – Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in a normal operation
occasionally.

ZONE 2 – Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation, but, if
it does occur will persist for a short period only.

Combustion will only occur if the flammable mixture comprising fuel, in the form of a gas or vapour
and air, is within certain limits, which are: lower explosive limit and the upper explosive limit.
Between this limit is known as the flammable range.

Flash point is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour given off a liquid to form a
flammable mixture with air that can be ignited by a spark.

Extent of zone: distance in any direction from the source of release to the point where the gas/air
mixture has been diluted by air to a valve below the LEL (lower explosive limit)

The extent of the zone depends on the estimated or calculated distance over which an explosive
atmosphere exists before it disposes to a concentration in air below its lower explosive limit with an
appropriate safety factor.

Grades of release

3 Basic grades of release in order of decreasing frequency and likelihood of the explosive gas
atmosphere being present may occur:

Continuous grade of release – release which is continuous or is expected to occur frequently for long
periods

Primary grade of release – release which can be expected to occur periodically or occasionally during
normal operation.

Secondary grade of release – release which is n0ot expected to occur in normal operation and, if it
does occur, is likely to do so only infrequently and for short periods.

Continuous grade release >1000h

Primary grade of release > 10-1000h

Secondary grade of release > 1-10h

Grade of release is dependant solely on the frequency and duration of the release grade. Grade of
release is independent of the rate and quantity of release, the degree of ventilation or
characteristics of the fluid.

17
In open air conditions here is a relationship between grade of release and zone to which it gives rise.

 A continuous grade of release normally leads to zone 0

 A primary grade to zone 1
 A secondary grade to zone 2

However, grade of release and zone are not synonymous. Poor ventilation may result in a more
stringent zone with high ventilation the course it true.

Release rate

He greater the release rate, the bigger the extent of the zone. Release rate depends on:

Geometry of the source of release

Release velocity

Convention

Liquid temp

Effectiveness of ventilation in controlling dispersion and persistence of the explosive atmosphere will
depend on:

Degree and availability of ventilation

Design of the ventilation system

Main types of ventilation

Natural ventilation (wind, temperature, gradients)

Artificial ventilation

Degree of ventilation – 3 degrees of ventilation are recognised in IEC60079-10-1

HIGH – can reduce the concentration at the source of release virtually instantaneously routing in
concentration below the LEL.

MEDIUM – can control the concentration

LOW – cannot control he concentration whilst releasing is in progress

Openness

An area can be classified in 3 categories with respect to confinement:

 An open area
 A sheltered, partially closed, partially confined area.
 An enclosed area

Adequate Ventilation

Adequate ventilation is defined as ventilation sufficient enough to prevent the accumulation of

concentrations of flammable groups. This will normally be achieved by uniform ventilation rate of at
least 12 volumetric changes per hour with no stagnant areas.

18
Dilute ventilation

Dilute ventilation shall be sufficed to immediately bring the flammable gas connection below 20% of
the lowest flammability limit LFL and keep it so all the time.

Pressurization

Pressurization shall be provided to ensure the protection of a room or building:

 Containing electrical equipment or other potential sources of ignition and located in a

hazardous area where flammable gasses or vapours may enter.
 Containing sources of release and surrounding by a safe area containing electrical
equipment or other potential sources of ignition

The difference in pressure to be maintained shall be greater or equal to 25Pa

Classification of petroleum

CLASS = Relates to FP and handling temperature. For flammable liquids, volatility determines the
extent of rapid formation of any release.

Category indicates to which extent a fluid on release can form a flammable mixture with air. This is a
determining factor in the calculation of the hazard radius.

19
EN IS0 16852 – Flame arrester testing standard

International standard to which flame arresters are tested.

In line deflagration arrester installed <<50D (SO pipe diameter lengths away)

Pipe on unprotected side must be within 50D of ignition source.

Pipe must be the same size as FA

Allow >> 10D on protected side before bends.

No more than one 90-degree bend on unprotected side of arrester.

Material restriction
Elmac doesn’t sell aluminium body flame arresters, mainly due to a chemical compatibility issue with
certain gasses as well as the ATEX directive not permitting supplies of flame arrestors to use this
material.

20
In-Line unstable detonation
Can be placed any distance from ignition source.

Pipe must be the same size as FA

Allow >>10D on protected side before bends

Any number of bends allowed as sources of flame acceleration are no of concern

An unstable detonation arrester can be used in a ‘pre-volume’ case if the pipework extends 120 pipe
diameters away.

The use of flame arresters in manifold tanks

The location of their potential ignition source is always important o selecting the proper flame
arrester. Vents are potential sources of ignition. Regarding the MEY group application, however,
there should be some additional requirements due to the manifold piping system and the vapour
spaces of tanks being zone 0 as the flash point of ethyl alcohol is 13 degrees Celsius for 100% ethanol
and 22 degrees Celsius for 60% ethanol. The manifold piping system requires a high-level protection
due to facing high level consequences.

With regard to flame arresters against flame transmission in the manifold piping system, a
detonation flame arrester for each tank is required, in addition to a flame arrester installed on the
common line (inline deflagration flame arrester) for inline detonation flame arrester or on the
venting point (end of line arrestor) to prevent flame propagation into the manifold piping system.

On the other hand, when a tank containing flammable liquid overfills, fire or explosion may be very
likely to occur. Any spark nearby may ignite flammable vapour released from the tank, accordingly,
an emergency vent is also required for each above ground storage tank in the tank form. This empty
venting requirement for every aboveground storage tank is in fact specified in NFPA 30. The scotch
whiskey industry follows NFPA 30 and requires emergency vents due to external fires.

Because the configuration of the pipe plays a key role in determining the type of flame front created
within it and further turbulence – creativity devices (such as bends, teas, junctions) may cause
deflagration o detonation transition in a shorter length of pipe, some regulations and the mist
accepted recommended practices relating to the protection of a manifold low pressure flammable
liquid storage tank against the hazards of explosion required:

 A deflagration flame arrester to be installed as close to as possible to the ignition point or an

end of line deflagration flame arrester to be installed on the venting point.
 A detonation flame arrester of a proper size for each tank
 Pressure and vacuum relief valve

Regulations for use of flame arresters for a Manifold piping system

 TRbF20 (German technical regulations for flammable liquids) requires a: burning flame
arrester and detonation arresters.
 USCG regulations require use of detonation flame arresters in piping system and in
vapour collection systems.

21
  API 2028 requires detonation flame arresters in piping systems where he conditions
within the piping may be significantly different from the conditions for which they were
designed or tested. It is advisable to install only flame arresters that that have been
designed and tested for detonations. In some situations, this is required for regulatory
compliance.
 NFPA 67 recommends using detonation flame arrestors for each tank in manifolded
piping systems or a tank form. The examples show only an in-line detonation arrester
can provide sufficient safety.
 EN ISO 26852:2008 Suggests that detonation flame arresters should be used in a
manifold tank system. Annex D of ISO 16852 cites “safety concept” – layers of protection
that is independent measures that reduces the likelihood of an event or the
consequences of such an event should it occur, by control, prevention or mitigation.

According to 16852 a stable detonation arrester has to be installed in combination with an additional
protection measure, in the example (A) this is a deflagration arrester in series.

According to 16852 no further installation limits are imposed on unstable detonation arresters.

Configuration A actually implies the deflagration flame arresters may not be reliable (not 100% safe)
or fail.

Although ISO 16852 specifies stable detonation flame arresters shall only be used in combination
with additional protection measures, e.g. flame arresters and or/explosion isolation systems in
series, the use of stable detonation flame arresters instead.

Of unstable detonation flame arresters is fundamentally flawed because the level of risk is
unacceptable. For example: what the deflagration flame arrester fails in configuration A, the stable
detonation flame arrester could still encounter unstable detonation and consequently fail, i.e. with
or without the deflagration flame arrester installed, the end results of using stable detonation flame
arresters are the same.

According to the above mentioned regulations including ISO 16852, it is best practice to install
(unstable) detonation flame arresters for each tank in the manifold tank system to prevent tank
explosions.

22
Recommended practices for installation of detonation arresters in manifolds and examples:
Unless detonation flame arresters are installed in the manifold piping, it may not stop the
propagation of a combustion wave (flame) in the piping

(Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook) Recommends inline detonation flame arresters to be

installed in a vapour collection system connecting several tanks.

(Myers), Above Ground Storage Tanks – manifold venting of tanks may be used where required for
special purposes such as vapour recovery, vapour conservation or air pollution control.

‘The most significant of these that is not encountered with a tank that is vented to the atmosphere is
the possibility of misapplying a flame arrester. In these circumstances a detonation arrester may be
used, but even a detonation arrester has limitations’.

‘Mani-folding tank vats together creates increased explosion hazards because there is the possibility
that the entire manifold system may be within the combustible range and provide an ignition source
to any of the connected tanks’.

‘Since passive flame arrester devices are effective only under specific conditions (temp, pressure,
flow, composition, piping, configuration), all the variability to which a process subjects the device
must fall within its ability to operate as intended’.

(Amal (Safety Systems UK), n.d.) Recommends an inline flame arrester for each tank.

An inline detonation flame arrester must be used whenever there is a possibility of a detonation
occurring. There is always a strong possibility in vent manifold systems due to long pipe run
distances or turbulence, producing elements in the piping including obstacles, bends/elbows, tees
and junctions which can significantly reduce the run-up distance for a deflagration – to detonation
(DDT) to occur.

A review of storage tank incidents indicates that lightening was the most frequent cause of accident
& maintenance error was the second most frequent.

Protection Strategy – layers of protection (number of independent measures)

(Association) (Association, NFPA 69) Have given some example of the use of layers of protection in
chemical process industries. Below shows a Zone 0 waste-gas incineration process requires three

23
layers of protection, which clearly indicates that only deflagration flame arresters (layer 2) is not
enough and a further detonation flame arrester (layer 3) connecting to tank is required:

Table below gives number of independent measures required against flame transmission when
facing hi level consequences.

The likelihood of an explosive atmosphere and an ignition source being present determine the
number of layers of protection that need to be provided.

Ignition Explosive Atmosphere

Source Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2 Never
Always 3 2 1 0
Sometimes 2 1 0 0
Rarely 1 0 0 0
Never 0 0 0 0

The schematic overleaf shows a waste-gas incinerator in which the waste gas is processed and
classified as Zone 0. This is because the combustor is a permanent ignition source during normal
operation, according to the table above three independent protection measures are necessary to
protect plant and storage area from flashback of the flare.

A first measure can be use of a feeding system i.e. flow control on the air/nitrogen feed lines to the
burner inlet nozzle, which is safe against flashback. This can be achieved by monitoring and
controlling the velocity of the feed flow.

The second layer of protection can be being an inline deflagration flame arrester installed as close as
possible to the source of ignition. This deflagration FA should be a short burn with a temperature
sensor to detect a stabilised flame on the FA element.

The third layer of protection is a detonation FA installed in line with the potential ignition source.

These 3 independent measures ensure a high level of safety.

24
In the case of MEY Group Project (Zone 0), the manifold tanks require two layers protection for high
level consequences. In addition to a FA installed to prevent flame propagation into the manifold
piping system, a detonation FA for each tank should be used in a manifold tank farm. Otherwise,
one tank failure would lead to all the tank explosions.

Pre-Volume flame arresters

Prevents flame transmission from inside of an explosion-pressure-resistant containment after

ignition by an internal ignition source (e.g. vessel or closed pipe works) to the outside or into the
connection pipe work)

MESG (Maximum experimental safe gap)

Maximum experimental safe gap.

INSERT Explanation on how MESG is calculated experimentally

Gas mixture MESG Calculation

330₂ + 2CH₄ + 3C₂H₅OH + 4C₃H₈ - 2OCO₂ + 29H₂O

2CH₄ + 4O₂ - 2CO₂ + 4H₂O

3C₂H₅OH + 9O₂ - 6CO₂ + 9H₂O

4C₃H₈ + 20O₂ - 12CO₂ + 16H₂O

ƆC = 4/33 = 0.121 Original MESG = 1.14

ƆC = 9/33 = 0.272 Original MESG = 0.89

ƆC = 20/33 = 0.606 Original MESG = 0.92

MESG = 1 = 0.934mm

0.121/1.14 + 0.272/0.89 + 0.606/0.92

25
Elmac Standard Units of Measurement

Pressure
Bar Gauge Bar(g)

Bar gauge is open to the atmosphere and uses atmospheric pressure as its base value. “Ambient”
will need O, a vacuum will read as a negative (E.g. -0.5bar) and pressure will read as a positive (E.g.
2.2 bar).

Bar absolute Bara

Bar absolute is set to a nominal absolute vacuum. Zero in his core would be a complete vacuum. A
vacuum will read as e.g. 0.5 bar and pressure valves will read approx. 1bar higher than gauge.

Example: If a tank has a positive pressure of 350mBar and the atmospheric pressure of the day is
1006 mBar then readings would be:

BarG = 350mBar G

BarA = 1356 mBar A

Atmospheric tank pressure = +10mbarg, -5mbarg (Design pressures)

To convert pascals – mbarg – pascals/100 10mbar=1000 pascals

Flow rates

Unit is Nm 3/h which is normal meters cubed per hour. Normal refers to O degrees Celsius and
atmospheric (standard atmospheric pressure).

Nm3/h refers to gas volume occupied at normal temperature and pressure which are 0°C and
14.7psia (pounds per square inch absolute).

Am3/h refers to gas volume at actual operating conditions of the process.

Am3/h → Nm3/h: The absolute pressure of any system is the gauge pressure + atmospheric
pressure

Example:

1365 Am3/h X Nm3/h = Y Am3/h x (273.15) x (system pressure + atm)

60°C (273.15+T) (Pressure (atm) in Pa
9.15KPag

9.15KPa = 9150Pa = 1365 x 0.8199 x 1.090 = 1220 Nm3/h

26
Standard cubic meter (Sm3) - Temperature: 20 °C, Pressure: 1.01325 barA

Flow rate in Nm3/h – speed of flow in pipe

X Nm3/h / (3.14/4*(Y/ 1000)2 /3600 (3600= to convert from h to s) (Y=Pipe size (10” would be
250)

= X m/s

ASTM Codes
For use in projects or where the client specifies ASTM number in the RFQ

Carbon Steel

Fixing Flanges ASTM A105N

Connection Pipe ASTM A106 Gr B

Butt Weld Pipe Cap ASTM A234 WPB  

Element Flange ASTM A105N

Element Housing ASTM A106 Gr B

Element Retaining Rings BS EN 10025 S275JR

Low Temperature Carbon Steel

Fixing Flanges ASTM A350 Gr LF2 Cl. 1

Concentric Reducers ASTM A420 Gr WPL6

Element Flange ASTM A350 Gr LF2 Cl. 1

Element Housing ASTM A333 Gr 6

Element Retaining Rings ASTM A516 Gr 70

27
 Stainless Steel

 Body ASTM A182 F316/316L (Dual), A403 WP316/316L (Dual)

Element Housing ASTM A182 F316/316L (Dual)

Element Core 316L Stainless Steel

Fasteners A320 Gr B8M Cl2, A194 Gr 8M

Gasket Low Stress Spiral Wound, SS316 inner & outer ring + graphite filler, 3.2mm thick

Flange rating ANSI #150 FFSO

Element Core

As the element shim is below 0.5mm it does not get a ASTM code as such and is just classified as
stainless steel 316L. The element shim is produced originally from ASTM A240 plate material but in
its shim state is classified as stainless steel 316 and it will have the same chemical and tested with
mechanical properties according to ASTM A240.

Design Temperatures of materials

ASTM Spec. Temp Max.

Grade
nominal designation service recommendations Temp
°F °C °F °C
A216-WCB Cast Carbon Steel W.O.G. / water, oil & gas) steam and general service -20 -29 800 425
A352-LCB Cast Carbon Steel low temperature and general service -50 -46 650 343
A352-LCC Cast Carbon Steel low temperature and general service -50 -46 650 343
Chrome-Molybdenum Steel 1 high temperature, steam oil vapour
A217-WC6 ¼Cr-½Mo and general service -20 -29 1100 593
Chrome-Molybdenum Steel 2 high temperature, steam oil vapour
A217-WC9 ¼Cr-1Mo and general service -20 -29 1100 593
Chrome-Molybdenum Steel 5Cr- corrosive erosive oil
A217-C5 ½Mo refinery service -20 -29 1200 649
Chrome-Molybdenum Steel 9Cr- corrosive erosive oil
A217-C12 1Mo refinery service -20 -29 1200 649
Cast Stainless Steel 18Cr-
A351-CF8 10Ni, 304 SS -20 -29 1100 593
Cast Stainless Steel 18Cr-10Ni- corrosive or extremely high temperature
A351-CF8M 2Mo, 316 SS non corrosive services between -450°F(-268°C) and -20 -29 1100 593
Cast Low Carbon Stainless Steel 1200°F(649°C) Above 1000°F(540°C) specify
A351-CF3 18Cr-10Ni, 304L SS carbon content of 0.04% or greater -20 -29 800 425
Cast Low Carbon Stainless Steel
A351-CF3M 18Cr-10Ni-2Mo, 316L SS -20 -29 850 454

28
 Cast Stainless Steel 19Cr-
A351-CN7M 29Ni, Alloy-20 corrosion resistance
-20 -29 800 425
Cast Nickel Alloy Steel, weld able grade, good resistance to corrosion by
A494 M -35 - 1 Monel all common organic acids and salt water -20 -29 750 400
good resistance to strong oxidation conditions, good
A494 CW - 6M Cast Ni Alloy Steel Hastelloy C properties at high temperatures, high resistance to
formic, phosphoric, sulphurous and sulphuric acids -20 -29 1200 649
very good for high temperature service,
A494 CY - 40 Cast Ni Alloy Steel inconel good resistance to strongly corrosive media -20 -29 1200 649
A105 (N) Forged Carbon Steel W.O.G. (water, oil & gas) steam and general service -40 800 425

A350-LF2 Forged Carbon Steel W.O.G. (water, oil & gas) general service -50 650 343

Chrome-Molybdenum Steel 1 high temperature, steam oil vapour

A182-F11 ¼Cr-½Mo-Si and general service -40 1100 593
Forged Stainless Steel 18Cr-
A182-F304 10Ni, 304 SS -20 -29 1100 593
Forged Stainless Steel 18Cr-10Ni- corrosive or extremely high temperature
A182-F316 2Mo, 316 SS non corrosive services between -450°F(-268°C) and -20 -29 1100 593
Forged Stainless Steel 18Cr- 1200°F(649°C) Above 1000°F(540°C) specify
A182-F304L 10Ni, 304L SS carbon content of 0.04% or greater -20 -29 800 425
Forged Stainless Steel 18Cr-10Ni-
A182-F316L 2Mo, 316L SS -20 -29 850 454

Testing

PMI Testing – Material testing

29
PMI – Positive material identification is the analysis of materials to determine the chemical
composition of a metal or alloy. Knowing the exact composition and grade of an alloy enables
supplies, plant workers etc. To match alloy specifications that are chosen for their specific properties
such as heat resistance, corrosion resistance, durability etc.

Stainless steel grades differ by chemical composition. He key differences between the various grades
are mainly the amount of iron (Fe) Calcium (Cl) Nickel (N) Molybdenum (Mo) and copper (Cu). 400
series stainless steels are magnetic while 300 series stainless steels are not.

PMI using the XRF technique is a method which gives fast and reliable results for all year material
identification needs. XRF works by using a beam of x-rays emitted into a sample piece, the atoms
within the sample absorb the energy from the x-ray, become agitated and begin to emit UV light.
Each element produces a unique range of UV light and therefore its own fingerprint of energy. This
fingerprint id then measured by the analyser, therefore enabling the equipment to measure he
percentage amounts of elements within a sample, this is then compared with equipment’s vast data
base of materials and as a result is given the composition of the material being tested.

Only applicable to stainless steel due to the additional elements adding to the special properties of
the material. A PMI on carbon steel would just reveal that the material is carbon steel.

DPI Material testing

Dye penetrant inspection is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface
breaking defects in all non-porous materials. DPI is used to detect cracks, surface porosity, and lack
of penetration in welds, resulting from in service conditions.

Basic Steps:

 Clean the port

 Apply the penetrant and allow dwelling
 Remove excess penetrant
 Apply a developer and allow developing
 Read the port for instructions
 Clean the port

MPI Material testing

Magnetic particle inspection is a non-destructive testing process for detecting surface and
subsurface discontinuities in Ferro magnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt and some other
alloys. If the magnetic material is cracked but not broken, a north and south pole will form at each
edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the North Pole and re-enters at the South Pole. The
magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the small air gap created by the crack because the air
cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads
out, it appears to leak out of the material and this is known as flux leakage field.

30
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster not
only at the poles at the end of the magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster
of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and his is the basis for magnetic particle
inspection.

Carbon steel is magnetic, stainless steel is no magnetic so he MPI test will not be required for
stainless steel arresters.

There are two methods for pressure tests: hydrostatic and pneumatic. A hydrostatic test is
performed by using water as the test medium, whereas a pneumatic test uses air, nitrogen or any in-
flammable or non-toxic gas.

Cleaning flame arresters at ELMAC

We are unable to accept elements of flame arresters that have been in service onsite without a
decontamination certificate. If the client is able to provide a decontamination certificate, then I
would suggest that they are able to clean the elements to a sufficient standard that they do not
require the manufacturer to clean them.

Incoterms – Delivery Options

The incoterms rules or international commercial terms are a series of pre-defined commercial terms
published by the international chamber of commerce (ICC) relating to the international commercial
law.

EXW – Ex Works
The seller makes the goods available at their premises, or at another a named place. This term
places the maximum obligation on the buyer and minimum obligation on the seller. EXW means that
the buyer incurs the risks for bringing the goods to their final destination.

FCA – Free Carrier

The seller delivers the goods, cleared for export, at a named place. The goods can be delivered to a
carrier nominated by the buyer, or to another party nominated by the buyer.

CPT – Carriage Paid to

The seller pays for the carriage of the goods up to the named please of destination. However. The
goods are considered to be delivered when the goods have been handed over to the first or main

31
carrier. So, the risk transfers to the buyer on handing over goods at the place of shipment in the
country of Export.

CIP – Carriage and Insurance Paid to

Similar to CPT although the seller is required to obtain insurance for the goods while in transit. CIP
requires the seller to insure the goods for 10% of the contract value.

DAT – Delivered at Terminal

This requires that the seller delivers the goods, unloaded, at the named terminal. The seller covers
all the costs of transport and assumes all risk until arrival at the destination port or terminal.

DAP – Delivery at Place

The seller is responsible for arranging carriage and for delivering the goods, ready for unloading from
the arriving conveyance (the action or process of transporting) at the named place.

DDP – Delivery Duty Paid

The seller is responsible for arranging carriage and delivering the goods at the named place, cleared
for import and all applicable taxes and duties paid (e.g. VAT).

FAS – Free Alongside Ship

Sellers deliver goods, cleared for export, alongside the vessel at a named port, at which point risk
transfers to the buyer. In practice it should be used for situations where the seller has direct access
to the vessel for loading.

FOB – Free On Board

Seller delivery of goods, cleared for export, loaded on board the vessel at the named port. In
practice it should be used for situations where the seller has success to the vessel for loading. Once
on-board, risks transfers to the buyer.

CFR – Cost and Freight

Seller arranges and pays for transport to named port. Seller delivers goods, cleared for export,
loading on board the vessel. Risk transfers from the seller to the buyer once the goods have been
loaded on board.

CIF – Cost Insurance and Freight

Seller arranges and pays for transport to named port. Seller delivers goods, cleared for export,
loaded on board the vessel. Risk transfers to buyer once goods are on board. Seller also arranges and
pays for insurance for the goods for carriage to the named port.

32
Valves and Combination Units

What defines whether or not it is necessary to implement a combination pressure vacuum relief
valve and flame arrester onto a tank depends on the level of product volatility and flammability. If
the tank contents are particularly volatile substances and have the potential to create a flammable
mixture with air upon being vented to the atmosphere, then combination unit will be required and is
strongly recommended. This arrangement protects the tank against atmospheric deflagration
entering through the valve and causing a fire/explosion in the tank.

The assembly shown below relieves excess pressure from the tank during filling and protects against
the tank collapsing when the contents are pumped out, coupled with the effects of climatic
variations (evaporation and condensation) which also impact the tank breathing requirements. This
arrangement is also an economical solution to tank protection by preventing unnecessary product
loss as well as protects against flame propagation in this arrangement.

Valves come in two configurations; pallet weight loaded and spring loaded.

A pallet side has a minimum overpressure of 10%. A spring has a minimum overpressure of 20%.
Valves are set so that they begin to leak at 90% of their set pressure and leak at a rate of 1 cubic feet
per minute – this applies to both weight loaded and spring-loaded valves.

Pallet

33
In the UK and EU, we can only supply valves rated at ½ bar(g) because anything set higher than this
pressure rating would require PED (pressure equipment directive) certification. Outside the EU and
UK, we can supply valves up to their design pressure.

The relief valve is designed or set open at a predetermined set pressure to protect pressure vessels
and other equipment from being subjected to pressures that exceed their design limit. When the set
pressure is exceeded, the relief valve becomes the path of least resistance as the valve is forced
open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route.

 Lowest set pressure on Pressure & vacuum relief valve is 2mbarg.

Aluminium Valves

Salt water causes the corrosion of aluminium creating aluminium oxide. The salt does not directly
attack the aluminium but causes an electrochemical attack like a catalyst that results in the
corrosion. This is the white deposit that you find on aluminium. The reaction rate is usually fairly
slow, but that depends on the alloy. Al/Li alloys corrode fairly quickly while pure aluminium corrodes
much slower. The corrosion rate also depends on the temperature, the concentration of the salt and
the humidity.

Proximity sensors on valves

Price: £250.00 per pallet

Total Price: £500.00 per valve if installed on both pressure and vacuum pallets

Inlet to outlet valve connection does not need to be 1:1 as in for flame arresters.

Backpressure

34 Air Flow
Backpressure can affect the relief capacity of the pressure relief valve:

Maximum backpressure tolerated by the pressure relief valves is 10%.

Blowdown can affect the valve too. As the pallet lifts and the pressure in the tank reduced the pallet
starts to fall. This reduces the area where the gas can flow through, therefore the gas velocity
increases and the dynamic pressure on the pallet increases and the system pressure will need to
decrease by 25% in order for the pallet to close.

This is applicable to both the pressure and vacuum sides of the pallet. Although blowdown can help
to reduce the effects of backpressure.

35
3B Controls

3B controls’ spring-loaded pressure vacuum relief valves start at 100mbarg (overpressure does not
make a difference to the valve setting).

The requirement for detonation arrester beneath relief valves to pipe away

In order for a flame arrester to be positioned beneath a pressure relief valve to pipe away, the flame
arrester will have to be detonation type and not a deflagration type of arrester. This is due to how
the gas front behaves shortly after a passing through the flame arrester and on interaction with a
valve of this type.

During the deflagration phase of the flame transition along a pipe, the pressure of the gas increases
ahead of the flame front thus pressurising the whole gas line. When the deflagration enters the
housing of the arrester the pressure is higher than the initial gas ignition pressure. In this situation
the element of the arrester has been specifically designed to be able to deal with this increase in
pressure, temperature from the flame and the flame front is extinguished.

Shortly after the deflagration is quenched by the arrester element the turbulent gas is still hot and
any bend or restriction in the line immediately after the flame arrester results in a re-amplification of
the pressure on the protected side. This happens to such an extent that this additional pressure plus
the residual heat acts in a comparable way to a piston in a diesel engine and can re-ignite the gas. In
having a bend or any restriction (i.e. the bend in the pressure relief to pipe away valve) off the back
of the arrester prevents the pressure wave from dissipating, which results in an increase in pressure
and can cause the gas front to reignite. Therefore, in this arrangement a detonation flame arrester
will be required beneath the pressure relief valve to pipe away.

36
Bursting Discs

Rupture discs are non-reclosing pressure relief devices designed to actuate and remain open after
operation. They can be installed in every system in which there is an overpressure.

Typical examples:

 Tanks
 Mixers
 Compressors
 Steam Generators
 Heat Exchange etc.…

Rupture discs belong to 3 families:

 Metal (conventional or forward acting)

 Metal (compression or reverse acting)
 Graphite

Disc selection depends upon the working conditions of the equipment to be protected. Most disc
models are designed to be installed in a disc holder.

Metal Rupture Discs

Belong to two families:

 Forward acting – tension

 Reverse acting – compression

Conventional discs have a flat or concave surface exposed to the pressure. Bursting happens when
the pressure (or depression) overcomes the mechanical resistance of the material, after having
gradually increased the dome of the disc.

Reverse acting discs have a convex surface exposed to the pressure. The shape of the disc does not
change until the pressure reaches the bursting point.

Graphite Rupture Discs

Only for very corrosive fluid, up to 200mm diameter and bursting pressures of up to 10 – 12 bar.

Bursting disc safety devices in conjunction with safety valves may be used in the following cases:

37
 a) In series, to protect the safety valve against corrosion, or operating conditions which may
affect the safety valve performance.
b) In Series, to protect leakage
c) In series, to prevent total loss of contents from the protected equipment.
d) In parallel as an additional safeguard.

Bursting discs

Pros
 Offers a sealed assembly

Cons
 Low set pressure requires a large diameter discs.
 Cyclic loading can flex and reduce the burst rating over time causing material fatigue and
potential pre-mature burst.
 Once ruptured tank is exposed to possible contamination.
 Requires extra protection from rain and snow.

Emergency relief vents

Pros
 Counter balance design offers lower settings.
 Minimal parts – low maintenance
 Offer a tight seal up to 90% of set pressure
 Can standardise on common connection size

Cons
 Can easily assess to tank product
 Requires a separate vent for normal breathing
 Low tank design ratings can result in product interaction

Setting Emergency Relief Vents When No Set Pressure Has Been

Given

Set the emergency relief vent 20% lower than the design pressure of the tank and if a pressure
vacuum relief valve is required then this should be set ~30% below the ERV.

The maximum set pressure achievable by 3B’s ERV’s is 140mbarg.

Minimum setting on an ERV is 10mbarg and check with a supplier if a lower setting is required.

Up to a size of 24” ERV have a flange in accordance with B16.50 and sizes larger have a flange design
in accordance to B16.47.

38
SWA Purple Book (Scottish Whisky Association)
Detonation arresters for emergency venting

key point is that the detonation flame arrester is so easy to be plugged/blocked that it cannot really
play a role in an emergency relief venting (of product boiling due to external fire), i.e., it cannot be
used as an emergency relief means and other or additional emergency relief means is required to
handle the emergency venting.
When using a flame arrester in the vent line to reduce the risk of flame transmission, it is important to
assess the risks of potential flame arrester blockage.  In fact, ISO 28300:2008 or API Std 2000:2009
clearly points out

            “The user is cautioned that the use of a flame arrester within the tank’s relief path introduces
the risk of tank damage from overpressure or vacuum due to plugging if the arrester is not maintained
properly.  More information on flame arresters can be found in ISO 16852, NFPA 69, TRbF 20, EN
12874, FM 6061, and UDCG 33 CFR 154.  The use of a flame arrester increases the pressure drop
of the venting system.   The manufacturer(s) should be consulted for assessing the magnitude of
these effects.” 

It is clear that the above statement of ISO 28300 refers to the use of flame arrester for normal
applications, not for an emergency case.  When a flame arrester is blocked, the system may be over-
pressurised.  It is well known that generally speaking a detonation flame arrester is much easier to be
blocked/plugged than a deflagration flame arrester.  In the emergency case, the system may fail when
the detonation flame arrester used as an emergency relief mean is blocked.

General speaking, detonation flame arrester should not be considered/recommended as a venting

means for external (fire) emergency applications. Because

(1) A venting means for an emergency application is required to have a high-level protection
as it may be used in the last resort.

(2) The vapour steam in the emergency case due to an external fire will contain small
droplets. Furthermore, the vapour may condense at the flame arrester element (due to the
temperature difference between the boiling liquid in the tank and the flame arrester element).
These liquids may be collected by the flame arrester element, causing the flow capacity of the flame
arrester a significant reduction and further the flame arrester element to be plugged/blocked.

(3) The pressure drop of flame arrester quoted usually refers to a pressure drop based on a
clean/dry/new flame arrester element. In the normal operating conditions, the flame arrester may
already be partially blocked after certain time of operation. This partial blockage may affect the
flame arrester performance (for example, leading to more energy consumption) and the flame
arrester may still fit the purposes for normal operations (or requires a necessary maintenance).
However, if the flame arrester is used to meet an emergency venting requirement, this partial
blockage may cause the equipment or system to fail. Moreover, the situation/condition would be
worse if the flame arrester is a detonation flame arrester because detonation flame arrester is
usually easy to be blocked/plugged (due to longer flame arrester element).

The above factors do not suggest flame arrester cannot be used for an emergency case. A flame
arrester may still be used as long as the flame arrester has sufficient large channels/apertures (cell
height) and sufficient short length of the flame arrester element, that is not easy to be blocked.

Regarding the detonation flame arrester used for emergency venting, please state in the quotation
that Elmac does not recommend installing detonation flame arrester in an emergency venting path.

39
Although detonation flame arresters were sized according to emergency venting flow rates,
detonation flame arresters may not play a role in an emergency relief venting (of product boiling due
to external fire) because detonation flame arresters would be plugged under emergency conditions.
Therefore, an additional venting device/equipment for emergency venting is required. Furthermore,
Elmac advises that the pressure drops due to the high velocity flow (under emergency conditions)
passing the pipe and bends would be taken into account if a long and small size of venting pipe is
involved. For example, the pressure drop of air flow moving at 60 m/s in a 3” pipe would be about 4
mbar/m (according to flow mechanics/dynamics), i.e., if the pipe is 5 meters long, the pressure drop
is more than 4 x 5 = 20 (mbar).

Case study
Regarding Ardmore project, Elmac EVA/EVB/EHB (of very large apertures and short length of the
flame arrester element) may be used for an emergency venting. However, because the flow
capacity/curve refers to a clean/dry flame arrester element, it may be necessary to account for some
degree of contamination in sizing the flame arrester, for example, the flow capacity may be
determined by 70% ~ 80% of the allowable pressure drop. That is, the flame arrester may be sized
according to the 100% of the required flow rate but with 70% ~ 80% of the maximum allowable
pressure drop, which possibly leads to a larger size of flame arrester. Accordingly, after reviewing
the end-of-line flame arresters quoted for the emergency cases (Ardmore project), we may
provide/confirm a proper size of end-of-line flame arrester for this application.

Regarding the Chivas enquiry, because the datasheet already specifies the detonation flame arrester
for emergency venting, this may, to some extent, refer to “the customer consults with the
manufacture” as ISO 28300/API Std 2000 indicated.  We would have some kind of responsibility if we
quote the detonation flame arresters that would not fit the purposes.  On the other hand, if an
“emergency venting device” is installed in the vent line, it is important to review the pipe work and
installation location, unlike an emergency vent which is normally installed on the top of the venting
point.  This review of the pipe work and installation location is required by the standards in order to
account for the pressure drop due to high flow passing through the piping.  Without reviewing the
piping work and installation, the properly sized venting device for emergency venting requirements
may still fail because the pipe work may make an additional significant contribution to the pressure
drop due to the bends and the high flow velocity in the case of emergency.  Accordingly, I asked you
about the piping work and installation location and also asked if any other venting equipment/device
was installed.  

SWA Purple Book (Scottish Whisky Association)

Gives advice on the safe storage and handling of portable alcohol and combustible dusts in the
Scottish whisky industry with a view to avoiding fire and explosion.

Ethanol vapour will form a flammable mixture with are at concentrations between approximately 3-
14% by volume of the vapour in the air. Vessel vents should be fitted with flame arresters to prevent
any fire outside the tank igniting vapours inside the tank.

Tank vents should be arranged wherever possible to discharge to a safe place in the open air away
from sources of ignition and where vapours may disperse freely. For tanks installed inside buildings,

40
vents should, where possible, discharge outside the building. All vats should be fitted with a flame
arrester.

Flash point
The flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which the liquid gives off enough vapour to
form a flammable vapour-air mixture. If a liquid is at a temperature below its flashpoint, it is unlikely
to form a flammable vapour-air mixture, unless it is released as a spray or mist.

Wetted Surface Area – Tank Design

When calculating the wetted surface area of tanks on the ground, only calculate the surface area of
the sides of the tanks neglecting the roof and the bottom of the tanks. When calculating the wetted
surface area of the elevated tanks include the bottom of the tanks in the calculation, and still ignore
the roof of the tank.

There is only a fire risk of up to 9.14m in height, after this the wetted surface area of the tanks above
this height is not required:

Multiple tank venting is not suitable for elevated tanks.

41
When taking into account design pressure for a tank in emergency tank venting use a safety factor of
20-30% lower than the design pressure. For example, if the design pressure is 100mbar, work to a
design pressure of 80mbar (use 20%). This is because in emergency venting the tank is effectively
boiling and the vapour begins to condense on the flame arrester and blocks flow through the
element.

Ethanol is IIA up to 90% and IIB1 above 90% concentration of ethanol.

Because detonation arresters have more substantial banked design they should not be quotes in
emergency tank venting.

Secondary measures to be suggested when quoting flame arresters (deflagration – end of line) in
emergency venting scenarios:

- ERV.
- Bursting Discs.
- Oversized PV.

Commercial

Sodeco

Sodeco have 3.1 material test for free with their quotations.

Element Pricing

When pricing elements which do not have a price yet on the WIP Quotation template use 0.55 times
the price of the list flame arrester price.

Mark-up on products bought in

Whatever the cost is to us on products from other companies = Price divided by 0.75

In this case our margin is 25% but do 1 – our margin to calculate correct figure.

Price Mark-up Vs Margin

Mark-up is calculated from the seller's cost of goods. If you pay £2000 for a widget, and want to sell
it with a 10% mark-up, you add 10% of your cost to that cost to determine the selling price. In this
example, £2000 + 10% x £2000 (which is 200) = £2200. By buying for £2000 and selling for £2200,
you have a mark-up of £200, or 10%.

Margin is calculated from the selling price of goods. If you want the margin to be 10%, divide the
cost by 0.9 to determine the price, which here would be £2222.22. Then 10% of the price is the
margin (the other 90% being the cost). With a 10% margin, the mark-up is 11.11 percent.

Examples:

42
  If you buy a widget for 50 and sell it for 100, you have a 100% mark-up and a 50% margin.
 If you buy for 50 and sell for 75, you have a 50% mark-up and a 33.3% margin.
 If you buy for 75 and sell for 100, you have a 33.3% mark-up and a 25% margin.
 If you buy for 10 and sell for 100, you have 900% mark-up and a 90% margin.

Price Mark-up – Donadon SDD

Mark up bursting discs – 25% / Shipping Charges – 20%

When working between currencies need to factor in 2.5% for ‘exchange hedging’ to adjust for
currency fluctuations, therefore divide by 0.975.

When quoting A350LF2 mark up 15% price. A350LF2 is in between carbon and stainless steel, lead
time is the same.

Pricing
When quoting for 316L stainless steel use pricing for 316 stainless steel

Flame arresters with a carbon steel body but with stainless steel housing

To cost a flame arrester with a stainless-steel housing instead of the standard carbon steel housing
option add onto the basic carbon steel price the difference between the spare element for a
stainless to carbon steel element.

For example:

Interest rates – Price mark-up

When calculating the price mark up for a 3% rise in interest rates over a period of 5 years the
calculation is:

= £VALUE x (1.035)

43
Testing
Mark up testing by (20%) so divide by 0.8

Warranty
Our standard warranty is:

Elmac guarantees for 12 months from installation or 24 months from the date of material delivery,
whichever comes first, against manufacturing flaws excluding external coated/painted finishes.

An extended warrant of an extra year can be offered at 2.5% of the cost if the units.

The warranty has no performance bond attached to the extended warranty

Lead time

  1/2" to 6" 6" and above

above 5
  1-5 pcs 5-10 pcs >10 pcs Up to 5 pcs
pcs

ERB (1/2" to 3") 4 weeks 6 weeks On request NA NA

EVA & EVB 4 weeks 6 - 8 weeks On request 6 - 8 weeks On request

AVC (Check availability of sinter)

SV (1/4" to 2") 2 weeks 2 weeks 4 weeks    

SGE (Check availability

4 weeks 6 - 8 weeks On request 6 - 8 weeks On request
of sinter)

LCB 4 weeks 6 - 8 weeks On request 6 - 8 weeks On request

DFB, DFC (Check availability of casting & sinter)

UCA 4 weeks 6 - 8 weeks On request 6 - 8 weeks On request

Lead time on valves in stock

 2 weeks on stainless steel valves
 3 weeks on carbon steel valves

Commission codes

Howard Associates - 098 (7.5 % commission)

Mark Heisenberg Delta Engineering - 15 %< 25k and 10%>25k

When sending quoted to Singapore, send to our agent first: Bliss flow, don’t include commission and
keep client information in the quotation.

Quotes reference codes

Reference – RFQ – Stands for request for quote – Usually put if they don’t have a reference.

44
Code ending:

 SAF – Code for export quote

 999 – Code for agent who has commission
 103 - Code for UK delivery
 101 - Code for Scotland
 102 – Code for biogas

Performance Bond

A performance bond, also known as a contract bond, is a surety bond.

(A surety bond is a promise by a guarantor to pay one party a certain amount if a second party fails
to meet some obligation, such as fulfilling the terms of a contract) The surety bond protects the
obligee against losses resulting from the principal’s failure to meet the obligation. Issued be an
assurance company (for one year) or by a bank to guarantee satisfactory completion of a project by
a contractor.

Advance Payment Guarantees

An advance payment guarantee serves as a form of insurance, assuring the buyer that, should the
seller fail to meet the agreed upon obligation of good or services, the advance payment amount will
be refunded to the buyer. This protection allows the buyer to consider a contract void if the seller
fails to perform, reaffirming the buyer's rights to the initial funds paid.

Project Documentation

Documentation is charged at £80.00 per hour of work estimated by the project team.

Proximity Switches
Valves cost £350.00 extra

45
Pressure tapings

Hydrogen sulphide

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is most commonly encountered occupationally as an environmental

contaminant. Most H2S is made and used captively (i.e. at the site of production) or transported
over several kilometres by pipeline. It is also transported in authorized cylinders, tank cars and cargo
tanks (tank trucks) as a flammable liquefied compressed gas under its own vapour pressure. It is also
available as a mixture in nitrogen or hydrogen gases. Special steel or stainless steel suitable for use
with H2S can be used for transportation, storage vessels and pipes, pipelines and oil and natural gas
wells. Since H2S can react with iron in the presence of moisture, the steel used must be chosen
carefully.

Pressure Vacuum Relief Valves for Digester & EH Gas Systems

Pressure Relief Valves

Digester pressure relief valves shall be sized to vent gas at a rate equal to the sum of the peak gas
production rate within the digester and the maximum filling rate of sludge into the digester.
Therefore, digester pressure relief valves shall have a venting capacity not less than that determined
from the following formula:

46
V pressure relief = G + F
where:

V pressure relief = pressure relief venting capacity [standard m³ of air/hour]

G = peak gas production rate [standard m³ of air/hour]
F = maximum filling rate of sludge into digester [m³/hour]
Typically, assuming that the sludge fed to the digesters comprises 70% organic and 30% inorganic
matter as dry weights, that 50% of volatile solids are destroyed by digestion, and that peak gas
production occurs at a rate of 2m³/kg volatile solids destroyed, then the peak gas production rate
will be:

G = 70% (i.e. organic content) x 50% (amount of volatile matter destroyed) x 2 (m³/kg) x T (daily
solids throughput in tonnes) x 1000 (kg/t) / 24 (hrs/day)

i.e. , which simplifies to

G = 29.167 x T m³/hr
where:

T = average digester sludge throughput (tds/day)

NB: If higher volatile solids destruction is achieved (e.g. in an Enzymic Hydrolyser) then the 0.5 figure
in the above equation may need to be increased.

A typical set pressure for digester pressure relief valves is between 200 and 300mm water gauge. A
typical overpressure at which the pressure relief valve should vent the required gas capacity would
be between 25 and 50 mm water gauge. The actual set pressure for each installation will be
determined by the pressure for which the digester gas system is designed.

Set pressure is defined as that pressure at which lift of the venting device pallet begins; overpressure
is the pressure increase over the set pressure of the venting device during discharge through the
venting device.

Anti-Vacuum Valves

Digester anti-vacuum valves shall be sized to inbreathe gas at a rate equal to the maximum emptying
rate of sludge from the digester. Therefore, digester anti-vacuum valves shall have an inbreathing
capacity not less than that determined from the following formula: -

V anti-vacuum = E
where:

V anti-vacuum = anti-vacuum inbreathing capacity [standard m³ of air/hour]

E= maximum sludge emptying rate from digester [m³/hour]

47
Maximum emptying rate shall be determined from the principle of operation of the digester. The
emptying rate shall be determined for operating principles a) or b). A check calculation (described in
c) below), shall be performed to determine the digester emptying rate when a catastrophic failure in
the digester discharge pipe occurs. The value selected for E shall be the greater of a) and c), or the
greater of b) and c), depending on the principle of digester operation.

Operating principles a), b) and check calculation c) are described below.

A) Emptying rate will equal the flowrate of the digester-emptying pump for pumped digester
emptying
B) Emptying rate will equal the feed pumping rate to the digester for digesters operating on the
principle of displacement, i.e. discharge via an overflow
C) Emptying rate will equal the value determined from the following equation for digesters
emptied through a discharge pipe of given diameter under a given static head of sludge
within the digester above the centreline of the discharge pipe

where:

E = maximum emptying rate of sludge from digester [m³/hour]

d = diameter of discharge pipe [m]
g = 9.81 m/s²
h = head of sludge above centreline of discharge pipe [m]
Vacuum relief valves should not normally be any greater than 200mm NB. If the calculated
inbreathing capacity would potentially require a bigger diameter, further advice should be sought
from the United Utilities Engineering.

Any impact of digester pre-treatment processes such as EH shall be included in the sizing calculation
after consultation with the process provider.

Where digesters utilize gas mixing for mixing of the digester contents, there is a potential
requirement for the anti-vacuum valve to inbreathe during periods when there is a failure in the
discharge pipe between the gas mixing compressor and the digester.

Gas mixing rates will generally be much less than the maximum emptying rate of sludge from the
digester when a catastrophic failure in the digester discharge pipe occurs.

Therefore, failure of the discharge pipe between the gas mixing compressor and the digester will
normally be accommodated by the sizing of the anti-vacuum system for the catastrophic failure in
the digester discharge pipe.

However, the failure condition for the discharge pipe between the gas mixing compressor and the
digester must be checked to confirm that the anti-vacuum valve is adequately sized.

Catastrophic failure of the digester discharge pipe and the simultaneous failure of the discharge pipe
between the gas mixing compressor and the digester is a very unlikely operating condition and,
therefore, will not be designed for.

A typical set vacuum for digester anti-vacuum valves is 50 mm water gauge.

48
A typical over-vacuum at which the anti-vacuum valve should inbreathe the required gas capacity
would be between 10 and 40mm water gauge. The actual set vacuum for each installation will be
determined by the safe vacuum pressure for which the digester is designed.

Set vacuum is defined as that vacuum at which lift of the inbreathing device pallet begins; over
vacuum is the vacuum increase over the set vacuum of the inbreathing device during discharge
through the inbreathing device.

49
Pressure vacuum relief valves

Valve Sizing

When including a valve sizing table (valve sizing.xls) to show the calculated venting capacity of the
valve for use with a flame arrester the size can be overwritten as shown below:

Both can be overwritten.

Can copy across the information from
the Capacity – Out and Capacity – In to
the With AIR capacity boxes on the left
hand side. Make sure not to change the
‘min req’d’ or ‘required area (A)’ cells as
this will throw out the calculation.

50
Valve Weights

Our valves are heavier than some competitors due to our extended neck design of the pressure side
along with the increased vacuum capability of the valve.

Valve Leak Rate

Our valves have been specifically designed to achieve a tighter seal and significantly lower leakage
rates than the industry standard; ISO 28300, which is detailed in the below table, and leak at a rate
of 1CFH at 90% the set pressure across our whole valve range.

ISO 28300

The leak rate shall be less than the specified valve in the below table at 75% of the adjusted set
pressure.

VENT SIZE mm (IN) Maximum Allowable Leak Rate m³/h (CFH)

≤150 (6) 0.014 (0.5)
200-400 (8-12) 0.141 (5.0)
>400 (12) 0.566 (20.0)

High pressure differential on the set pressures

When you have a set pressure difference of greater than +60mbarg inclusive of overpressure
between the vacuum and pressure release side of the PVRV valve a spider will need to be used.

A spider is a device to add mechanical strength to a pallet so that it does not deform from the
constant static pressure on the pallets.

51
INSERT FURTHER NOTES ON THE ALLOWABLE PRESSURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SETTINGS AND
DEPENDS ON THE VACUUM SETTING CHECK WITH DAOMIN

When quoting pressure vacuum relief valves with combination flame arrester when the PVRV is
“pipe away” a detonation flame arrester will be required.

Material of construction
Carbon steel valve have a stainless steel valve trim and seat.

Aluminium valves from 3B controls have a stainless steel valve trim and seat.

Ball Valves

A ball valve is a form of quarter-turn valve which uses a hollow. Perforated and pivoting ball to
control flow through it. It is open when the balls hole is in line with the flow and closed when it is
pivoted 90°C by the valve handle. The handle lies flat in alignment with the flow when open and it is
perpendicular to it when closed. Making for easy visual confirmation of the valves status.

Ball valves are durable, performing well after many cycle and reliable closing securely even after long
periods of disuse. Their qualities make them an excellent choice for shutoff and control applications,
where they are often preferred to gates and globes but they lack their fire control in throttling
applications.

52
Finishes and Coatings

Halar ECTFE

ECTFE (Ethylene ChloroTriFluoroEthylene) was designed to provide chemical resistance in heavy duty
corrosion applications. It is a partially fluorinated polymer (a fluoropolymer), semi-crystalline and
can be processed in the melt. Chemically it is a copolymer of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene.

It is resistant to acids at high concentrations and temperatures, caustic media, oxidizing agents and
many solvents. It is said to have similar chemical resistance to PTFE. This chemical resistance is due
to the chemically resistant monomers used, the highly ordered 1:1 structure, and the high
crystallinity of the resulting product.

53
Material

Standard Carbon Steel

Our standard carbon steel has a corrosion allowance of 3mm.

Sour Carbon Steels

Sour carbon steels are suitable for sour services environments where H2S is present. It covers the
requirements and parameters of such inhospitable conditions including high pressure, low
temperature, low pH etc. ASTM A105N can be offered for these applications – at the same price.

Duplex Stainless Steel

Hastelloy C22 has a price of roughly £120 per kilogram for the shim element crimp material.

Norsok M650

Norsok M650 covers the certification from the raw material manufacturer e.g. the mills and
foundries. We do not require Norsok M650 as we are fabricating flame arresters and not
manufacturing the raw components e.g. flanges and fittings.

This NORSOK standard establishes a set of qualification requirements to verify that the manufacturer
has sufficient competence and experience of the relevant material grades, and necessary facilities
and equipment to manufacture these in the required shape and sizes with acceptable properties.

Material Codes

ASTM A216 - Carbon Steel castings

ASTM CF8M - Cast Stainless Steel

ASTM A105 - Forged Carbon Steel

ASTM A234 WPB - Wrought carbon steel for moderate and elevated temperatures

ASTM A350 LFZ - Forged carbon steel low temperature

ASTM A182 F51 - Duplex Stainless Steel

ASTM A216 WCB - Cast version of A105 Carbon Steel

ASTM A351 CF8M - Molybdenum bearing modification of CF8 alloy – cast equivalent of
A151 316SS

54
Stainless Steel

Stainless steel, is a family of allay steels usually containing 10-30% chromium. In conjunction with
low carbon contents chromium imparts remarkable resistance to corrosion and heat. Other
elements may be added to increase corrosion resistance to specific environments.

There are 3 major groups of stainless steel:

- Austenitic – 16-26% chromium and up to 35% nickel.

- Ferritic – 10.5-27% chromium and nickel free and low carbon content (<0.2%)
- Martensitic – 11.5-18% chromium and ≤1.2% carbon with same nickel added.

Austenitic make up ~70% of total stainless steel production.

Carbon steels and alloy steels are designated a 4-digit number, where the first digit indicates the
main alloying elements, the second digit indicates the secondary alloying elements and the last two
digits denote the amount of carbon in hundreds of percent by weight. For example, a 1060 steel is a
plain-carbon steel containing 0.60% C

Designation Type
1xxx Carbon Steels
2xxx Nickel Steels
3xxx Nickel Chromium Steels
4xxx Molybdenum Steels
5xxx Chromium Steels
6xxx Chromium – vanadium Steels
7xxx Tungsten Steels
8xxx Nickel chromium molybdenum
9xxx Silicon – manganese Steel

Grade 316 is the standard molybdenum bearing grade, second overall in volume production to 304,
particularly higher resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride environments.

Grade 316L the bow carbon version of 316 and has a high immunity from sensitization (loss of alloy
integrity). Extensively used in oil & gas and chemical industries for its cast effective corrosion
resistance and ease of fabrication. The austenitic structure also gives the grades excellent
toughness, even down to cryogenic temperatures.

F316L is a forged version of 316L and this alloy can be readily forged at temperatures 1000 - 1200 ̊C.

55
Low temperature carbon steel ASTN A350 LF2
When quoting for low temperature carbon steel ASTM A350LF2 quoted 15% above the price of
carbon steel if there is no time for costings.

ASTM recommends the min. temperature of A350LF2 as -50°C and A105N as -20°C

Stainless steel cast CF8M

CF8M is a molybdenum bearing modification of a CF8 alloy and is the cast equivalent of wrought
ANSI 316 stainless steel. The presence of molybdenum increases the corrosion resistance to pitting
by chlorides.

Dual Certification of austenitic stainless steel tubing

Duel certification tubing that meets the mechanical and chemical requirements of more than one
type of steel. The term “dual certification” is most commonly used to refer to the practice of
certifying a material as meeting the requirements of a specification as two different alloys.

Killed Carbon Steel

Killed carbon steel (KCS) is deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent such as silicon or aluminium to
reduce the oxygen content to such a level that no reaction occurs between carbon and oxygen
during solidification of the molten steel in the ingot. Killed steel products will produce a more
chemically uniform analysis from the bottom to the top of the ingot. Killed steel is considered having
less chemical segregation than semi-killed or rimmed steel. There are four types, ranging from fully
deoxidized to slightly deoxidized: killed, semi-killed, rimmed, and capped.

They are characterized by a high degree of chemical homogeneity and freedom from gas porosity.
The steel is said to be "killed" because it will quietly solidify in the mould, with no gas bubbling out.

56
Normalised
Normalization is a specific type of heat treatment that relieves stress on steel; this improves ductility
and toughness in steels that may harden after the cold working process. Normalized heat treatment
also establishes a more uniform carbide size and distribution, which facilitates later heat treatment
operations and produces a more uniform final product.

For normalization to occur, steel is warmed to a temperature just above its upper critical point. This
is generally more than 50 C of that temperature. The steel is then held long enough for smaller metal
grains to form and high-energy grain shapes to come together.

This transformation is called grain refinement and leads to the formation of a more uniform piece of
metal. After steel is heated to a temperature above its critical point, it is air-cooled until it drops to
room temperature.

Normalizing temperatures are said to range from 810 C to 930 C.

The thickness of the metal determines how long a piece of metal is held at what is known as the
soaking temperature, or the temperature that transforms the microstructure. The thickness and
composition of the metal also determine how high the workpiece is heated. Temperature rating of

A105
The below table shows the maximum temperature and pressure ratings of ASTM A-105 flanges:

Forging

57
Forging is a manufacturing process invoking the shape of metal using localised compressive forces.
The blows are delivered using a hammer or a die. Forging is often classed according to the
temperature at which it is performed: Cold forging, warm forging or hot forging. For the latter, the
metal is heated, usually in a forge.

Advantages

-Structural integrity – development of grain flow through beating of the metal leads to increased
product strength and a high level of material predictability.

-Cost - Materials are generally less expensive than the materials required for costing. Limited scrap
and rework. Reduced labour costs and lower tooling equipment expenses.

-Reliability – consistent ductility, knows yields and increased strength due to grain development.

Steel used in forging is much softer due to the higher carbon content.

Disadvantages

-Tolerance levels – products formed through forging may not meet requirements for high tolerances.

-Secondary operations – many forged products require secondary processes to refine and finish to
exact specifications.

-Limitations and defects - forged products may be limited in shape and may include defects from die
failure.

Casting

Casting is a metal modification process using molten metal poured or injected into a custom mould
where it solidifies and forms a moulded product. A limited amount of additional machinery may be
necessary to further refine the moulded metal. Types of casting vary based on the moulding
materials and process as well as the filling pressures. Die casting, investment casting and sand
casting are 3 options for metal testing.

Advantages of die casting, investment casting and die casting

-Higher tolerance – the meal moulding process offers an opportunity for a higher level of detail and
meeting of exact specifications.

-Few secondary operations - casting provides a primary product that will require very few secondary
machinery operations.

-Production rate-Once a casting mould is created, the production process can allow for a high
production rate.

Disadvantages

-Structural integrity – products formed by casting are more porous than forged products.

-Casts – Today’s costs are generally higher, for die casting than for forging. Tooling costs for other
casting methods may vary.

58
-Process control – the casting process requires frequent monitoring and inspection to maintain
quality and prevent defects.

Galvanic Corrosion

Dissimilar metals and alloys have different electrode potentials, and when two or more come into
contact in an electrolyte, one metal acts as a cathode and the other as an anode. The electro
potential difference between the dissimilar metals is the driving force for an accelerated attack on
the anode member of the galvanic couple. The anode metal dissolves into the electrolyte and
deposit collects on the cathodic metal.

The electrolyte provides a means of ion migration whereby metallic ions move from the anode to
the cathode within the electrolyte. This leads to the metal at the anode corroding more quickly than
it otherwise would and corrosion at the cathode being inhibited. The presence of an electrolyte and
an electrical conducting path between the metals is essential for galvanic corrosion to occur.

Galvanic corrosion can be seen in mixed metals in piping (E.g. Copper, iron, cast metals) contributing
to accelerated corrosion of parts of the system.

NACE – National Association of Corrosion Engineers

NACE MR 0175/ISO 15156 is a material standard issued by the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers. It is originally a US standard intended to assess the suitability of materials for oil field
equipment where sulphite stress corrosion cracking may be a risk in hydrogen sulphide (sour)
environments.

Low temperature carbon steel and stainless steel are both NACE materials and only carbon steel has
to be highlighted on the quotation in order for the material to be purchased to this specification.

Calculations of the Pipe Internal Diameters (ID)

For process engineers, the most important information is the pipe internal diameter (ID), as this is
used in line sizing calculations. For a given Nominal Bore or Diameter, the pipe OD remains constant.
Thus as the pipe schedule changes, the internal diameter of the pipe changes.

The ID can be easily calculated, as long as the pipe NB/DN and schedule are known. The pipe ID is
given by the pipe NB minimum double the pipe wall thickness.

For example, for a 12” NB (DN 300) pipe, schedule 40, the OD and wall thickness are respectively
12.75” (324mm) and 0.406” (10.4mm)

Pipe ID = 12.75” – (2 x 0.406”) = 11.94”

It is worth bearing in mind that the wall thickness comes within a specific tolerance, a typical wall
thickness tolerance is 12.5%.

Connection Types

59
BSPT connections
BSP connections are similar to NPT except for the angle across the flanks of the thread is 55 degrees
instead of 60 degrees as I is for NPT. Therefore, an NPT male will fit into a BAPT fitting and vice versa
but they will not seal.

BSPP Connections
BSPP is a parallel thread fitting that has a banded seal ring to do the sealing. This bonded seal ring is
sandwiched in between a shoulder on the male fitting and the face of the female fitting and is
squeezed in place.

Size Conversion

 BSPT (Male) – Can have BSP-P (paralleled) / BSP-T (Tapered)

 BSPT (Female)

NPT Connections

NPT (Male and Female options)

National Pipe thread (NPT) seals are the most popular type of seal for pressure calibration seals. NPT
male adaptors have a taper thread that wedges into the female NPT adaptor.

60
Flanges

A flange is an external or internal ridge or rim for strength, as the flange of an iron beam, or for
attachment to another object as the flange on the end of a pipe.

There are many different flange standards to be found world-wide. To allow easy functionality and
inter-changeability, these are designed to have standardised dimensions. Common world standards
include ASA / ANSI / ASME (USA), PN/DIN (European), BSIO (British / Australian) and JIS/KS (Japanese
/ Korean).

In most cases these are interchangeable as most local standards have been aligned to ISO standards,
however some local still differ. Many flanges in each standard are divided into ‘pressure classes’
allowing flanges to be capable of taking different pressure ratings. These pressure classes also have
different pressure and temperature rating for different materials. The ANSI / ASME pressure classes
for Flat-faced (FF) flanges are 125# and 250#. The classes for ring-joint and raised-face (RF) flanges
are 150# & 300#, (400# - unusual), 600#, 900#, 1500# and 2500#.

The flange faces are also made to standardise dimensions and are typically flat faced, raised face,
tongue and groove or ring jointed styles. Flange designs are available as weld neck, slip on, bp-joint,
socket weld, threaded and also blind.

ANSI # 150 FFSO – Flat face slip on

ANSI # 150 RFSO – Raised face slip on

ANSI # 150 RFWN – Raised face weld neck

ANSI # 150 RFFSO – Flat face slip on

ANSI # 300 RFSO - Raised face slip on

Weld neck & slip on raised face flanges

Weld neck flanges are used more commonly in in-line applications for more mechanical integrity.
Slip on are more commonly used in end of line applications.

PN10 & PN16 Flanges

PN10 flanges are interchangeable with PN16 flanges up to and including a size of 6”.

Hammer Unions

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Wing unions - Hammer unions are one of the most common "quick connection" methods used in the
oilfield for joining together components in a temporary pipe work system. They also have expanding
applications in fixed installations and also for industrial purposes.

Hammer Unions in general have three parts, a male part, a female part and a nut part. The male
parts of the unions are the external threaded portions that are welded to the end of a pipe that is
connected to the tank wall. ... The nut that is threaded on the interior is hammered and tightened on
to the female part.

Can be purchased from PTS Aberdeen.

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Spool Piece

A Spool Piece is a short segment of pipe this is usually intended to be removed, either for service or
as a stand-in for a valve or other fixture to be installed at a later date.

The usual attachment is made with a pipe section fitted with bolted flanges that are built pre-
aligned, hence the name: they look a little like spools.

Piping schedules

Pipe size is specified by two designations: a nominal pipe size for diameter based on inches and a
schedule (sched or sch) for pipe wall thickness.

Our standard pipe schedule is Sch 10 or Sch10S for stainless steel end of line arresters and Sch40 /
Standard Sch for inline units as they are pressurised, and so thicker pipe can be required.

Schedule XS is extra strength and has thicker wall thickness and can be used in harsh environments
where there will be a higher corrosion allowance.

NACE

NACE MR0103 is similar to NACE MR0175. There are a few major differences NACE MR0103 covers
more sulphurous process conditions whereas MR 0175 covered processing environments where the
more hydrocarbon ad H2D. Both NACE specifications are covered by the material having hardness
tests but MR0103 requires the material to have a lower sulphur content.

We cannot conform to the welding on MR0175, however we can argue through our welding
qualifications by the fact that we hardness test our welds. Due to the more stringent requirements
of MR0103 and because welding is prevalent in refinery piping and equipment, extra emphasis is
placed upon welding controls in several material groups, most notably the carbon steels.

Painting
We do not recommend internal paint on our flame arrester because is any of the paint comes off
this can block the element.

Free vents – Model coding system

63
Emergency relief vents

When an ERV is set above +70mbarg add on £150 for modification as the arm needs to be further
out to reduce the amount of lead required.

In general, an emergency relief vent should be set between 10-20 lower than the design pressure of
the tank it is protecting, although 10% can be used in most cases.

Example

Important to note that the ERV should not be set too close to the operating pressure of the tank
otherwise the vent can open unnecessarily or “chatter”.

The emergency relief requirement of the vent may not have to be 100% of the calculated venting
requirement if the tank is already fitted with other venting devices such as free vents and pressure
vacuum relief valves. ERV’s will fully open with an overpressure of 20%.

The minimum achievable relief setting point is +4.5mbarg.

Our ERV’s are suitable for use in any temperature that the FEP / PTFE diaphragm is suitable for, also
due to the metal seating arrangement of the ERV’s there are no elastomers in our products which
break down over time in some applications. The self-draining cover/pallet prevents the build-up of
water and potential to freeze closed. Birds cannot affect our ERV due to its design which is a benefit
over a pressure only have where birds can often try to nest in the weatherhood.

64
Large amounts of snow could possibly affect the setting of the ERV as weight will be added? This can
be overcome simply by having a procedure for clearing the ERV cover should it snow. We have many
ERV’s installed in Scotland and have never had any problems with their operation due to these
parameters.

3B ERV’s
When quoting emergency relief vents from 3B control reference model number EV1.

ERV spares

Need to check serial numbers to ensure what the type of emergency relief vent was supplied as
there are two types of gaskets:

 Anti-static (black gasket)

 Virgin PTFE gasket (white)

ERV ATEX Rating

With regards to emergency relief vents being ATEX rated - The ATEX Directive 94/9/EC (ATEX 95)
“Equipment and Protective Systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres” has been
mandatory since 1st July 2003. The interpretation of how this Directive applies to low pressure
venting equipment, in particular pressure and vacuum relief valves and emergency relief vents are
clarified in the European commission document ATEX GUIDELINES “Guidelines on the application of
Directive 94/9/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 march 1994 on the
approximation of the laws of the member states concerning equipment and protective systems
intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres” 3rd Edition - June 2009 Update May 2011 an
extract from which reads as follows;

5 EQUIPMENT NOT IN THE SCOPE OF DIRECTIVE 94/9/EC

5.2.1 “Simple” products

In general, many simple mechanical products do not fall under the scope of Directive 94/9/EC as they
do not have their own source of ignition (see chapter 3.7.2). Examples without own source of ignition
are hand tools such as hammers, spanners, saws and ladders.

Other examples that in most cases have no potential ignition source are given below. However, the
manufacturer will need to consider each item in turn with respect to potential ignition hazard to
consider whether Directive 94/9/EC applies (see also chapter 3.7.3).

 Clockwork time pieces; mechanical camera shutters (metallic);

 Pressure relief valves, self-closing doors;

65
Elmac Technologies’ CE marked range of emergency relief vents are classified as simple devices with
no potential ignition source, are therefore intrinsically safe devices which can be safely installed in
ATEX zoned areas without the requirement for further accreditation.

Testing
X-ray / Gamma non-destructive testing

X-ray radiography is one of the most important, versatile and widely accepted of all the non-
destructive examination methods. It is used to determine internal soundness of the welds.

Radiography is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to pass through metal and other
material impervious to ordinary light and produce photographic records of the transmitted radiant
energy. All material will absorb known amounts of radiant energy and therefore x-rays & gamma
rays can be used to show discontinuation and inclusions within the impervious material.

X-ray NDT is the most expensive NDT.

Testing is on fabricated flame arresters is done purely on butt weld joints and not fillet welds.

Gamma testing is not done on our products. The maximum thickness of material that we will have to
x-ray test will be 9.5mm.

Ferrite Testing
Ferrite content is a non-destructive testing method that provides critical data for austenitic stainless
steel and duplex materials. The ferrite percentage or number allows a technical assessment of
material corrosion susceptibility, mechanical properties, service suitability and reliability.

66
Not applicable to carbon steels.

DPI/MPI more critical with fillet welds than butt welds.

HIC Testing

HIC stands for Hydrogen Induced Cracking, it is related to hydrogen blistering. Hydrogen blistering is
the formation of subsurface planar cavities, called hydrogen blisters, in a metal resulting from
excessive hydrogen pressures. Growth if near surface blisters in a low strength metals usually
results in surface bulges.

Hydrogen blistering occurs most often in carbon steels in wet H2S environments (where water & H2S
co-exist). Corrosion in type of environment tends to charge the steel with monatomic hydrogen.
When small monatomic hydrogen atoms combine at a discontinuity in the steel, they form larger
diatomic hydrogen (H2), which is then too large to diffuse through the steel. As more monatomic
hydrogen atoms combine to form diatomic hydrogen at discontinuities, the pressure in the
discontinuities builds until blisters form.

In formed steels, blistering can result in the formation of planer cracks running along the direction of
the steel and parallel to the surface. Cracks on one pane can link up with cracks on adjacent planes
to form steps, which can eventually reduce the effective wall thickness until the component
becomes overstressed and ruptures.

A number of methods are used to try to mitigate hydrogen blistering and HIC. ‘Killed’ steels are
deoxidized with silicon, aluminium or another strong oxide – forming element to prevent internal
porosity in the poured ingot. Porosity in an ingot can remain as internal voids in finished products,
and those internal voids are prime locations for the formation of hydrogen blisters.

Test for Hydrogen Induced Cracking

HIC testing is actually an evaluation of the steel for susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement. The
test procedure involves the evaluation of resistance of pressure vessel steel plate and pipework
steels to hydrogen reduced cracking caused by hydrogen absorption from aqueous sulphide
corrosion. An unstressed steel sample is exposed to a solution at ambient temperature and pressure
and after a designated period, the sample is removed and assessed.

Intergranular corrosion testing

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) is a selective attack in the vicinity of the grain boundaries of a stainless
steel. It is as a result of chromium depletion, mainly due to the precipitation of chromium carbides in
the grain boundaries.

Chromium carbides can be precipitated if the stainless steel is sensitized in the temperature range
550–850°C (1020–1560°F), for example during heat treatment or welding. If the temperature lies in
the critical range for too long, chromium carbides will start to form in the grain boundaries, which
then become susceptible to intergranular corrosion. The area adjacent to the grain boundaries

67
becomes depleted in chromium (the chromium reacts with carbon and forms carbides) and this
zone, therefore, becomes less resistant to intergranular corrosion.

How to reduce the risk of intergranular corrosion (IGC)

Materials with less than 0.05% carbon normally have sufficient resistance against intergranular
corrosion after welding. ELC (extra low carbon content) steels, i.e. steels with maximum 0.030%
carbon, have very good resistance to intergranular corrosion. The same applies to steels stabilized
with titanium (Ti) or niobium (Nb), since these types of steel form niobium or titanium carbides
instead of chromium carbides, thus avoiding the critical decrease in the chromium content.

Intergranular corrosion testing

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) testing is the only corrosion test performed as a standardized pre-
delivery test. Strauss, Huey and Streicher are the common test methods. They are carried out as a
rule on samples from finished tubes in the as-delivered condition or on material that has been
sensitized, i.e. heated in the critical temperature range in a furnace or by welding.

Intergranular corrosion tests are primarily designed to detect carbide precipitates on grain
boundaries. However, although some tests also claim to detect intermetallic phases

Catalytic effects

Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) may have some catalytic effects for combustion in the gas systems of CO-H2O
and a MESG of 0.63mm should be used, equating to an arrester of IIC needed to quench flame
propagation.

Oxygen – Nitrogen ratio

When quoting for flame arresters make sure you check the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen, which should
be no greater than the ratio in air otherwise the mixture would be oxygen enriched:

79.09% Nitrogen

20.95% Oxygen = 3.77

Projects
Intergranular corrosion testing

Only offer ferrite and hardness testing if it is asked for otherwise it is not required for standard NDT.

68
Inverted End of Line Flame arresters
End of line flame arresters are not suitable for inverted installation as the weather hood cannot be
removed, being an integral part of the ATEX design and the product drawings and so would void the
ATEX certification.

Having the flame arrester in an inverted orientation would also vent the gas downwards and can
cause an issue with the zone classifications.

Customers

Tecnair

Tecnair have hydrotesting and 2.2 material certification included in the price of their arresters –
agreed by Anand.

Cost of storage of goods

If a customer requests storage and preservation of order, after the proposed delivery date then the
price is £30 per pallet per week.

69
Ethanol (Alcohol) IIA Gas Explosion Group Technical Sheet

70
Certification

CUTR
The new TR CU (technical regalement conformity certificate) certifies compliance to the new,
harmonised technical regulations of the Eurasian economic community (Russia, Belarus and
Kazakhstan) and fulfilment of safety requirements.

TR CU certificate of conformity for the customs union for safety equipment for use in explosive
atmospheres is mandatory for any electrical equipment that is to be operated or installed in the
hazardous areas and potentially explosive atmospheres in these countries. Elmac do have TR CU
certification for some model arresters.

EAC

The Eurasian Conformity mark (EAC) is a certification mark to indicate that the products conform to
all technical regulations of the Eurasian Customs Union. It means that the EAC marked products
meet all requirements of the corresponding technical regulations and passed successfully all
conformity assessment procedures. The mark was introduced in August 2013.

EN 10204 Type 3.2 Certification

An increasing requirement in the industry is to provide proof that materials meet defined chemical
and mechanical properties. This has led to the authentication of material certificate requirements
under the standard EN10204:2004

EN 10204 Type 3.2 certificate declares the products or material supplied by the manufacture are in
compliance with the requirements of the order. The certificate is prepared by the manufactures
authorised inspection representative. True EN 10204:2004 type 3.2 certification is produced by the
manufacturer, with test results supplied. The independent third-party inspector will have witnessed
the test results and verified the materials identification and traceability through objective evidence.

A common practice in the industry is for the purchaser to order material from an intermediate
handler or stockist. That handler may select material that has been certified by the manufacturer
using a type 3.1 certificate/ in the standard, this has not been verified by a third-party inspector.

Basically a 3.2 certificate is a 3.1 certificate that is verified by a third party with destructive material
testing.

3.2 certificates are £3,200 per batch (heat).

Surface Treatments

Pickling and Passivated

Both pickling and passivation and chemical treatments applied to the surface of stainless steel to
remove contaminants and assist the formation of a continuous chromium oxide, passive film.
Pickling and passivated are both acid treatments and neither grease or oil.

71
Miscellaneous

PREN Number

Pitting resistance equivalent number (all duplex steels have this number assigned to them). The
higher the number the more resistance to pitting. Duplex have a minimum PREN of 40 and super
duplex have a minimum PREN number of 45. Duplex stainless steel is 22% chromium and super
duplex stainless steels have a 25% chromium content.

Acronyms

HSO - Health Service Organizations

CIP - Cleaning-In-Place on RFQ’s from clients.

Commodity Code

A commodity code is a ten-digit number allocated to goods to classify imports from outside the EU.
Every item will fall under commodity code – and this commodity code dictates your duty rating, as
well as alerts you to any import or export restrictions.

 Pressure vacuum relief valves: 8481409090

 Flame arresters: 8481809990
 Emergency relief vent: 7325109990

Packing specifications

Packing specifications on the quotation template take into account the spare element.

Lifting Lugs

Lifting lugs are fitted on flame arresters 3” and above, as any arrester heavier than 25kg require
lifting lugs.

Jacking Screws

Jacking screws can be used to prise apart the two flange3d holding the element in place in order to
swap out an old element.

94/9/EC

72
94/9/EC is ATEX 95 for equipment for protective systems in explosive atmospheres. This standard is
updated as ATERX Directive 2014/34/EU.

CRM

When setting up a new account:

 Syspro Company A is Knitmesh

 Syspro Company E is Elmac

Pressure Pile-up Protected Side on the Flame Arrester – Positioning

Restraints

During the deflagration phase of the flame transition along a pipe, the pressure of the gas increases
ahead of the flame front thus pressurising the whole gas line. When the deflagration or detonation
enter the housing of the arrester the pressure is higher than the initial gas ignition pressure, the
element of the arrester has been designed to be able to deal with this increase in pressure,
temperature from the flame and the velocity of the flame front.

Having a bend (or any restriction) off the back of the arrester does not allow for dissipation of the
increase in pressure or shockwaves in a detonation case. As the deflagration or detonation is “put
out” by the arrester the gas is still hot, a bend in the line can cause amplification of the pressure on

73
the protected side to such an extent that this pressure plus the residual heat acts like a piston and
can re-ignite the gas.

Strictly the standard states the following during testing:

We advise that 30D is acceptable however this is dependent on the application should be looked on
in a case by case basis.

Liens

A lien is a form of security interest granted over an item of property to secure the payment of debt
or performance of some other obligation. The owner of the property, who grants the lien, is referred
to as the lienee and the person who has the benefit of the lien is referred to as the lienor or lien
holder.

In other common-law countries, the term lien refers to a very specific type of security interest, being
a passive right to retain (but not sell) property until the debt or other obligation is discharged.

Type Testing

Conformance testing, or type testing, is testing to determine whether a product, system or just a
medium complies with the requirements of a specification, contract or regulation.

74
Applications

Detonation Arresters that we have supplied

We have supplied unstable detonation arresters for IIA gas applications to VOPAK, ATPC, Nustar for
vapour recovery and other oil & gas project around the world.

Gas flare

A glass flare, alternately known as a flare stack, is a gas combustion device used in industrial plants
such as petroleum refineries, chemical plants, natural gas, processing plants as well as oil or gas
production sites having oil wells, gas wells , offshore oil and gas rigs and landfills.

In industrial plants, flare stacks are primarily used for burning off flammable gas released by
pressure relief valves during unplanned over pressurising and plant equipment, which acts to protect
against the dangers of over pressurising industrial plant equipment.

Steam is often injected into the flare o reduce the formation of black smoke. When too much steam
is added, a condition known as “over steaming” can occur resulting in reduced combustion efficiency
and higher emissions. To keep the flare system functional, a small amount of gas is continuously
burned, like a piolet light, so that the system is always ready for its primary purpose as an over
pressure safety system.

Distilleries
When quoting for distilleries allow for a reduction factor of 0.5 as per the guidance for ethanol as
described in NFPA 30, which is also referenced by the Scottish Whisky Association (SWA)

FPSO’s floating production storage and offloading

A floating production and offloading unit is a floating vessel used by the offshore oil and gas industry
for the production and processing of hydrocarbons and for storage of oil. A FPSO vessel is designed
to receive hydrocarbons produced by itself or from nearby platforms or subsea template; process
them and store oil until it can be offloaded into a tanker or, less frequently, transported through a
pipeline. FPOSs are preferred in frontier offshore regions as they are easy to install and do not
require a local pipeline infrastructure to export oil. FPOSs eliminate can be a conversion of an oil
tanker or can be a vessel built especially for the application. A vessel used only to store oil (without
processing it) is referred to as floating storage and offloading vessel

Floating production, storage and offloading vessels are particularly effective in remote or deep-water
locations, where see bed pipeline are not cost effective. FPSOs eliminate the need to buy expensive
long-distance pipelines from the processing facility to an on-shore terminal. This can provide an
economically attractive solution for smaller oil fields which can be exhausted in a few years and do
not justify the expense of installing a pipeline. Furthermore, once the oil field is depleted, the FPSO
can be moved to a new location

75
Oil rigs (platforms)

An oil platform, offshore platform or oil rig is a large structure with facilities to drill wells (optionally)
to extract and process oil and natural gas or to temporarily store product until it can be brought to
shore for refining and marketing. In many cases, the platform contains facilities to house the
workforce as well.

Depending on the circumstances, the platform may be fixed to the ocean floor, may consist of an
artificial island or may float. Remote subsea wells may also be connected to a platform by flow lines
and by umbilical connections.

LNG Tankers

In circumstances where hydrocarbons take the form of gas, it must be transferred to shore through
pipelines. However, by liquefying gas, it is possible to transport natural gas with liquid natural gas
carriers. In addition, hydrocarbons take up considerably less space in a liquid state. LNG carriers
enables companies in recovery gas from reservoirs, located in remote and deep waters.

LNG takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state. It is odourless, colourless,
toxic and non-corrosive. The natural gas is hen condensed into liquid at close of atmospheric
pressure by cooling it to approx. -162 degrees Celsius, max transport pressure is set at 4 psi.

Biogas

Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different germs produced by the breakdown of organic matter
in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste,
manure, municipal waste, plant Martials, food waste etc. biogas is a renewable energy source ad in
many cases exerts a very small carbon footprint.

Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic organisms, which digest material
inside a closed system or fermentation of biodegradable materials.

Biogas is primarily methane and carbon dioxide and small amounts of hydrogen sulphide, moisture
and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be combustible. The energy
released allows biogas to be used as a fuel.

Biogas can be compressed, the same way natural gas is compressed to CNG and used to power
motor vehicles. In the UK biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace 17% of vehicle fuel.
Biogas can be cleared and upgraded to natural gas standards then it becomes bio methane.

Biogas can be explosive when mixed with the ration one-part biogas to 8-20 parts air.

Eccentric vs Concentric for Biogas

With regards the arresters positioning, if the flame arrester is to be installed horizontally then I
would recommend opting for the LEA eccentric body version of this model of arrester, with either
arrester applicable for vertical installation.

76
 The body variance in horizontal orientations is important as biogas vapour is a wet gas, vapour can
condense on the element, run down and pool at the bottom of the housing in the concentric body
model. This can cause the element to clog up, reducing the free surface area which the gas is able to
flow through and the accumulation of acidic liquid in the housing can lead to advanced rates of
erosion. Whereas with the eccentric units because there is no depression the liquid does not pool
and therefore there is a lower pressure drop through the flame arrester when the flame arresters
are installed horizontally.

As biogas contains H2S stainless steel bodies are required as the carbon steel bodies will corrode.

Aluminium in Biogas

Please note however that as the corrosive compounds, such as H2S and ammonia, are unavoidable
by-products of the biogas production process, that all equipment in/on the digester tanks will into
contact with these corrosive elements and will lead to accelerated rated of corrosion in the case of
aluminium valves.

77
Cowhorn Arrangement – Thames Water Specific Case

The two ATEX rated sensors transmit an alarm signal if the valve opens on over pressure or vacuum.
All valves and arrester, pipework, manifolds and fittings shall be of stainless steel 316L. The isolation
valve body and flame arresters shall be stainless steel 316. – Thames Water Specific.

The system shall be such that each branch of the T is fitted with an isolation valve. One side of the T
shall have a flame arrester fitted downstream of the isolating valve and the duty pressure relief valve
fitted downstream of the flame arrester. The other side of the T shall have the standby pressure
relief valve downstream of the isolating valve, but no flame arrester.

The relief valve shall be duty/standby (per digester) and shall be sized to pass the maximum
designed gas flow from the vessel, under maximum loading conditions and maximum vacuum
requirement – as agreed by the client.

The relief setting for the valve without flame arrester shall be higher than the relief valve flame
arrester. Duty valve to be set 30% above the digester working pressure, standby valve to be set at
75% above the working pressure.

78
Waste Water Treatment Plant

Wastewater contains large solids and grit that can interfere with treatment processes or cause
undue mechanical wear and increased maintenance on wastewater treatment equipment. To
minimize potential problems, these materials require separate handling. Preliminary treatment
removes these constituents from the influent wastewater. Preliminary treatment consists of
screening, grit removal, septage handling, odour control, and flow equalization. This fact sheet
discusses screening and grit removal.

Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Screening
removes objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals to prevent damage and clogging of
downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances. Some modern wastewater treatment plants
use both coarse screens and fine screens. Figure 1 depicts a typical bar screen (a type of coarse
screen).

Grit includes sand, gravel, cinder, or other heavy solid materials that are “heavier” (higher specific
gravity) than the organic biodegradable solids in the wastewater. Grit also includes eggshells, bone
chips, seeds, coffee grounds, and large organic particles, such as food waste. Removal of grit
prevents unnecessary abrasion and wear of mechanical equipment, grit deposition in pipelines and
channels, and accumulation of grit in anaerobic digesters and aeration basins. Grit removal facilities
typically precede primary clarification and follow screening and comminution. This prevents large
solids from interfering with grit handling equipment. In secondary treatment plants without primary
clarification, grit removal should precede aeration.

79
Sedimentation is a physical water treatment process using gravity to remove suspended solids from
water. Solid particles entrained by the turbulence of moving water may be removed naturally by
sedimentation in the still water of lakes and oceans. Settling basins are ponds constructed for
removing entrained solids by sedimentation. Clarifiers are tanks built with mechanical means for
continuous removal of solids being deposited by sedimentation.

Wastewater aeration is the process of adding air into wastewater to allow aerobic bio-degradation
of the pollutant components. It is an integral part of most biological wastewater treatment systems.
Unlike chemical treatment which uses chemicals to react and stabilise contaminants in the
wastewater stream, biological treatment uses microorganisms that occur naturally in wastewater to
degrade wastewater contaminants.

In municipal and industrial wastewater treatment, aeration is part of the stage known as the
secondary treatment process. The activated sludge process is the most common option in secondary
treatment. Aeration in an activated sludge process is based on pumping air into a tank, which
promotes the microbial growth in the wastewater. The microbes feed on the organic material,
forming flocs which can easily settle out. After settling in a separate settling tank, bacteria forming
the "activated sludge" flocs are continually recirculated back to the aeration basin to increase the
rate of decomposition.

Wellhead

A wellhead is the component at the surface of an oil or gas well that provides the structural and
pressure-containing interface for the drilling and production equipment.

The primary purpose of a wellhead is to provide the suspension point and pressure seals for the
casing strings that run from the bottom of the hole sections to the surface pressure control
equipment.

80
While drilling the oil well, surface pressure control is provided by a blowout preventer (BOP). If the
pressure is not contained during drilling operations by the column of drilling fluid, casings, wellhead,
and BOP, a well blowout could occur.

When the well has been drilled, it is completed to provide an interface with the reservoir rock and a
tubular conduit for the well fluids. The surface pressure control is provided by a Christmas tree,
which is installed on top of the wellhead, with isolation valves and choke equipment to control the
flow of well fluids during production.

NFPA 30 – Flammable & Combustible Liquids Code

Applies to storage, handling and use of flammable and combustible liquids. Does not apply to:

Any liquid that does not have a flash point, but which is capable of burning under certain
conditions.
Any aerosol products.
Any mist, spray or foam.
Transportation of flammable & combustible liquids.

A reduction factor of 0.5 shall be allowed for tanks with wetted area greater than 19m2. A reduction
factor of 0.3 shall be allowed for tanks that are protected by water spray systems that meet
requirements of NFPA 15 and are provided with drainage that meets the requirement of 4.3.2.3.1. A
reduction factor of 0.3 shall be allowed for tanks that are protected with an automatically activated
water spray system that meets requirements of NFPA 15 for fire protection. A reduction factor of 0.3
shall be allowed for tanks protected with insulation that meets the requirements of 4.2.5.2.7.

Fire case emergency venting (B.L.E.V.E)

It should not be allowed to vent flammable vapour inside of the building:

According to (API, 2008)(6th Edition) clause 4.7.2g “When a tank is located inside a building,
the tanks venting devices shall discharge to the outside of the building. A week roof-to-shell
connection shall not be used as a means for emergency venting inside a building.
According to (NFPA, 2008) Clause 24:13 Vents for tanks inside storage tank buildings “vents
for tanks inside tank buildings shall be designed to ensure that vapours are not released
inside the building.

HSE states “emergency vent sizing should be based on the heat input rate from the worst-case fire
scenario, usually a fire within the bund. This will give a maximum vapour evolution rate and a time /
temperature / pressure profile within the tank.

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NFPA 30 allows for a 50% reduction in the emergency venting capacity for Ethyl Alcohol which
dramatically reduces the vent size required.

Emergency venting can be handled by a number of different methods.

References
API. (2008). API 2000 6th Edition. API.

NFPA. (2008). NFPA 30. NFPA.

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