Venomous Snakes in Captivity

Safety and Husbandry

Venomous Snakes in Captivity
Safety and Husbandry

B. W. Smith

Editor:
Jessica Smith
 Copyright© 2005 by B. W. Smith

All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by

any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopy, recording, or any
other information and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
author.

All photographs and images Copyright© B. W. Smith unless otherwise noted.

ISBN: 1-4116-2949-3

Full Color First Edition

revised

Cover Art and Design by: Jordon Milgrom

This book is dedicated to my lovely wife, Jessica and to my mother and father,
Glenda and Bruce. Without their love, support and encouragement, this would
not be possible.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank everyone that has encouraged and educated me over years
in the pursuit of knowledge and experience. I would also like to thank every
herper that has drudged through swamps, flipped refrigerators, and drove at 15
mph until dawn with me in the search for snakes. In particular, I would like to
express my gratitude to Anthony Gay, Chad Minter, Mardi Snipes, Johnny
Hester, Karl Betz, Chris Harper, Tanith Tyrr, Brad Kalata, Scott Bice, Delton
Hilliard, Mike Knight, and the SHHS as a whole.

Thanks to Jordon Milgrom for Cover Art and Design.

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 Contents

Disclaimer ………………………………………………………. 1

1 Introduction ……………………………………………. 3
2 Considerations for Venomous Herpetoculture ………. 5
3 Housing …………………………………………...…… 11
4 Tools and Equipment ……………………………... … 35
5 Handling, Maneuvering, & Restraining …………...… 51
6 Transportation ……………………………………...…. 69
7 Common Mistakes …………………..…..…………….. 77
8 Tips and Tricks ……………………..…….…………… 91
9 Venom, Envenomation, & Antivenin ……………...…. 103
10 Emergency Agencies ………………………...………... 119
11 U.S. Federal and State Agencies ………...….………… 127
12 Recommended Resources and Reading ……...……… 133

Bibliography ……………………………………………………. 135

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viii
 Disclaimer

The purpose of this publication is to offer an account of methods, techniques,

housing, protocols, and information utilized by professional and private
handlers of venomous reptiles. This is NOT an instruction manual. The
keeping and handling of venomous reptiles is inherently dangerous and carries
with it the risk of pain, disfigurement, or death. No one is encouraged to work
with such dangerous animals.
The author retains no liability for the accuracy of the content contained herein.
The author, editors, publisher, and all other parties involved in the production
of this work are held harmless to misinformation, liability to damages, injuries,
ailments, or death resulting directly, or indirectly, from the information
contained herein. The information contained herein is intended as a reference
material. The author holds no liability for the accuracy, use, or misuse of such
information. The author strongly discourages the handling or husbandry of
dangerous animals by unqualified individuals. Any person that engages in such
activities does so of their own free will and at their own risk.

1
2
 1. Introduction

Snakes have been a source of fascination, fear, and worship for thousands of
years. However, the study of Herpetology is still in its infancy compared to
other scientific disciplines. Herpetology is defined as the study of reptiles and
amphibians. This term has historically been used not only as an academic term,
but also as a professional and honorary term. Perhaps just as important as
Herpetology is Herpetoculture. Herpetoculture is defined as the captive
husbandry and propagation of reptiles and amphibians. Many of the most
exciting advances in husbandry were not made by scientists, but rather by
private herpetoculturists. By offering open communication between the
academic, commercial, and private herpetologists and herpetoculturists, we
consistently advance in these fields.

Private collections of reptiles are nothing new. These creatures have always
fascinated people. We can learn a great deal from captive animals, and do so
every day. Boas, Pythons, Ratsnakes, Kingsnakes, and various other
nonvenomous species are common in captivity. Most have been successfully

Figure 1 - The Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus). Wild

caught adults often do not fair well in captivity.

3
kept and bred for many years. The subsequent industry that has arisen is proof.
But some feel the need to reach beyond these types of snakes, and move to a
more mysterious realm. This is the realm of the Venomous Snake.
Venomous animals hold a certain mystique. They have such lethal potency
from, often, a comparatively small animal. Venom is the chemical warfare of
the natural world. Venoms are some of the most complex natural compounds
on Earth. New medications and treatments are being derived from these deadly
compounds each year.

Each year, there are advances in handling and husbandry techniques for these
fascinating creatures. These advances come from both professional and private
keepers. Communications between these two groups is imperative in sharing
knowledge, experience and techniques to advance science and safety.

Venomous reptiles are inherently dangerous animals and should always be

treated as such. They have the capability to cause loss of limb or life. Even
those species that are not generally considered to be deadly to humans can
cause severe tissue damage, intense pain, and possibly loss of digits or limbs.
Because of these dangers, the keeping of venomous reptiles is in no way
encouraged. Owners of these animals assume all risks associated with them.
This work is simply a reference of techniques and information used by many
professional and private venomous handlers and keepers.

4
 2. Considerations for Venomous Herpetoculture

Reasoning
After many years of successful husbandry of nonvenomous reptiles, one might
be inclined to move on to the venomous species, whether it is for professional
or personal reasons. Venomous, often referred to as “Hots”, offer new
experiences and challenges for the keeper. It is, for all intents and purposes,
“extreme herpetoculture.” For when dealing with venomous species, one small
mistake may have dire consequences. Venomous species are inherently
dangerous animals with potential to cause pain, disfigurement, and even death.
Due to this reality, why would anyone want to keep venomous species? There
are many different answers to this question, and each prospective hot keeper
must ask himself or herself why they wish to delve into the world of venomous.

Basically, there are a few major reasons that arise most often. The first is for
scientific research. Every year more is being learned about these fascinating
creatures and the toxins they possess. Some individuals study species in the
wild for conservation and natural history information. This aids in the
understanding of these animals and enhances our ability to protect them and

Figure 2 - It is easy to see how the Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus) got its
name.

5
conserve their natural habitat. Another facet of scientific study is venom
research. This type of study has produced such lifesaving products as antivenin
(the primary treatment for envenomation) and has become very important in
medical research. The complex compounds that comprise venom are often
found to have properties that aid in various types of ailments, from heart
disease to cancer.

The second common reason is simply a fascination with venomous species.

After working with nonvenomous species for a number of years, the differences
are staggering, despite the fact that they are all snakes. Aside from the obvious
difference of the method of securing prey, venomous make it obvious that they
are not like other snakes. There are differences in the way they move and act.
Their demeanor often implies that they are aware of their own potential. This
reason for keeping often leads to another: Education. Once a keeper has
experienced such wonderful animals and learns about them, they often see just
how persecuted snakes, particularly venomous snakes, really are. Often it
becomes second nature to educate as much of the public as possible to the facts
about snakes. Sometimes, it is as simple as someone in a line asking about a
rattlesnake shirt the keeper happens to be wearing, and a conversation buds
from their curiosity. Other times keepers bring their charges to the public in
more of an educational arena. This takes many forms from a simple school
classroom demonstration to displays at nature centers or similar institutions.
The driving force is ever present: conservation and understanding of the
creatures that have captivated us. By dispelling myths and fighting prejudices,
perhaps some snakes that cross the paths of man will be spared.

There are also some less noble reasons for working with venomous species.
The first is the person who seeks an adrenaline rush and the thrill of working
with venomous. This group often endangers themselves needlessly and takes
shortcuts in husbandry and handling. Working with venomous is a dangerous
proposition on its own. Combine that with a haphazard handler and it is a
deadly combination. This brings us to the next group, those that keep
venomous for simple “macho-ism”. They do not keep for the love of the
animals, the reasoning is often for the shock value. These are the individuals
that keep venomous to be “cool”, ‘tough”, “brave”, “mysterious” or dozens of
other ridiculous reasons. They are usually the ones engaged in the “free
handling” of venomous. “Free handling” is the practice of working with
dangerous species without the proper equipment or safety precautions, usually
using bare hands (this will be discussed in a later chapter). This group will often
show off their charges in an effort to impress or shock others. These practices
not only endanger the handler, but those around him or her as well. Venomous
snakes are NOT a status symbol or a gauge of how tough or brave one is.

6
This brings us back to the question at hand. Why would anyone want to keep
venomous? This is a question that the prospective keepers must ask
themselves. You can lie to others, but you cannot lie to yourself. Is the desire
to keep them for the right reasons? Is the prospective keeper capable of giving
them the care and respect they deserve? Is there the willingness to take the risk
associated with them? It is generally held that there are two types of venomous
keepers: those who have been bitten and those who will be bitten.

Experience
Deciding why one wishes to delve into venomous husbandry is only the first
consideration in keeping venomous. Experience must also be considered. Is
the experience present to safely house venomous species? Many experienced
venomous keepers believe that one should have AT LEAST five to ten years of
experience working with various nonvenomous species before working with
potentially deadly species. It is particularly helpful to have a great deal of
experience with fast, aggressive, and arboreal species as they present unique
husbandry experiences. This is not to say that every person with years of
experience with the above mentioned snakes is ready for a venomous one. This
is also not to say that someone who has thirty years experience with Ball
Pythons and Corn Snakes is ready. In fact, most herpetoculturists will never
keep venomous.

Probably the best way potential keepers get the necessary training and
experience is by working with an experienced venomous handler. These
individuals can be located in a number of ways. The best way is through local
herp societies. There is a wealth of information and experience in them. For
example, the Southeastern Hot Herp Society (SHHS) has a great deal to offer.
Its members span the globe and include some of the greatest minds in
herpetology and herpetoculture. The SHHS is located on the World Wide Web
at www.venomousreptiles.org. By training with an experienced keeper, first
hand experience and knowledge is gained that no book can teach. One can also
volunteer at a variety of facilities to acquire experience. These facilities range
from nature centers and zoos to serpentariums and laboratories. There is no
such thing as too much experience.

Books and research are also a vital part of proper training. It is of paramount
importance to understand as much as possible about venomous species, their
care in captivity, and the subsequent treatment necessary in the event of an
envenomation. The amount of information available is staggering and may
seem overwhelming. But there is much left to learn. Do not believe that
because someone has read this book or any other book, that they have all of the
knowledge necessary. New discoveries and information are surfacing
7
 constantly. By increasing our knowledge perpetually,
we become more effective and safe.

Noone can tell a potential keeper when and if they are

ready to introduce a venomous species into their
collection. Most may never be ready. They cannot
THINK that they are prepared, they must KNOW it.
They must be comfortable with their skills and
knowledge. There can be no doubt in their mind. At
the same time, one must never lose the respect for the
snakes or the potential that they possess. There is a
balance between being confident and being humble.
If a keeper lacks either, they put themselves at a
greater risk of envenomation. And such an instance
could have deadly consequences.

Figure 3 - The Forest Cobra

(Naja melanoleuca)

The Risk
The risk one takes in keeping venomous species cannot be overemphasized.
Venomous snakes are inherently dangerous and the bite from such an animal
can cause pain, disfigurement and even death. Is a potential keeper willing to
take the risk? Certain species of venomous snakes, particularly some rear
fanged species, may only cause some swelling and pain. But just like everything
else, there is a catch. Venom is a very complex set of proteins. The human
body reacts differently to foreign agents entering it depending on a countless
number of variables. A prime example is bee venom. A simple bee sting is
deadly to some people because of allergic reactions. We can never know how a
particular person is going to react to venom being introduced into the
bloodstream. For some, it may only cause swelling, but for others the effects
may be of a far more destructive nature. As we move on to a higher level of
envenomation, we find that many species cause tremendous pain and suffering
and may result in massive scarring and even the loss of an appendage. Is it
worth living without a finger, toe, hand or foot? Some species may cause pain
that one can hardly imagine and may be ongoing for a significant length of time.
Finally, there is the greatest price to pay for an envenomation: death. Many
commonly kept species are potentially fatal. One cannot dismiss the danger of
working with venomous species by the existence of antivenin. The bite may be
intravenous and thus cause effects much more rapidly than average. The victim
may go into shock. Antivenin may not be available. The hospital may be ill-
equipped to handle such a situation. There are thousands of things that can go
wrong. Antivenin is a treatment, not a miracle cure.

8
One must also look deeper than the personal physical risk. There is also a
monetary risk. What is the actual cost of an envenomation? This is not an easy
question to answer. There are far too many variables to accurately predict the
cost incurred. These may include the species, the severity of the envenomation,
the availability and cost of antivenin, the treatment and supportive care
necessary, and the duration of hospital care. Health insurance may not cover
such an event. In Manny Rubio’s April 2001 article from the SHHS Rattle
entitled “Are You Really Prepared”, he offers examples of such costs incurred.

Treatment for envenomation is expensive, very expensive. My

friend’s bill [for a Mojave Rattlesnake envenomation] was at the
low end, it was in excess of $40,000. Another friend’s Eastern
Diamondback (Crotalus adamanteus) bite was more than $89,000,
and I know of yet another person bitten by an Eastern
Diamondback a few years ago that topped $162,000.

Can the handler afford to incur some or all of the expense associated with an
envenomation?

Legality
Is it legal to keep venomous reptiles in the resident state, county, and city?
Illegal keeping of venomous reptiles hurts the entire reptile community, not just
the venomous community. Newspapers will read "Man Bitten by Deadly ‘Pet’
Snake", "Pet Cobra Bites Local Man", or "Man Keeping Illegal Deadly Viper is
Admitted to Hospital". These headlines cause legislation to be passed. That
hurts the entire community. Most private venomous keepers keep a fairly low
profile, not because of legality, but because of the way they are perceived by the
general public and the media. It is bad enough (in the public eye) to have a Boa
Constrictor, much less a Rattlesnake! Imagine this..... Copperheads (Agkistrodon
contortrix ssp) are found naturally in a creek across the street from a private
venomous keeper. A child is playing near the creek when they are bitten by a
Copperhead. What will be the reaction of the community? "That guy has
'Poisonous' Snakes, one of his must have escaped!" One can only imagine what
could happen from there. He is "endangering our children" and “He is a
‘Menace’ ". To the general public, average snake keepers are crazy, venomous
keepers are lunatics! How many times have you heard "The only good snake is a
dead snake"? Imagine the reaction if it was a Rattlesnake or a Cobra. There was
a man who was going through a local park scaring people with his pet Ball
Python. Within a couple weeks, ALL snakes were banned within the city limits.
In Alabama, a high school kid bought a few venomous snakes from a dealer

9
(there were no venomous laws at the time except age 18). His Spitting Cobra
escaped his apartment! Within weeks, new laws were passed. That is how one
incident can jeopardize the legal captive husbandry of reptiles. Know the laws!
Obey the laws!

10
 3. Housing of Venomous Species

Proper housing of venomous species is vital. As with all areas of venomous

herpetoculture, this is not an area that should involve taking shortcuts and
certainly should not be taken lightly. The bottom line is that the animals are the
keeper’s responsibility. If someone gets envenomated by a captive snake, the
keeper is liable. If an animal escapes, the keeper is liable. When one chooses to
delve into the world of venomous, they are housing potentially dangerous
animals and it is their responsibility to keep them in safe, secure enclosures that
protect the animals and protect other citizens from them. Proper planning is a
necessity. A properly designed area for venomous husbandry is basically
individual secure enclosures inside of one large one, a “Hot Room.”

The Hot Room

The term “Hot Room” is a common term used within the venomous
community. A Hot Room is a secure room which contains the enclosures of
venomous species. Ideally, in private collections, the Hot Room is a structure
separate from any living area. This includes “out-buildings” and well designed

Figure 4 - A well designed Hot Room with sealed caging, accessible handling equipment,
and emergency equipment such as protocols, a telephone, and fire extinguisher.

11
“sheds”. In private collections however, a separate building is often not
feasible. In reality, many Hot Rooms are modified bedrooms, garages, or
basements. The chosen area should have a great deal of open floor space for
working with the animals. There needs to be ample space to get a safe distance
from an aggressive animal or to simply let it crawl for a moment to calm down
in order to maneuver it safely. Snakes are unpredictable and there must be
room to react and deal with unexpected or erratic behavior. Many responsible
keepers agree that venomous species should never be kept in an apartment
setting. The concentration of residents is very high and an escape could have
more dire consequences than a snake that escapes directly into the wild. Due to
the multi-story, multi-tenant design of most apartments, the chance of an
innocent person encountering an escapee is greatly increased. Therefore, the
author considers the keeping of venomous species in an apartment irresponsible
and dangerous. A properly designed Hot Room is a must. No matter where it
is located, many of the same rules and guidelines still apply.

First, and foremost, the

room is sealed. The room
itself should act as a cage
surrounding all the other
cages. In the event that an
animal escapes its enclosure,
it should not be able to
escape the Hot Room.
Every square inch of the
room is inspected for cracks
or holes. Snakes will never
cease to amaze us at the
places they can crawl into.
Any holes or cracks are
sealed with caulk, silicone
or the like. For this reason,
hard surface flooring such
as concrete, linoleum, or tile Figure 5 - Framed screening is mounted over any
possible escape routes, such as this air conditioner.
are preferable. Cabinets or Emergency back-up lighting has been installed in the
storage areas are inspected event of a power failure.
for gaps, cracks or holes
and sealed accordingly. If there is a sink or other plumbing in the room, this is
of great convenience, but also of concern. Most plumbing has gaps around the
plumbing and attached cabinets are often poorly sealed and may have openings
to the underside, to the interior of the wall, or perhaps to another room.
Proper precautions are taken to eliminate this escape route. Any furniture in
the room is inspected for hollow bottoms or other entry areas. Certain types of
furniture are often avoided completely in the Hot Room. These include most
12
couches, sofas, and luxury chairs such as Lazy-Boys. These items offer an
escaped snake many places to hide. Removing a snake from under, or worse,
inside one of these is a daunting and dangerous task. The situation could be
worse if the keeper is not aware of the escapee and accidentally sits on it!
Ventilation is another area in which escapes may occur. All vents should be
secured with wire mesh. The preferred method by many hot keepers is a layer
of 1/8” to ¼” hardware cloth for strength. This is then covered with a layer of
mosquito style netting or fine mesh screen. Both layers are secured to the wall
with wood. The wood and edges are then sealed with caulk or silicone. This
offers security, while still allowing air exchange.

The doors and windows are the most obvious means of escape. Special
attention must be given to these areas. Ideally, the Hot Room should have no
windows. If there are windows in the prospective Hot Room, the same
procedure should be followed as for sealing vents. Many Hot Rooms may
feature this on the inside of the window. This allows the mesh to be inspected
regularly and makes damage to it unlikely. However, this also makes the
window itself inaccessible. Some opt to place the mesh on the outside of the
window. The advantage of this is that the window can still be opened.
However, this also means that the mesh is exposed to the elements and the risk
of damage is higher. One may also decide to go with the highest security
measure, applying it to both sides of the window.

The door is, of course, the main entrance and exit to any room. The door is
sealed as well. This is accomplished by several methods. One method is to
install weather stripping and/or a “door sweep” along the interior and exterior
base of the door. After installing, a light is turned on inside the Hot Room and
turned off in the room adjoining it. If any light can be seen under the door, it is
not secured. Another method is to install a piece of wood along the floor
outside the door. This piece of wood is the full length of the door jam and fit
snugly against the door when it is closed. A piece of weather stripping may also
be added between the door and the wood for added security. Of course
utilizing both methods is preferable. The Hot Room door should be equipped
with a sturdy lock. A dead bolt or pad lock is ideal for this purpose. Whenever
the handler is not in the Hot Room, it should be locked to prevent others from
entering.

The next consideration is equipping the Hot Room for safety. Signs warning of
the presence of venomous species should be posted on any door or window.
For added safety, the signs on the door should be placed at eye level and
approximately 12 inches above floor level. The reason for the lower sign is in
the event of a fire, the firefighters staying low to the ground will be made aware
13
of the room’s contents. Signs may be simple or elaborate, but all signs should
be clear and concise. Acceptable signs include “WARNING: Venomous
Reptiles Inside” or “CAUTION: VENOMOUS SNAKES”. Unacceptable
signs include such nonspecific and whimsical ones such as “Don’t even think of
walking in this room!” or “Enter at your own Risk”. The warnings should be
posted in both English and Spanish in the United States. Languages may vary
depending on your location. In areas of Canada, for example, French and
English might be more feasible.

Figure 6- Warning labels should be present on any entrance tot he Hot Room. Here we
see warnings in English and Spanish.

The placement of the light switch for the Hot Room is also important and often
overlooked. Ideally, the switch is located just outside the room. This allows the
lights to be turned on while the keeper is not physically in the room. If the light
switch is located inside of the Hot Room, it should be next to the opening side
of the door. This allows the handler to turn on the light with placing little of
the body in harms way in the event of an escape. Under no circumstances
should one have to walk across a dark room in order to turn on the light. These
are precautions to avoid the unfortunate event of entering the Hot Room with
an unknown escapee roaming the floor. Relating to this is adding a peephole in
the door. It is a good idea to be able to do a visual check of the room before
entering. This is accomplished by drilling a hole through the door and adding a
standard peephole available at many hardware stores. One may alternately want
a more effective means on surveying the room before entering. The door may
be modified with a glass or Plexiglas window for easy viewing. The most
effective and safe method of surveying the Hot Room prior to entry is the use
14
 Figure 7 - A double entry system. This allows the keeper to survey the room prior to
entering.
of a double entry system. This consists of a solid locked door, an open area,
and usually a glass door. Once the keeper enters the first door, it is closed
behind them. Then they can inspect the Hot Room through the viewing door
before opening.

15
In addition to a warning sign on the Hot Room door, a list of Hot Room Rules
is a good idea. Keepers should go over the rules with anyone entering the Hot
Room. Such rules may include: “No one enters unattended”, “This door is to
remain locked”, “No bare or stocking feet”, “Do not place hands on top of
cages”, “Do not open cages”, “Do not tap on glass”, and “Knock before
entering”. There are many rules that can be put in place to enhance the safety
of everyone, these are just a few examples.

Certain items should be readily available before entering the Hot Room. Some
handling equipment should be mounted outside of the Hot Room Door. In the
event of an escape, this equipment must be handy. Another good piece of
equipment to have is a flashlight. A flashlight can be mounted just outside the
Hot Room door and another inside the Hot Room near handling equipment.
In the event of a power failure or a light bulb blowing out, a flashlight is
imperative. When working with venomous, focus is of utmost importance.
Thus it is logical to have everything within easy reach. A flashlight inside the
Hot Room is more for emergencies, such as, working with the snakes one day
and a fuse blows. Suddenly, the room is dark with a venomous snake not
secured. Having a light within reach could save the keeper from a nasty bite.

Now that the exterior of the Hot Room is

equipped properly, setting up the inside of the
room is the next step. Handling tools should
be easily within reach and organized. There
are few feelings worse than facing a venomous
snake and realizing that a hook is not where it
is supposed to be. Many keepers prefer
keeping most of the equipment mounted in
one place. By having the majority of handling
tools in a central location, they are easily
accessible and the keeper doesn’t have to
remember where he last had something.
Additional handling equipment should also be
strategically placed around the Hot Room. Figure 8 - A simple wireless
This ensures that if something happens, tools Panic Button can be fashioned
are always within easy reach. This situation from an X10 style system.
may come up with certain species that are
known to rapidly climb hooks, thus requiring the use of a second hook. Within
the room, there should be no clutter on the floor. Having to step around clutter
while working with a snake is distracting and takes concentration off of the job
at hand. Clutter in the floor may also give the snake a place to hide or some
leverage to launch an effective strike. The Hot Room should be clean at all
times. Following this guideline also makes it much easier to find an escapee.
16
Figure 9 - Handling and maintenance equipment is mounted for easy access. Included
here: Midwest Gentle Giant Tongs©, two Midwest Standard Hooks©, long hemostats,
long handled scoop, two Midwest Ultralight Hooks©, and a neonate hook.
In addition to handling equipment, there are items that make a Hot Room
much safer. As with any herp room, there is generally a great deal of electrical
wiring involved. For this reason, a smoke detector should be installed in the
Hot Room. A fire extinguisher should also be placed either in the room or
directly outside. Since some private Hot Rooms are located in the basement of
a dwelling or other ground level room, a Radon detector may also be feasible.
A telephone should also be installed in the room. This is for obvious reasons.
During an envenomation, seconds count and an emergency telephone should be
readily accessible. Emergency numbers should be mounted next to the phone
for easy access. If the phone is equipped with speed dial, those emergency

17
numbers should be programmed in. Many keepers also utilize a “Panic
Button”. A panic button can be designed from any number of devices. Ideally,
a professionally installed button would be in every Hot Room. However, any
device that is loud and can be easily activated will work. The device should be
loud enough to be heard from anywhere in and possibly around the home or
building. It is recommended that the panic button be located at a height that it
can be activated from a crawling position. In the event of an envenomation,
the victim may not be able to walk. A telephone and panic button are of no use
if they cannot be accessed.

The final addition to the Hot Room is an Emergency Kit. The importance of
this cannot be stressed enough. This kit should contain envenomation
protocols for each and every species that is in the collection. Doctors have
precious little experience in any snakebite. If it is a bite from an exotic species,
it is better to have the information at their fingertips. The kit should also
include a copy of the medical history for anyone with access to the facility. This
should list any previous envenomations, allergies, medical conditions and any
other relevant information. The kit should also contain anything that will aid in
pre-hospital care. Examples include an Ace Bandage in the event that a
constrictive bandage is needed or perhaps an Epinephrine injection to combat
anaphylaxis. A spare set of car keys, hot room and facility keys, and a list of
emergency contacts are also frequently included.

Figure 10 - A basic Emergency Kit. This should include species specific envenomation
protocols for all specimens, personal medical information, and first aid items for an
envenomation.

18
Basic Enclosure Considerations
There are some basic considerations when looking for housing for venomous
species. First, the caging material itself must be analyzed. The material should
be sturdy, sealed, and completely escape proof. It should be easy to clean and
disinfect in order to maintain a clean and healthy environment for animal and
reduce the risk of contamination and cross contamination. Next, the method
used for heating the enclosure is considered. There are several heating devices
used in herpetoculture. The most basic, of course, is a light bulb. Ceramic heat
emitters are gaining popularity as they produce heat without light from a
standard light fixture. Infrared Heat Panels are also popular despite a high price
tag. They are reliable, safe, and efficient. All three of these are generally
mounted inside an enclosure or just outside with screen between the animal and
the heat source. The latter is less common, particularly in stackable caging.
Other heating devices that are commonly used include heat tape (FlexWatt®)
and heat cable or rope. These are usually installed on the exterior of the
enclosure. The heating is not only for providing a suitable environment, but also
for the safety of the animal and the keeper. Some interior heating devices may
cause burns if the animal comes in contact with them. Additionally, these could
provide elevated hiding locations and perches for the animal which may make it
difficult to locate or remove the snake and may pose a risk of putting the keeper
in a more dangerous position. For example, if an Eyelash Viper (Bothriechis
schlegelii) takes up a perch on the rear of an infrared heat panel, it is all but
impossible to remove it without putting the keeper within strike range. Also for
this reason, lighting, perches and decorations should be located away from the
cage opening.

Ventilation is important in any reptile enclosure, but when dealing with

venomous species there are more considerations. One must look at the type
and placement of the ventilation system. Some cage designs offer no apparent
vents or screens and rely on the air exchange around the door for circulation.
This should be a red flag that the door assembly is not acceptable. Slits are
sometimes cut into the enclosure for ventilation. This method is often
inexpensive and effective. One must be careful however to ensure that the
animal cannot escape through these slots or holes. Height of the vents above
the substrate is of little use as snakes are very effective escape artists and are
capable of reaching objects that seem unattainable for them. The snake should
be at least four times the girth of the vent opening. They are very adept at
entering tight spaces and all should be done to prevent this. If breeding the
animals or if one is housing a gravid female, the vents should be modified to
ensure that the neonates cannot escape. The same considerations apply to
drilled ventilation holes or prefabricated pegboard style vents. Finally we have
screen mesh vents. Escape is less of an issue with this style because of the
varying apertures in screen material. One must still consider the size of the

19
aperture in regards to the size of a snake. For instance, it would be dangerous
to place a gravid Dusky Pygmy Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius barbouri) in an
enclosure with screen apertures of ¼”, as the offspring and possibly even the
mother could escape. Finally, placement of the vents is considered. With
stackable caging, the vents should be located on the rear of the cage. This
placement minimizes the risk of someone inadvertently placing a hand on top
of the screen and receiving an envenomation. Care must still be taken when
transporting such a cage that hands are not placed near the rear vents. Most of
the housing recommendations refer to a stackable, front opening enclosure.
These are much more efficient and often safer than top opening style and are
preferred by the majority of experienced herpetoculturists.

The placement of enclosures is also vital. On occasion, a snake will slide off of
the hook and hit the floor. What then? The cages should be arranged to make
recovering the animal quick and safe. One method is to have the cages on a
raised platform with casters (wheels). This way, the entire caging system can be
easily moved in order to recapture the animal. Casters also allow for
rearranging of caging as the collection grows. By raising the platform 6”-8”
above the surface of the floor, there is enough space to maneuver a hook or
tongs in order to retrieve an animal that has crawled under it. Cage viewing is
also made easier since the keeper does not have to bend over as far to spot
check animals. Remember the old saying “out of sight is out of mind”. If an
animal is not easily viewable and accessible, then it runs the risk of being
neglected. If the cages are to be permanent additions to the room or building,
then they can be affixed directly to the walls. Naturally, there will still need to
be a platform to hold the weight of the units, but they can be further secured
directly to the wall by means of screws or industrial adhesives. Once they are
secured, a bead of caulk or silicone can be used to seal any cracks between the
cage and the walls or floor. By using this method, there is no area for a rogue
snake to retreat to. However, if done improperly and a snake manages to get
behind or under units that have been attached to the structure, it can turn into a
dangerous proposition to remove them. Taking down a system is hard enough
by itself, but by throwing a venomous animal into the equation, it can become
an invitation for disaster. Any large or heavy caging systems should always be
on casters if they are not affixed and sealed to the structure of the room. Just as
removing the system is dangerous, so is simply moving an extremely heavy or
cumbersome unit. Often the only way to move these units is to place hands
within possible strike range.

Glass Terrariums
Glass terrariums are generally not considered to be safe enclosures for
venomous species. The only advantages to glass terrariums are availability and

20
Figure 11 - Far too often, this is the security afforded glass terrariums. This is not an
acceptable enclosure for a venomous snake, even this young Broad Banded Copperhead
(Agkistrodon contortrix laticinctus).
price. They can be purchased from most pet shops, reptile expos, and online.
They are the most basic enclosures available. Reptile terrariums are basically
aquariums that are not designed to hold water, thus they are less expensive. A
variety of mesh tops are available. The lids that simply sit on top of the
enclosure are unacceptable for any herp as it is an invitation for escape. All too
many times we see a venomous snake in a terrarium with one of these simple
lids held down with bricks or books for security. This is irresponsible and
dangerous. Clips are also available to secure the top of the enclosure, but still
fail in many aspects. Clips are difficult to apply and remove for simple
maintenance and are unpredictable as to their effectiveness because they rely on
the integrity of the small plastic lip at the rim of the terrarium. The screen
material itself, may be too fragile for use with venomous and may collapse
under a moderate amount of weight. These enclosures are fragile, difficult to
heat properly, and very difficult to maintain humidity. It is also virtually
impossible to open or close the cage without placing fingers within the strike
range of the occupant, without major modification to the lid. Additionally, the
screen top can be dangerous in itself. Vipers, in particular, are capable of
striking and having at least a portion on the fang protrude through the screen
and into flesh that may be resting against it. Indirect contact with venom is also
a concern. A spitting cobra species could easily project venom into the keeper’s
eye through such a screen. It has also been reported on numerous occasions
21
that vipers striking screen tops have expelled venom great distances. And while
not as accurate as the spitters, this haphazard spew of venom could pose a
serious problem for the keeper. Because of so many disadvantages and dangers
compared to so few advantages, glass terrariums are not acceptable housing for
venomous species.

Commercial Wood Enclosures

There are several manufacturers of reptile enclosures made from wood
products. They vary in quality from a basic design to furniture quality. Many of
them consist of particle board with a laminate finish. This creates a very sturdy
cage and, because of the diversity of laminate styles, virtually any color or
pattern is available. Heating can be a bit of a challenge because of the thickness
of the wood. Often a heat lamp, Ceramic Heat Emitter, or Infrared Heat Panel
needs to be installed within the enclosure. Under certain circumstances, this
can be dangerous for the snake by way of burns and dangerous for the keeper
because the snake may be able to perch in a position that inhibits safe removal.
Wood enclosures generally weigh a tremendous amount, so it is advisable to
place them on casters so that they may be more easily maneuvered. Because of
this weight, however, the risk of a cage being knocked over is reduced.

Figure 12 - This pair of Timber Rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus horridus) is housed

in an elaborately decorated commercial wood enclosure with sliding glass doors and a
standard display case lock.

22
This design, unfortunately, is often insufficient for long term housing unless
properly sealed. During cleaning or even due to humidity within the enclosure,
moisture can leech into the particle board and cause swelling and a loss of
integrity over time.

Figure 13 - An example of a commercial plastic enclosure. This model features a down-

hinge style acrylic door and two padlock hasps. Housed is a young Eastern
Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus).

Commercial Plastic Enclosures

There are dozens of brands and styles of plastic caging available. The materials
used vary a great deal in their fabrication, properties, and aesthetics. Such
materials include ABS Plastic, Polystyrene, Polypropylene, Polyethylene, Acrylic,
and expanded PVC. These enclosures are not as common in pet and specialty
shops as glass terrariums because, in part, they are more expensive. One can
find several variations at reptile expos and other gatherings of herpetoculturists.
The internet has made these enclosures readily available and most can be
shipped directly to the keeper. This does often incur a substantial shipping cost
in addition to the price of the cage. Traditionally, these enclosures have been
fabricated by molding, chemically welding, or mechanically fastening the
components together and the completed unit shipped assembled. Because of
the size of the boxes needed to ship these cages, shipping fees can easily add up
to half of the cost of the unit. New materials and methods now allow certain
manufacturers to ship the units unassembled, thus saving the customer on
shipping costs. It is up to the individual keeper whether a preconstructed cage
is preferable over one which requires assembly. The properties of these plastics
often offer high strength from a comparatively thin material, thus the weight of
the enclosures is significantly less than their wooden counterparts. This eases
transportation and movement of the units. One person may be able to set up
an entire caging system where it would take two or more people for traditional
23
wooden enclosures. The ability to stack is another advantage of commercial
plastic caging. Most are designed to be completely stackable with doors located
on the front of the enclosure. In this fashion, the keeper can maximize the
space available. Many of these manufacturers also offer heating and lighting
options built directly into the cage such as light fixtures, heat tape or heat cable.
Light fixtures can also be easily added and custom hoods and light covers can
be easily fabricated to eliminate the risk of burns and unsafe perches. These
units have become a mainstay of both venomous and nonvenomous
herpetoculturists. Due to the variety of manufacturers, individual examples will
not be explored. It is best to speak to other keepers to get their experiences
with each type to find the one that will suit individual needs and the needs of
the particular animals. Discover the pros and cons of each type of unit, do
research, and make an informed decision. The prices of these cages are usually
worth the convenience, security, and longevity they provide.

Figure 14 - This custom enclosure features side hinged acrylic doors framed in wood with
security bolts and keyed locks. The area above the enclosure houses lighting and an
outlet wired to a dimmer. Design by Anthony Gay.
Custom Built Enclosures
Another method is to build or have a custom made enclosure built. This can be
a very rewarding experience if one is up to the challenge. When building a
custom enclosure, one should not try to “reinvent the wheel”. There are
already designs and methods in place that work very well and will ease the

24
building process. Also, know individual limits. Some people simply are not
good at building anything and should just invest in prefabricated caging. But if
the keeper is ready to build a custom enclosure for a venomous reptile, they
must keep in mind all aspects that are discussed in this chapter during the
design phase. Building allows the keeper to get creative and integrate features
that are not seen on commercially available caging. An elevated trap box, for
example, is preferred for many arboreal and semi-arboreal elapids; or, perhaps, a
removable divider would be advantageous. This is simply a divider that will
split the cage in half when inserted from the outside. Basically, a removable
divider works by turning an entire side of the enclosure into a big trap box
(discussed later). With the animal on one side of the divider, the keeper can
safely work on the other side. Of course, this requires two doors per cage. If
the goal is to present an exceptional display of animals in a zoo style, then the
keeper may consider having a fixed viewing area in the front and the access
doors on the rear. Trap boxes can also be securely attached to the exterior of
certain cage designs so that they may be operated without opening the
enclosure. There is no end to the possibilities when a keeper builds their own
custom venomous enclosure. They can be creative, be innovative, but always
remembering that safety of the animal, the keeper, and the community is the
top priority. Any enclosure should be completely escape proof and lockable to
prevent others from entering the enclosure and preventing an escape.

Rack Systems
Rack systems are common in herpetoculture for housing a large number of
animals in a very efficient and economical manner. It consists of specifically
sized shelving and holding containers that slide out. Materials vary from wood
to plastic, but the basic design is the same. Most often, commercially available
plastic storage containers, such as Rubbermaid® and Sterilite®, are used as the
actual enclosure for the animal. The shelving is designed to precisely fit the
desired container so that the provided lid is not used. The container slides
snuggly into the shelving to prevent escape. However, the esthetics of such
systems is generally less pleasing than other enclosure types. As with any
enclosure designed for use with venomous species, certain improvements must
be made to this basic design to make them suitable and safe for this application.

First and foremost is insuring that the entire system is escape proof. A
common mistake is when keepers do not insert the containers properly and
leave a gap. To remedy this, many keepers opt to add a locking mechanism that
will not engage unless the container is properly secured. Such a device may be
as simple as a plastic turn button installed on the edge of the shelving. Once
the container is inserted, the button is turned down to secure it in place. A

25
Figure 15 - A rack designed for venomous species. The doors have two keyed locks and
the offers ventilation and security. Design by Anthony Gay.

26
more advanced method involves installing retaining bars. The concept is the
same, but it offers increased security. Plastic or wood rods are mounted
vertically against the face of the unit and secured in place by a locking
mechanism. With the rods in place, the individual containers cannot be
removed from the shelving. The rod is removed for access and returned for
securing. This method allows entire columns of containers on the rack to be
secured simultaneously and reduces the risk of oversight.

Figure 16 - A typical holding container for a rack system. A plastic loop is installed to
facilitate opening the drawer with a hook. This drawer houses a Southern Copperhead
(Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix)

Finally, is a rack system specifically designed for venomous, rather than

modified to suit them. The most innovative and effective I have used thus far
was created by Anthony Gay. In addition to the basic shelving design,
ventilation was added by mounting Pegboard against the rear of the shelving.
This, however leaves rather large holes that a neonate may be able to escape
through. The solution was adding a layer of fine metal mesh screen between
the pegboard and shelving. Each component is individually secured and sealed
so that every shelf is independent of each other. Rather than using the simple
methods described above for securing the containers, he designed a door for
the front of the unit. The door is wood frame with a large acrylic front for
viewing and has two keyed locks. The door is recessed so that when closed, the

27
wood and acrylic press against the front of the shelving. This essentially seals
each level of shelving. By using this design, each animal is triple housed. First
is the basic container which fits snuggly in the shelving. The second is the
shelving itself. The sealed front and back turn each shelf into another secure
enclosure. Finally, the entire unit is sealed and locked created one large
enclosure housing all of the smaller ones.

When using any enclosure for venomous species, keepers avoid opening it with
their bare hands. This is particularly true with a rack system. The keeper’s hand
would immediately be within strike range. However, trying to slide out a plastic
container with a snake hook may be difficult. Many keepers add a loop to the
containers to aid in opening it with a hook. They may be as simple as a small
hole drilled in the lip and a zip tie inserted. Or it may be more advanced such
as a hinged metal ring. Whatever the preference, the end result is the same,
being able to slide out the holding containers while maintaining a safe distance
from strike range.

Doors
The doors of the enclosure are extremely important. Doors generally come in
two materials: acrylic and glass. Polycarbonate doors are available on occasion,
but often cost a great deal more. Each of these materials has pros and cons.
Glass is probably the most common material used for enclosure doors because
they are inexpensive and readily available in case they need to be replaced. They
are also scratch resistant and will not lose visibility over time through clouding.
Above all, glass is easy to clean and disinfect. The main problem with glass is
that it is fragile. A drop from a short distance or a sharp blow will cause glass to
shatter. This can be dangerous for the snake and the handler. There are also
limited options for adding locks to glass doors.

Acrylic doors are common in many commercial plastic cages. The most
common thicknesses are 1/8” and 1/4”, although increased size may be
available. Acrylic is a clear plastic that is relatively inexpensive and very
versatile. It can be easily drilled, mechanically fastened, or chemically fastened.
The strength is a major advantage as this material is often 10 times stronger
than glass of the same thickness. Because of the versatility and strength, acrylic
may be a superior product for this application. It does, however, have
problems. Acrylic requires special care in cleaning and disinfecting. Using
abrasive or improper chemicals may cause the material to cloud and impair
clarity. It also scratches quite easily. Over time, these factors will contribute to
a less clear door on the enclosure. On a well designed enclosure, however, it
should not be difficult to replace the acrylic.

28
Figure 17 - Sliding glass doors with a typical display case style lock.
Polycarbonate is another clear plastic material that is similar to acrylic. It carries
the same predisposition to loss of clarity and the cost is significantly higher than
glass or acrylic. The strength is what makes this material the most suitable for
housing venomous reptiles. Manufacturers state that polycarbonate is up to 20
times more impact resistant than acrylic and up to 250 times more impact
resistant than safety glass. Both acrylic and polycarbonate can easily
accommodate various locking mechanisms.

Next, one must consider the style of door. For front opening cages, there are
typically three styles: sliding, side hinged, and bottom hinged. A sliding door
generally consists of two pieces of door material sliding on parallel tracks. The
tracks are mounted to the top and bottom of the cage opening with the upper
track being significantly deeper. The purpose of this is for the insertion and
removal of the doors. A door is lifted into the top track, lined up with the
corresponding bottom track, and laid into place. The same method is used to
insert the second door. Naturally, the inner door is placed first. Each door is
slightly longer than half of the total length of the opening allowing them to
overlap in the middle when closed. This door system allows the keeper to
control the amount of open space when accessing the enclosure. This is
particularly advantageous for maintenance such as changing water or closing a
trap box (discussed later). Several keepers have commented on the
29
effectiveness of this design with regard to housing the larger and faster species
of elapids. This system also does not have any protruding parts when opening
or closing the cage, it is self contained. A disadvantage to sliding door systems
is that there is often a gap between the panes of material where they overlap.
Very small neonates may be able to escape through this crack. Keepers must
also be careful that the track is flush on the inside of the cage. One plastic cage
manufacturer has a lip above the sliding doors that small snakes can climb onto.
This can be very dangerous for the keeper as there is no easy way to determine
if one is perched above the entrance. Another issue is the design itself. Because
of the increased depth of the upper track it is very easy to remove the doors by
simply lifting them slightly. Several snakes have inadvertently removed the
doors from their enclosure in this way. Also, sliding doors are more likely to
come out in the event of a drop or fall. Because of these two scenarios, a
mechanism for preventing this removal is recommended. Slide doors also limit
the amount of open space available for removing an animal or habitat
components. Because of the design, no more than half of the total opening is
available at any given time without removing the glass. The advantage to this is
that there is a section of door that is still solid, but allows for viewing during
maneuvers. The disadvantage is that it may inhibit the removal of larger snakes,
water bowls, or habitat components.

Figure 18 - Seen here is a typical Cam Style Lock. This type of lock is concealed, readily
available, and very versatile on many materials.

30
Hinged doors are very common in commercial caging. Typically hinged doors
are made of acrylic, and to a lesser extent, polycarbonate. Occasionally one may
find hinged doors that are made of glass, but they usually have a frame of
another material, such as wood, to attach hinges to. But this is not the norm in
commercial caging. There are two types of hinged doors, side hinged and
bottom hinged. Side hinged doors are hinged on one side and have a latching
or locking mechanism on the other. Some designs on larger enclosures have
two doors that meet in the center. This allows one door to be opened and one
to remain closed, much like the sliding doors. Unlike the sliding doors, both
can be opened when the situation calls for it. There are disadvantages to this
design as well. When the cage door is opened, it protrudes outward toward the
keeper, which may be cumbersome and awkward is some situations. There also
needs to be enough room for the door to lay flat against the side. For this
reason, they are not appropriate if the side of the enclosure is directly against a
wall as the door will be at a 90º angle to the cage and may cause complications.
The door should also swing freely both to the open and closed positions. If the
hinge sticks or the cage is not leveled properly, it may affect the swing.

Bottom hinged doors work in much the same way except the opening begins at
the top rather than the side. This allows a smaller gap at the base of the door
while it is being opened if the snake begins looking for escape. It is easier for
the snake to go straight out, rather than crawl up the door. This may give the
keeper an extra second or two to secure the door over the side hinged models.
This design also relies on gravity to open rather than a perfectly leveled cage
and hinge, therefore, the door should always open properly. Another advantage
to the design is if the enclosure is to be placed against a wall as the wall will not
impede the normal operation. The enclosure, however, must be elevated above
the floor on casters or a platform to allow normal swing. Also, the door is
either open or closed. This means that the handler cannot really open it a small
amount, to add water for instance. This design may be a bit more difficult to
close with a hook (discussed later) than other models.

Being that swing doors are mechanically or chemically fastened to a hinge

system, there is less chance of the door becoming unreliable or falling off during
certain circumstances. The combination of this sturdy design and the use of
material that is more impact resistant than glass, makes for a very sturdy cage
door. Each design has its advantages and disadvantages and must be looked at
on an individual basis to suit the keeper’s needs.

Habitat Design
When setting up an enclosure for a venomous species, the habitat design is
important. What is the purpose? Does the keeper desire a simple and efficient
31
Figure 19 - A simple enclosure design featuring side-swing doors, a shelf, cage carpet,
and a water bowl. An Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) can be
seen on the shelf.

interior or are they trying to mimic the natural environment of the animal.
Each style has its own advantages and disadvantages. Many venomous
herpetoculturists prefer a simple, low maintenance environment. This often
consists of newspaper as the substrate. Newspaper is inexpensive, sanitary, and
easy to change. Black and white printed or unprinted newspaper is preferred.
Color printed paper should not be used. Aside from the substrate, the other
components often consist of only a water bowl and a hiding place. This
configuration has several advantages. It is simple to maintain for the keeper,
particularly if there is a large collection. Safety is also a consideration since
there are only a couple places that the animal can be if it is not in direct view; in
the hiding place or under the newspaper. There is also less clutter within the
enclosure for the animal to wrap around as the keeper is attempting to remove
it. This makes for efficient setups, but they are often not very aesthetically
pleasing. It is considered a “bare bones” enclosure. While it may not be
impressive to the viewer, it is often more than sufficient for the animal. There
are some species, however, that require many branches, leaves, cover, or deep
burrowing substrate in order to survive. Thus this type of design may not be
appropriate for every species. At the other end of the spectrum are the
naturalistic habitat designs. These are often designed in order to mimic as
closely as possible the natural environment of the animal. Deep substrate,
naturalistic branches, plants, rocks, ledges and even background art are
common in this type of setup. This offers the animal an immaculate habitat in
order to choose its favorite hiding and basking spots. It also allows for the
animal to feel more secure in its environment and thus reducing stress. Some
even integrate waterfalls and fogging systems to produce a true showpiece.
Unfortunately, it may also make the animal more difficult to find and work
32
Figure 20 - A moderately complex habitat design in a commercial plastic enclosure.
with. It may take several minutes of searching with a snake hook (discussed
later) in order to locate the animal. Removing the animal from such an
enclosure can often be a daunting task. It has multiple places to take refuge and
many objects to crawl over, around and under to avoid capture. It may also be
more difficult to maneuver a snake hook easily with so much clutter and may be
necessary to systematically remove elements with tongs or long hemostats in
order to get a safe working environment. Most keepers seem to choose a
habitat somewhere between these two extremes. Perhaps a cypress mulch
substrate with a water bowl and hid box with a few easily removable branches
or leaves.

Trap Boxes
A trap box is basically a hide box that has been designed to “trap” the snake
inside. This usually consists of a solid hide box made from any number of
materials with an opening that can be closed to contain the snake inside. Using
such a device makes daily maintenance much easier, safer, and less time
consuming. The snake can either be persuaded to enter the unit or may already
be inside when cage maintenance is necessary. Once the animal is inside, using
a snake hook or similar tool, the keeper than then secure the door with the
snake inside. Changing water, cleaning substrate, and enclosure maintenance
can then be completed without having to remove the animal, reducing the time

33
required and minimizing stress on the animal and the keeper. There are many
variations of trap box design. The closable door may be hinged or on a sliding
track. Each design has its pros and cons depending on the purpose and
enclosure habitat. Many keepers create very advanced trap boxes such as
hinged, locking lid or a locking door. This allows the keeper to use the trap box
for transport or safely remove the animal from the enclosure for habitat
sterilization. A clear acrylic top or bottom may also be used so that once the
animal is secured inside; the keeper can get a close look at the animal to inspect
for overall health, injury, or illness. Mesh has also been used in order to allow
the keeper to administer medications or injections and aid in other health
related maneuvers such as removing retained eye caps. A standard trap box
with mesh, however, leaves the animal too much room for movement during
such procedures so some keepers opt for a “Squeeze Box”.

Figure 21 - This wooden Trap Box has spaced pegboard ventilation on once side and a
hinged lid with a keyed lock. The protruding piece is pushed in with a hook and the
metal latch secures the slide.
A squeeze box is basically a trap box that has been modified in order to press
the top down toward the animal effectively pinning the animal’s body. This
inhibits movement and can make health related procedures run more smoothly
and safely. Care must be taken whenever screen is used in conjunction with any
aspect of venomous snakes to avoid fangs protruding through the screen or
venom being expelled through the mesh. Anytime a trap box is used, a snake
hook, or similar device, is used for closing and opening the box. They should
never be opened by hand.
34
 4. Tools and Equipment

Proper handling equipment and techniques should be utilized during any

maneuvers with venomous snakes. Over the years, there have been many
advances in the tools of the herpetoculturists. A prospective keeper must
understand that quality equipment is not a luxury, but a necessity in order to
provide the safest working environment for the keeper, the animal, and the
community. Naturally, possessing the correct equipment is only the first step.
Proper techniques and implementation are equally important and are explained
in the next chapter. Here we will discuss some of the basic tools and equipment
of venomous herpetoculture.

Standard Hook
A snake hook is the most basic piece of handling equipment and is often
familiar even to the general public. Simplistically, a snake hook is a shaft with a
curved end. Realistically, there is much more to the design and materials than
one might think. An average hook will vary in length from 36” to 48” with 40”
being the most common. The shaft is of variable materials, but a standard
aluminum golf club style shaft is the norm. The end is fitted with a dull metal
hook of varying materials, circumferences, depths, and widths depending on the
manufacturer. This tool is used in order to lift a snake while keeping the
handler at a safer distance.

Small Hook
Small hooks are often referred to as Cage Hooks. These are miniature versions
of the standard hooks. The shaft is made from metal or plastic tubing and the
hook is proportionate to the shaft. These hooks are used for smaller specimens
and neonates. The compact design allows for easier manipulation of small
snakes both within the enclosure and during handling. The small hook design is
also advantageous for use with smaller arboreal snakes.

Specialty Hooks

There are many specialty hooks that are designed for very specific applications.
An adult Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica), for instance, is a very thick and heavy
bodied animal. A standard hook has a very narrow end that may put too much
pressure on the snake’s ribs. The same is true of larger pythons, such as the
Burmese Python (Python molurus bivittatus). For this reason, a specialty hook is
preferred. A hook with a larger, sturdier shaft and wide end is much more
beneficial to the handler and the snake. Field hooks are another example.

35
Figure 22 - Midwest Standard 40" Snake Hook©

Figure 23 - Close-up view of the head of a Midwest Standard Hook©

Figure 24 - A 24" Midwest Ultralight Hook©

36
Figure 25 - Specialty Hook: This is a Midwest Collapsible Hook©. This compact design
features a groove to prevent the head from rotating. It is compact and easily fits into a
suitcase or backpack.

Figure 26 - Specialty Hook: A custom neonate hook created by Chad Minter from 1/8"
steel and coated in rubber. A quarter is used for size comparison.

Figure 27 - Specialty Hook: The Midwest Pro Field Hook© is designed for not only
working with animals, but moving large objects while looking for snakes in the field.
37
While searching for snakes in the wild, it is often necessary to lift large, heavy,
or cumbersome pieces of debris looking for the snakes. A sturdy and
reinforced snake hook aids in this endeavor. The end may also be shaped in an
“L” formation in order to aid in the lifting of debris. A similar, but lightweight,
version of an “L” hook is also used. This design is useful when using two hooks
for certain arboreal vipers. The straight surface aids in manipulation from the
grasp of their prehensile tails. There are several other designs available that were
created for a specific purpose.

Pinning Sticks
On rare occasions, a venomous snake may have to be restrained by pinning (see
Handling Chapter). For these rare occasions, some keepers opt for the use of a
pinning stick. The most common design incorporates a shaft design similar to a
standard snake hook with a forked head. The forked end is blunt and may only
be a few inches wide. A piece of rubber tubing runs between the ends of the
fork to create a flexible, yet sturdy surface to pin a snake’s head down. It is
much safer for the animal since no solid material is being placed along its spine.
On some models, the tubing can be adjusted to increase or decrease the
elasticity of the tubing. Rigid style pinning sticks are also used by some keepers.

Figure 28 - This Pinning Stick from Midwest© has taught, but flexible rubber tubing to
aid id restraining a snake's head.
Pilstrom Tongs
Many people are familiar with this particular type of tongs. They consist of a
hollow shaft, a pistol style grip, and a grasping mechanism. The grip consists of
a stationary handle and a hinged lever attached to a cable. The cable runs
through or along the surface of the hollow shaft to the grasping mechanism.
This mechanism is basically a scissor style. There is a stationary base with a
groove running the length of it and a movable top that fits into the groove
when closed. The top portion often has a small 90º angle or “finger” at the end
to allow a more secure grasp. This model does not generally have tension
control. Thus, the more pressure that is exerted on the trigger, the greater the
closing force of the tong. The grasping end, or “head”, of the tong is usually
narrow and made of steel. These factors combine to form a device that is
dangerous for the animal if used by an inexperienced keeper. It is quite easy to
exert too much pressure and significantly injure or kill the snake. The narrow
38
Figure 29 - Typical Pilstrom Style Tongs.

Figure 30 - Close-up of handle and head mechanisms on typical Pilstrom Style Tongs.

head transfers all of the pressure to a very small surface of the animal,
increasing the chance of injury. This style is not recommended for use on live
animals. They are, however, a very handy piece of equipment for many other
applications. Because of their sturdy design and gripping strength, they are
excellent for removing heavy objects from enclosures such as hide boxes, water
bowls, and cage decorations. Of course care must be taken never to move an
object over a snake as the object may fall and cause injury. These are also very
effective for introducing prey items to captive animals. This is particularly true
for prekilled prey. Many snakes require the food to be dangled or moved
around the cage to mimic live prey in order to solicit a feeding response.
Pilstrom style tongs are advantageous any time the keeper requires grasping of
items that are in proximity to a venomous snake.

Gentle Giant Tongs®

This is one of the few occasions that a specific product will be highlighted. I
feel that this is necessary to mention this product because it has become an
indispensable tool to both private and professional keepers. Midwest Custom
Products (www.tongs.com) created a new design of tongs that they have
deemed the Gentle Giants®. According to the manufacturer, the shaft is
constructed of blue aircraft grade aluminum. All cabling is constructed of
stainless steel concealed within the shaft. The design of the handle makes it

39
Figure 31 - Close-up of head on Midwest Gentle Giant Tongs©.

very comfortable and stable while in use. Because of the materials used, this
model is very lightweight. The head is the real selling point of this item. They
created it with a 2 ¼” wide surface. This is a vast improvement over the thin
Pilstrom style as it disperses the pressure applied over a larger surface area, thus
reducing the risk of injury to the animal. The top, movable jaw is triple coated
in rubber, creating friction so that the snake may be secured more efficiently.
The stationary jaw is polished with no rubber. The purpose behind this is that a
snake uses its ventral scales for locomotion. A smooth design prevents the
animal from gripping the surface and reduces movement. Finally, Gentle
Giants® control the maximum pressure exerted through the jaws. What this
translates to is that no matter how much pressure a keeper puts on the trigger, a
consistent amount is applied by the jaws. Controlled pressure reduces the risk
of the animal sustaining an injury during handling. Gentle Giants® are
40
considered by many keepers to be one of the most indispensable pieces of
handling equipment available.

Figure 32 - Full view of Midwest Gentle Giant Tongs.

Restraining Tubes
Keepers can not always stay at a safe distance from their cares. Veterinary
work, tube feeding, tick removal, and other situations require more hands-on
contact with the animal. This is where restraining tubes come in. These are
clear plastic tubes of varying diameters and lengths. These are yet another
necessity in any environment where venomous species are kept in captivity.
The idea behind them is that the snakes head is inserted into the tube, and then
the tube and snake are held in place. The snake’s head is no longer in a position
to inflict an envenomation and may be safely worked with. The keeper may
now administer medications, inspect the animal closely, or any number of other
procedures. Small holes may be strategically drilled in key locations on the sides
of the tubes to aid in parasite removal, eyecap removal, or administering
injections. Detailed information on techniques and safety precautions are
discussed later.

Figure 33 - Typical plastic Restraining Tubes.

41
Hemostats
Hemostats are long, thin modified pliers. Many people have seen physicians use
them. While these small versions do have an important place in herpetoculture,
the focus shall be on the larger models. Hemostats come in a variety of sizes,
with 18” and 24” being quite versatile for the venomous reptile keeper. These
are useful in offering prey items to smaller animals and removing small items
from enclosures.

Figure 34 - 18" and 24" Hemostats.

Snake Bag
Bagging is most widespread method of transporting venomous snakes, and
snakes in general. The bags provide advantages to the animal and to the keeper.
These are inexpensive, readily available, and consume very little space when
empty so many can be stored in a small space. Pillowcases are the most
common type of snake bag. Larger and smaller versions of standard pillowcases
are also available from home furnishing stores. The cases used for body pillows
work quite well not only for larger snakes, but also for those that are more
prone to try to escape during the bagging process. Commercially produced
snake bags are also available and are often much more secure because of double
stitching and improved materials. A wider variety of sizes may also be available
when such bags are specifically produced for use with reptiles. Bags are also
advantageous to the snake. The darkness helps to reduce stress on the animal.
Snakes also prefer hiding places that are snug. The bag offers contact against
the skin in several places on the body giving a sense of security. Breathing is of
little concern when using a snake bag, as the air flow through most materials is
sufficient. Care must be taken when bagging or transporting a bagged
venomous snake as the snake CAN bite through the material. Bags should
always be carried above the knot and the rest of the bag should never come in
contact with a person.

42
Bag Stick
As mentioned, one of the standard holding containers for snakes of all types is a
Snake Bag. Nonvenomous snakes are simply placed in them and the bag is tied
off. It gets a bit trickier for venomous species. A device for holding the bag
open is needed for the safety of the keeper. This is where a Bag Stick comes in.
A Bag Stick consists of a handle, shaft, and bag ring. At the end of the shaft, a
triangular piece of material is mounted. This is the appropriate size for a
standard snake bag. A bag is mounted on the triangle and clipped or secured in
place. The snake can then be hooked, tonged, or coerced into the bag. The
frame not only holds the bag open, but also acts as a closing method to safely
secure the bag. There are various designs of Bag Sticks including open triangles
and collapsible, but they all serve the same function. Methods and techniques
of bagging venomous snakes are discussed later.

Figure 35 - A Bag Stick with snake bag attached.

Figure 36 - A Bag Stick with no bag attached.

43
Bag Stands
A bag stand is a stationary system used for holding a snake bag open. These
can be advantageous because both of the handler’s hands are free to work with
the animal. It is also referred to as a bagging station. With this system, there is a
metal, wood, or plastic frame mounted to a stand which raises it above the
ground. Some keepers choose to mount casters to the bottom of the stand to
allow it to be moved freely throughout the Hot Room and reduce the time
needed moving a snake from the enclosure to the unit. Care must be taken that
the stand is secured while bagging to avoid unnecessary movement during
bagging. Thus, locking casters are recommended. At this time, there are no
commercially produced bag stands available. For this reason, the keeper must
fabricate these devices. This offers an opportunity be creative and innovative.
By designing the frame in two pieces with hinges, a closing mechanism can be
incorporated. Or perhaps a sliding track mechanism is more to the keeper’s
taste. The possibilities are endless. But functionality and safety should be the
primary concern during design.

Holding Container
A holding container is perhaps one of the most underappreciated pieces of
equipment. Perhaps this is because of the countless styles and abundant
availability of units that can be adapted for this purpose. There are two criteria
when a keeper chooses a holding container. It must be escape proof and it
must operate to keep the handler safe from strikes while opening or closing it.
There are numerous acceptable products that suit this purpose. Most can be
obtained for very little money from any number of sources. The most common
holding container is a plastic trash can. The high, slick sides inhibit many
species from being able to escape. Some come standard with very secure lids as
well. These are inexpensive and easily modified to suit a handler’s purposes.
Holes may be drilled for air or to add extra security such as clips or ties. A
handle can easily be installed on the lid to prevent the keeper’s fingers or hands
from coming into strike range of a secured snake. Many keepers also opt to add
a clear plastic viewing window so that they may see the position of the animal
prior to opening the container. These same precautions can be applied to other
containers as well, such as plastic storage containers. Any holding container
should be clearly marked on all sides warning of the possibility of their
venomous inhabitants. Plastic containers work very well for several reasons.
The sides are steep and slick which may reduce the speed that a snake can climb
them. They are simple to clean and sterilize and most hold water well in the
event a snake needs to be soaked. Anytime a venomous snake is removed from
its enclosure and is not being actively worked with, it should be secured in a
holding container.

44
Figure 37 - A simple homemade holding container made from a latching rubber trash can.

Shields
Shields are another piece of equipment that will make venomous husbandry
safer and more efficient. At the time of this writing, I am aware of no
commercially available shields, so they must be made by the keeper. A shield is
an added barrier between the snake and the keeper during maintenance. There
are several designs used, but most consist of a plexiglass shield attached to a
wooden handle. The most simple and common are single pane shields. With
this design, a single piece of plexiglass is cut to a size slightly smaller than the
enclosure. This is then mounted to a long wooden handle. It can be inserted
into the cage during maintenance to offer an additional barrier while
maintaining a clear view of the snake. Straight mounted models are most useful
in divided door cages such as sliding glass or double swinging doors by blocking
the majority of one side of the cage. These may also be enhanced with flexible
plastic or rubber edges to allow a tighter and more secure fit when used. A T-
45
mounted model may be useful for single door, front opening cages to greatly
reduce the open space. These are generally held against the front of the cage
rather than inserted like the straight mounted type.

Trap Stick
The keeper may wish to create a more specialized adaptation of a shield. One
example is a Trap Stick. The handle is mounted to the underside of a clear,
open top box. The box can be made from plexiglass or a premanufactured
product may be used. The size of the box depends on the species and
enclosure design. The function of this model is to place the box over the snake
to secure it. It is recommended that the box be of sufficient size to also cover
a hide box if the snake is taking refuge. It is essentially a portable trap box
securing the snake quickly and safely when it is in a coiled position or in a hide
box. It may be of little use for many active and agile species, but is very
effective on many ambush species that hunt from a coiled position. Again, a
clear view of the snake should be maintained at all times. Thus clear materials
are best suited for this purpose.

Figure 38 - A Trap Stick designed by the author. It is made from 1/4" acrylic to add
sufficient weight to contain the snake.

46
Face Shields
Face shields are commercially available at many home improvement stores.
They fit snugly on the head and have a clear piece of plastic that covers the
entire face. These are an absolute necessity if spitting cobras are in a collection.
Anytime a spitting cobra or its enclosure is to be worked with, a face shield
should be put on prior to opening the cage door. The keeper must be sure to
keep the shield clean after any encounter to remove any venom or smudges that
may obstruct their view. Glasses or goggles are not recommended because of
the possibility of venom spraying under them or seeping down from the
forehead.

Figure 39 - Puncture resistant gloves from Midwest©.

Gloves
There are companies which sell gloves for use with animals. One of the most
advanced designs uses heavy leather with ballistic Kevlar lining. These are very
tough gloves. And these definitely have their uses in many applications.
However, it is important that the keeper realize that no glove is bite proof.
Envenomations have occurred while wearing such gloves. Use of these types of
gloves is not an excuse for reckless handling practices. All of the same
procedures and precautions should be taken. Gloves are an added level of
safety, they in no way make handling venomous snakes safe. They do, however,
greatly reduce the chance of an envenomation if a snake is to strike the hand.
Possible applications for these gloves include situations such as changing water
bowls while using a shield or opening and closing holding containers. Wearing
them during tong feeding is another application. While some handlers use such

47
gloves religiously, others find them cumbersome and feel that they inhibit their
movement. The use of gloves is at the discretion of the keeper. The most
important thing to remember about them is that there are no gloves that are
“puncture proof”, only “puncture resistant” and should always be treated as
such.

Pinkie Press
This gruesome little device may already be known to many herpetoculturists and
is common in both venomous and nonvenomous communities. Its
functionality may not be pleasant, but the results are unquestionable. As with
any type of animal, sometimes venomous snakes do not wish to eat on their
own. Force feeding is not only very stressful on the animal, but can be quite
dangerous for the keeper when performed on a venomous snake. This is the
niche of the Pinkie Press. It is a stainless steel syringe that can withstand a great
deal of pressure. A stainless feeding style needle is on the end and between the
needle and the hollow shaft, is a series of small holes. Prekilled or
Frozen/Thawed newborn mice (pinkies) are placed in the shaft. When pressure
is applied to the plunger, it forces them through the small holes and out the
feeding needle. Not pretty, but very effective. And particularly useful for
venomous species since the feeding needle slides easily down the throat rather
than fumbling with a prey item for force feeding. It offers less stress on the
snake, less stress on the keeper, and increased safety during a potentially
dangerous procedure.

Figure 40 - A typical style Pinkie Press.

Speculums
Speculums are handy little devices for some of the more intricate aspects of
venomous husbandry such as administration of oral medications or veterinary
inspections of the mouth. They are used to pry open a reluctant snake’s mouth
and keep it open for the necessary procedure. Speculums come in several
configurations. The most logical design is thin rod of stainless steel molded in

48
an elongated “D” shape with a thicker metal rod on one side as a handle. The
speculum is held flat and inserted into the mouth of the snake, then gently
rotated to open the mouth and allow access. Care must be taken to keep fingers
out of strike range of the fangs. Some larger vipers can accomplish amazing
maneuvers with their fangs. For this reason, holding the speculum with
hemostats or pliers during use is recommended.

Figure 41 - A set if Speculums with case from Midwest©.

Figure 42 - An 18" Scoop fashioned from a large metal cooking spoon.

Scoops
For routine maintenance, such as spot cleaning fecal matter, a scoop is a
valuable tool. A scoop consists of a spoon like end on a long shaft. Since there
are few, if any, commercially available scoops, construction is often necessary.
The shaft, or handle, should be long enough to work in the enclosure without
the keeper being within strike range of the animal. Many keepers use several
different sizes to accommodate different species and variable lengths of snakes.
The scoop end can be crafted from something as simple as a large metal
49
cooking spoon. The shaft of the spoon is cut off and is attached to the new
shaft with mechanical fasteners or glue. Larger scoops may be desired and
other implements may be utilized for this purpose. The use of a long scoop
tool allows the keeper to remove fecal matter or uneaten prey without removing
the animal and keeping the handler at a safe distance at the same time.

Figure 43 - A 36" Scoop fashioned from a large cooking spoon attached to a long dowel
rod.

50
 5. Handling, Maneuvering, and Restraining

This chapter describes a few of the more common handling practices. They are
described and illustrated as completely as possible. However, because these are
hands-on procedures and puts the keeper in direct contact with the animal,
experience must be gained through training and practice, rather than simply
reading a book. There is no substitute for a good mentor. This section is
designed to offer the background knowledge needed before being properly
trained by an experienced handler. These are guidelines, not instructions and
any accidents or injuries that may occur as a result of this information is the
fault of the handler.

Hooking
Hooking is the most basic and often used form of maneuvering venomous
Figure 44 - Hooking of a Copperhead
(Agkistrodon contortrix) on a Midwest
Ultralight Hook©.
snakes. One of the most important
aspects is to be comfortable with
the various hooks. They should be
an extension of the keeper’s arm
and move fluidly and deliberately.
It is not a bad idea, when first
starting out, to use a hook on any
nonvenomous in the collection.
The more practice the keeper has
and more comfortable they are with
the equipment, the easier it will be.
As mentioned before, several sizes
of hooks should be present in the
hot room. The size and species of
the snake to be worked with will
determine the size of the hook
needed. Temperament of the snake
should never influence which size
hook to use. Each snake should be
treated as if it were the most
aggressive and deadly on the planet.
The keeper’s hands should be at a
safe distance from the animal’s
strike at all times. Many species will
ride a hook very well, some will not.
The use of two hooks is often used
for heavy bodied or “flighty”
species that tend to not sit on a

51
hook and try to constantly escape.

Hooking snakes takes a great deal of patience and practice, as they often do not
wish to cooperate. Generally the hook should be slid under the body in the
upper third of the total length. The hook is then turned so that the opening is
facing up. The snake is then lifted. Some snakes will grasp the hook as if it
were a branch to keep from falling off. Others lay nicely with the hook resting
somewhere between the first and third portion of the body. Others will try to
escape and quickly climb or fall off. The entire length of the snake hook should
always be pointed slightly downward away from the keeper. This prevents a
snake from falling down the hook and onto the hand of the keeper. Sometimes,
the upper third of the body is not sufficient to maneuver the animal and the
technique must be modified. Many vipers and pitvipers may lie in a position
where the spine is resting in a wave shape. This offers the keeper several

Figure 45 - A Timber Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) being hooked on a Midwest

Standard Hook©.

52
concave curves along the side of the snake to work with. The second curve is a
good place to start even though it is farther up the body than one third. The
animal may close that curve around the hook for security allowing it to be lifted.
If the animal is in a full coil, then inserting the end into the center of the coil,
gently sliding it under the snake, and lifting may be the easiest method. But
beware that this is a standard striking position in which the snake can get a long,
powerful, and accurate strike from. The ability to hook safely and efficiently
comes only from much experience and knowing not only how the different
species act, but also the individual specimens.

Figure 46 - Double Hook method demonstrated on a large Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon

piscivorus).
In some situations, the use of two hooks is optimal. This is particularly true for
heavy bodied vipers, fast and agile elapids, or arboreal vipers. Heavy bodied
vipers such as the Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica), Rhinoceros Viper (Bitis

53
nasicornis), and the Bushmaster (Lachesis muta) may sustain injuries if the entire
weight of their body is resting on the narrow edge of a hook. Using two hooks
is preferred in this situation. It is basically the same method outlined above but
with a hook supporting the upper third of the body and another supporting the
lower third. This helps to distribute the weight of the snake more evenly and
reduce the chance of injury to the ribs. Fast and agile elapids and even some
vipers may also require the use of two hooks. However, this time it is not to
distribute weight, but rather to try to control them. Some snakes like more
surface under them, so two hooks is more akin to branches. And some just
wish to race away. In this manner, the hooks are continually and quickly
alternated one under the other to keep the snake from racing away. After a bit
of this, they may calm down or the keeper may be “juggling” the snake all the
way to the holding container or the enclosure. Arboreal vipers are often the
opposite, they tend to coil around the hook as if it were a branch and not want
to let go. This gives the handler two reasons why he should use two hooks with
arboreal vipers. The first, is if they do not wish to relinquish the hook. The
second hook is used to coerce the snake to let go, usually by gentle tapping of
the tail next to a more appropriate branch or perch. Holding containers for
arboreals may have perches in them for this reason. Next, he needs two hooks
in case the snake “steals” the first one. Sometimes a snake will keep its tail
tightly wrapped around the hook while climbing up the shaft toward the
keeper’s hand. At this point, is often best to just lay the hook and snake down
and try with the other hook or place a more preferable perch near the animal.

Tailing
Tailing a venomous snake can be a bit tricky despite how showboating
television herpetologists may portray it. The proper method of tailing involves
a hook, or similar piece of equipment, supporting the upper part of the snake’s
body and the tail being grasped in the handler’s other hand. Some showmen do
not use a hook and simply “dangle” the snake by the tail, but this is a much
more dangerous maneuver for the handler and the snake. The use of the hook
supporting the front part of the animal fulfills two purposes. First, it aids in
supporting the weight of the snake. This reduces the stress placed on the spine
and ribs decreasing the possibility of injury to the animal during the process.
Second, the use of a hook allows more control. Most snakes are adverse to
anything touching their tails and may react by pulling away or attempting to
strike the offending object. When attempting to pull away, they often use the
hook for leverage by angling or wrapping a small portion of their body against
it. This is actually good for the handler because it offers great control. The
hook also eliminates 75% of the free space in which a snake can strike back
toward the keeper, leaving only the mouth of the hook as a venue. Care, of
course, is taken with all species striking back over their body. Bitis species, such
as the Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica), are notorious for such agile maneuvers.

54
 Handlers also use gravity to their
advantage. This is particularly true
in heavy-bodied specimens.

Tailing is generally reserved for

Figure 47 - Tailing of an adult Eastern
Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus
adamanteus).
safely, and for a specific purpose, such as moving the animal to a holding
container.
either quick and agile elapids or
large and active viperids. It is not
recommended for smaller
specimens as the distance from the
grasping point on the tail and the
head is too short to be conducive
to safe handling. Tailing is held as
a last resort to most experienced
venomous herpetoculturists and
only used if hooking alone is not
sufficient. It is stressful on the
animal, as is most handling, and
one of the more dangerous
procedures for the keeper. Because
of this, tailing is not only a last
resort, but is done as rarely as
possible and is performed quickly,

Getting the tail into the handler’s grasp is often the most challenging aspect.
Timing and hand placement are imperative. The keeper must choose the exact
moment to administer a firm, yet gentle grip appropriately placed for the length
and mass of the specific specimen. This ability is obtained from proper and
thorough training and experience. Some snakes are cooperative during this
procedure and the tail can be removed from the cage with a hook for securing.
When the snake is on the ground, some handlers opt to lift the snake gently
with a hook slightly below center body, allow the snake to move forward away
from them, and grasp the tail as it nears the hook. This method is used often
with large viperids. It keeps the handler in an upright and therefore mobile
position and also has the hook already under the animal so it can be quickly
repositioned for maneuvering. When Rattlesnakes are tailed, the grip is below
the rattles. Hand placement is vital in elapids as they often possess very
prehensile type tails that are capable of wrapping around and grasping objects,
including a keeper’s hand, arm, leg, or hook. Such grasping would give the
animal unwanted leverage to perform very elaborate and acrobatic acts while
trying to escape restraint. The tail is held upward toward or parallel to the

55
 keeper at arm’s length
while the front of the
snake is held, with a
hook, away from the
keeper and at a
downward angle to
allow gravity to aid in
hindering a strike.
Hook placement is an
often overlooked aspect
of tailing. When
observing a
professional handler,
one can notice that the
placement of the hook
is very deliberate. The
hook is placed so that
the length of snake in
front of the hook is less
than the distance from
the hook to any part of
the handler. This is
important in that if it
Figure 48 - Tailing of an Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje). attempts to strike, the
hook stop will the strike
prematurely and short of its target. Balance and orientation are necessary for an
effective strike. Therefore, if a snake becomes agitated or aggressive, a gentle,
yet firm, shake may disorient it. This of course is generally used with elapids, as
shaking too hard with heavy bodied vipers may cause skeletal damage. Tailing is
not always a graceful procedure and there should always be plenty of space to
work. This is particularly imperative if the animal must be temporarily released
from the grasp in order to obtain a safer and more secure one. Tailing is
dangerous since the snake is being restrained in close proximity to the handler
with the head unrestrained and should only be practiced by those that have
been properly trained and are very experienced.

Using Tongs
As mentioned before, Pilstrom style tongs should never be used for restraining
snakes. Their scissor like motion, narrow surface area of the jaws, and difficult
to control pressure all combine to form a tool dangerous to the snake. The
Gentle Giant Tongs© from Midwest Custom Products is one of the few tongs
that combine safety for the handler and the animal. Tonging a snake is not as
easy as just “grabbing” it. The first thing handlers consider is for what purpose
56
the animal is being moved. Is being restrained to aid in bagging with a bag
stick? Is it being transported to a holding container? Is it simply being
restrained and pulled to a clearer area for ease of maneuvering? Next, the build
of the snake is considered. Agile elapids and colubrids are handled a bit
differently than heavy bodied viperids.

If a large pitviper, such as an Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus

adamanteus), needs to be bagged using a bag stick, but is being uncooperative,
the keeper may opt to use tongs. This is very heavy bodied animal and care is
taken not to put undue stress on the ribs and spine. So the bottom jaw is
carefully slid under the snake so the keeper may gently grasp the animal on the
lower half of the body. The tongs and snakes are slid across the floor to the
mouth of the bag. This may entice the animal to enter. This method also
works well if the animal simply moved into an area more conducive to safely
handling it with hooks. While the animal is restrained, the mass of the body
remains on the floor. The tongs were only to guide the snake, not carry it.
Some handlers would prefer the upper third of the body as opposed to the
lower half to give greater control over the strike range. An experienced keeper
will always tong a snake so that they are restrained out of strike range. Tongs
are also never applied at the end of the tail as it may induce violent thrashing.
Additionally, the head or neck is never tonged. Snakes have a very fragile
skeletal system and such placement could result in serious injury to the animal.

Figure 49 - Gentle Giant Tongs© are being gently applied to a Canebrake Rattlesnake
(Crotalus horridus atricaudatus).

57
Sometimes, however, the animal does need to be elevated off the ground to be
placed in a holding container or even back in its enclosure. In this instance, the
floor cannot support the mass of the snake, so alternate means are sought. For
this scenario, many handlers use a modified double hook method. The second
hook is replaced with the tongs. Thus, while the tongs restrict the movement
and strike of the snake, a hook is used to support the weight of the animal. For
extremely long specimens, a tailing method may also be adapted where the hook
is replaced with tongs. These are typical tonging methods for heavy bodied
snakes. Elapids and colubrids do not generally require additional support and
can often be lifted with the tongs alone. They may, however, thrash violently.
In this instance, a second hook for them to rest part of the body on is
sometimes used to calm them. Tonging is different than hooking in that it is
physically restraining the animal rather than simply manipulating it. Therefore,
tonging can be very stressful to the snake. It can also be very dangerous if done
improperly.

Tubing
There are always instances when a keeper must have more direct and close
contact with one of his animals for inspection or medical procedures. This
ranges from tick or eyecap removal to medicating orally or by injection. For
whatever reason, the snake must be restrained to ensure the safety of the
handler. These instances call for the use of restraining tubes, or “tubing”.
Restraining tubes come in a variety of diameters and lengths specific for
different sizes and procedures. Many keepers drill small holes in the restraining
tubes to allow access to the tubed portion of the snake. This is particularly
handy for giving injections, removing ticks on or near the head, or applying
topical treatments. Care in hand placement is a primary consideration with this
design as a fang may be projected through the hole and into the handler. The
ends of the tubes are often sealed with a rubber or plastic coating. Few
commercially available tubes are available with this feature so it is sometimes
applied by the owner. PLASTI DIP® is a product available at many home
improvement and automotive stores and works quite well for this purpose. The
plastic is added to cover the sharp edges of the tube. A snake may strike at the
end of the tube and injure its mouth. A plastic coating reduces this risk. Some
keepers prefer long tubes, others prefer short tubes. There are varying methods
for each style. Whatever method and whatever style is used, one rule remains
the same: one snake at a time! Only one snake should be out at a time during
tubing. Multiple snakes out at the same time is a recipe for disaster.
First, the keeper must choose the correct tube for the specimen to be restrained.
The diameter of the tube should be slightly larger than the head. For this
reason, restraining tubes come in diameters varying from 3/8” to 3 ½” or more.
Some keepers have even used drinking straws as tubes for particularly tiny
neonates such as Sidewinder Rattlesnakes (Crotalus cerastes). The tube chosen is
58
large enough to allow the head and a portion of the neck or body to be inserted,
yet small enough that the snake cannot turn around on its body to come back
out the same end. The integrity of the tube should be in tact. Damaged or
cracked tubes should never be used. Patience is very important during tubing
procedures. Snakes do not always know what they are “supposed” to do and
often have their own ideas of how they will move and react. Getting impatient
or cutting corners can cause serious accidents. The act of tubing is generally
done with two experienced people. The first physically restrains the snake while
the second performs whatever procedures need to be done. This way each can
concentrate on the respective tasks at hand.

For the sake of clarity, we will look at tubing a bit backwards. Since the physical
restraint once the snake is in the tube is fairly universal, it will be discussed first.
The methods of getting the snake in the tube vary. Once the snake has entered
the tube to the desired depth (i.e. far enough that it cannot quickly back out),
the keeper quickly grabs the snake and the tube where they meet. The snake’s
head is then safely in the tube and the body is being held so that it cannot slide
forward or backwards out of the tube. The keeper’s other hand is used to
restrain the rest of the body to prevent violent thrashing and retain greater
control of the animal.

Keepers over the years have discovered several methods for tubing venomous
snakes. The most basic is the use of an open top holding container and
standard length tubes. The handler places the snake in the holding container
and utilizes the snake’s own instincts to their advantage. The snake is usually
going to try to escape by crawling up the side of the container. The tube is
placed in front of the snake’s face and it may crawl into it on its own.
Sometimes, a gentle prod with a snake hook on the tail will coax the animal into
the tube. Water is also sometimes placed in the bottom of the container. This
may entice the snake to seek an exit, and thus facilitate tubing. For some
smaller snakes and other species a table may suit the keeper better. For
standard length tubes, the handler may be lucky enough to slide the tube over
the snake and quickly secure it. Some coaxing with a hook, however, is often
necessary.

Some handlers prefer the use of short tubes. These are standard length tubes
cut down to be much shorter. When using these, handlers grasp the tube with a
pair of long hemostats. Once the snake is resting on the table, the short tube is
slid over the head and the animal is secured. With the short tubes, the snake is
less likely to feel trapped and back out before grasping. A hook can also be
used to help guide the snake into the tube. Sometimes, short tubes are capped
at one end to prevent the snake from crawling out the other end.
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Figure 50 - This large Puff Adder (Bitis arietans) is coaxed into a restraining tube using
a hook.

Standard tubes can also be used when a keeper chooses a “Shrinking Tube”
method. This consists of coaxing a snake into a large diameter tube. An
appropriate diameter tube is inserted into the far end of the larger one. The
snake crawls through the larger one and into the correct one. The larger tube is
quickly removed and the snake is restrained. For species that have a large girth
body and comparatively smaller head, both tubes may remain in place. This
way, the body is restrained in a large diameter tube, while the small head is
contained in a smaller diameter tube. This prevents the snake from being able to
turn back on itself within the tube. Allowing a snake enough room to do this
may result in the head coming back over the body toward the keeper’s hand or
it may result in spinal damage to the animal in certain circumstances.

Tongs may also be of use when tubing faster or agile snakes such as cobras and
mambas. By tonging the snake a few inches behind the neck, it may make it
easier for the handler to slide a tube over the head. Care is taken so that if the
snake begins to thrash violently, the tongs are released to prevent injury to the
animal. A cobra with its hood extended presents difficulty for the handler when

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Figure 51 - The snake and tube are grasped simultaneously.

Figure 52 - The snake is safely restrained for medical inspection and treatment.

61
tubing as the diameter of the snake is extended. Tonging a cobra below the
hood, as described above, often entices the cobra to retract the hood and the
tube is applied. A new procedure is facilitated by the use of a Pro Bagger©
from Midwest Custom Products. This is a collapsible bag stick with a custom
produced snake bag. The bag contains a sleeve on one corner that is tied off
during bagging, but can be untied and a tube inserted. The snake sees what
looks like an escape route and often takes it . . . right into the tube.

Once the procedure is over, the snake still has to be removed from the
restraining tube. With full length tubes, keepers usually place the body of the
animal in the enclosure (if there are no other snakes in it) while still restraining
it. Then the grip is released and the keeper steps back while still holding the
end of the tube. The snake usually slides its head out of the tube. Gravity can
also be used to persuade the snake to back out by placing the body in a holding
container, releasing the snake, and sliding the tube off. When short tubes are
used, two keepers are usually used to free the snake. While the first is still
restraining the snake, the second applies the long hemostats to the opposite end
of the tube. The snake is placed in a holding container or enclosure and the
first handler releases and quickly steps back. At this point, the one holding the
hemostats can gently slide the tube off of the snake from a safe distance, if the
snake has done so already.

Figure 53 - In this instance, the snake was released from the tube directly into an
enclosure.
Pinning
Pinning is the practice of physically restraining a venomous snake behind the
head using the hand. When done properly, this allows access to the head,
mouth, and fangs. The procedure is very stressful to the animal and carries the
62
potential for serious injury to the snake and the handler. Experienced keepers
consider pinning a venomous snake as a rare last resort. With the exception of
venom extraction, there are precious few instances when pinning is necessary.
The majority of procedures that require such access to the snake’s head can be
more safely and humanely accomplished by use of tubing rather than pinning.
Once the snake is removed from the enclosure, it is placed on a soft, nonslip
surface. The surface is used to ease the stress on the animal since the head will
be restrained by a tool prior to actual pinning. Once the animal is on the
surface, the keeper then restrains the head with their tool of choice. Most often
used is a pinning stick or the rubber handle of a snake hook. Gentle pressure is
applied to the head between the base of the skull and the area behind the eyes.
Applying such pressure to the neck could cause serious injury to the spine of
the snake. Once the snake’s head is secured, the keeper quickly grasps the
snake with the appropriate pinning grip. Pinning techniques vary depending on
the morphology of the animal. It breaks down into two basic categories, vipers
and elapids. The hook or pinning stick is not removed until the grip is applied
and secure.

Figure 54 - Here the handle of a Midwest Standard Hook© is pressed behind the eyes to
restrain the head prior to pinning this Puff Adder (Bitis arietans)
Vipers generally are thick, heavy bodied snakes with a large head. The head
tapers out and the neck is much thinner. These animals are much more fragile
they appear and improper pinning may cause serious injury to the spine.
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Handlers utilize two different pinning tactics for vipers. The first is a two
fingered pin. In this procedure, the thumb and index finger are used. The
thumb is placed behind the jaw and the index finger is wrapped slightly around
the opposite side with the knuckle situated behind the other jaw. The fingers
are gently wrapped around the neck to secure the animal. During pinning, the
weight of the animal is supported by leaving the body on the surface,
supporting with a second hand, or the body is restrained in a tube. The
secondary restraint is used to decrease the pressure on the spine and lessen the
thrashing of an uncomfortable snake. A three fingered pin is also used by
handlers. It is very similar to the two fingered pin with a couple modifications.
The middle finger is used behind the jaw as the index finger was previously.
The index finger is pressed against the top of the snake’s head. Pinning vipers
is particularly dangerous because of their fang structure. Their long fangs are
extremely mobile and are capable of not only swinging outside of the mouth,
but also puncturing the lower jaw and protruding out the bottom. Keepers
make every effort to secure the snake in such a way that minimizes the
possibility of a finger coming into contact with a rogue fang.

Figure 55 - A Two Finger Pin is being used on this snake because of its large size.

Elapids are not quite as fragile as vipers. They have thick necks and powerful
bodies that often rival many constrictors. Because of these features, handlers
take extreme care with restraining the body of the snake as well as the head. If

64
Figure 56 - A Three Finger Pin is being used on this Copperhead (Agkistrodon
contortrix).
given leverage by wrapping their tail around a chair, table, or the keeper’s leg,
they may struggle to pull free and compromise the grip on the head. To reduce
this risk with small snakes, much of the body may be confined with one hand.
Larger specimens often require that the main body be placed in a snake bag to
eliminate leverage points. Also a firmer, gentle grip is used for the head. The
fangs are short and situated toward the front of the mouth. The snake would
actually have to turn abruptly in order to deliver an envenomation when
properly pinned. The two finger pin described above is commonly used with
many elapids. For exceptionally large specimens, it is sometimes modified with
the index finger and thumb wrapping around the neck to offer a more secure
grip. The fingers are still located behind, and applying pressure to, the jaws.
immediately offer a defensive strike. The most common method used for
releasing a pinned snake is the use of the hook or pinning stick again. The
snake is placed back onto the surface or into its enclosure while still restrained.
Then, the hook or pinning stick is used just as before to press gently on the
snake’s head. Once the snake has calmed down and ceases thrashing, the grip is
quickly released and hand removed while the hook or pinning stick is still in
place. Then the tool is removed, thus fully releasing the animal. Perfect timing
for the grip release is imperative. A slight miscalculation could result in an
envenomation.

65
As mentioned before, pinning is one of the most dangerous handling tactics. It
is dangerous for the handler and for the snake. It is rare that this method is
even used by experienced and responsible handlers as there are few situations
that justify it.

Figure 57 - This Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje) is being restrained with an Elapid Two
Finger Pin. The majority of the pressure from the support fingers is applied to the palm
to restrain neck movement without injuring the snake.
Milking
Physically extracting the venom from a snake is commonly referred to as
“milking”. The snake is pinned behind the head and forced to bite a collection
66
container, thus expelling venom. A thin film over the mouth of the container is
used to simulate puncturing skin and enticing an envenomation. Many venom
extraction facilities exist throughout the world to provide the venom for
research and antivenin production. There is virtually no reason for anyone
other than these professionals to attempt milking. Privately collected venom is
of little use for research or antivenin production since it cannot be prepared
properly. The equipment needed to prepare such samples to be viable costs
tens of thousands of dollars, if not more. This makes it all but unattainable to
the average herpetoculturist. Additionally, client lists of those that purchase
prepared venom are closely guarded and competition is fierce. Given these
factors, there is no viable reason for a private individual or small institution to
attempt venom extraction.

Free Handling
There is another type of handling that should be noted. This is the practice of
Free Handling. Quite simply, Free Handling is working with venomous snakes
without the use of any safety or handling equipment. This is an EXTREMELY
dangerous practice. Given the wealth of information, equipment, and safe
techniques available, there is absolutely no circumstance that warrants the use of
Free Handling. There are three situations in which free handling venomous
snakes is seen most often. The first instance is people that think it makes them
seem “tough” or simply want an adrenaline rush. They do it because they like
the element of danger and the way it makes them feel. They also may do it in
order to impress others. Sadly, they are usually the only ones that think others
are impressed. To experienced keepers, the practice is an unnecessary risk and
those that practice it are often considered a danger to themselves and others.
The second situation is the use of venomous snakes in religious ceremonies.
This is most common in some Southern Christian denominations, although
there are other religions throughout the world that practice similar ceremonies.
Envenomations during such ceremonies, both in the United States and abroad,
are not uncommon. Finally is the Free Handling of venomous snakes on
television for entertainment value. This melodramatic and dangerous practice
has no place in venomous herpetoculture and is discussed further in Chapter 7,
“Celebrity Mimicry” section.

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68
 6. Bagging and Transportation

From the moment a keeper purchases or captures a venomous snake that they
intend to keep as a captive, they must consider transportation. This aspect is
not to be taken lightly as they are removing a snake from a secure environment
and bringing out into public. As with every aspect of venomous husbandry,
they must prepare for the worst possible scenarios. For example, what if he
got into a car accident while transporting a cobra? If the transport method is
substandard, the risk of an escape is increased. This not only endangers the
keeper, but rescue workers, and the public. For this reason, secure and safe
transportation protocol and equipment is a must.

Bagging
Before beginning to bag any animal, the handler first makes certain that the bag
itself is escape proof. This is a very quick and simple procedure. He simply
runs his finger along the inside of the seams, applying moderate pressure,
searching for any holes or weaknesses in the bag. Next, the rest of the bag is
checked for holes. Bags with excessive fraying or wearing should be avoided.
Once he is confident that the snake bag is secure and uncompromised, it is time
to bag the snake. Only one snake is secured per bag for the safety of the snakes
and the keepers. Bags should be labeled before bagging as to the occupant.
Number, common name, and Latin name should all be present. This is
particularly important if numerous snakes are being shipped or transported.
The handler unpacking the animals may be ill-prepared if the bags are unmarked
and he is expecting a Cantil (Agkistrodon bilineatus) and a Black Neck Spitting
Cobra (Naja nigricollis nigricollis) crawls out.

The first method is the use of a bag stick. The bag is pulled up through the
center and the edges folded outward around the frame. It is pulled tight and the
slack is clipped to the shaft in order to secure the snake bag onto the frame.
The keeper should be able to tug on the bag without removing it. It must be
securely mounted. For smaller specimens, the bag stick can then be held
parallel to the floor. The snake is hooked, lifted, and gently placed into the bag.
For larger or faster specimens, the flat surface of the bag frame is placed directly
on the ground with the smaller joint up. This is the purpose of the triangle
shape. The snake is hooked and laid on the floor next to the bag opening.
Most snakes will actively search for the first retreat. The snake bag is presented
to fulfill this desire. If the snake does not crawl into the bag directly, then
gentle coercion is used with a snake hook to manipulate the animal inside.
Once the snake is in the bag, the bag stick is brought over the neck of the bag

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Figure 58 - This Canebrake Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus atricaudatus) is coaxed
to crawl into the bag using a hook.

Figure 59 - The frame is then folded over the bag and pressed against the floor to prevent
escape.

70
Figure 60 - A hook is applied to contain the snake while the bag is removed fromt he Bag
Stick so it can be safely tied.

and pressed firmly against the floor. This traps the animal inside with the
opening of the bag temporarily sealed. Care is be taken not to pin the snake
with the frame and ensure that the entire length of the animal is secured behind
it. The clip is then removed to free the bag. The bag’s neck should still be
secured under the frame. A snake hook or wooden rod is then placed behind
the frame and held down securely. The bag stick can now safely be removed as
the hook or rod is fulfilling the role of keeping the bag’s opening closed. The
rod can be pushed slowly and gently toward the snake forcing it to the rear of
the bag and offering more slack for tying. Conversely, the rod may be held
stationary and the bag can be slid carefully toward the keeper accomplishing the
same goal. Once the animal is secured in the rear of the bag and the rod or
hook is securely held down, the bag can be tied. A tight knot should be used.
A “zip tie” can then carefully be applied just below the knot in order to secure it
further. The snake is now securely bagged and the rod or hook can be removed
giving the snake full use of the bag. Remember, a bagged snake can still
envenomate through the cloth. The bag is always carried above the knot and
kept away from the body. The practice of double bagging is also common and
offers added security. The bagged snake is placed within another bag,
preferably using the bag stick to avoid contact with exposed skin. Then, the
same procedure for bagging is used.

71
A bag stand can also be used. The only way to get a snake into the bag using
this device is to lift it on a hook and place it inside. Long hemostats should be
used to close the bag to avoid an envenomation. The edges of the bag are
pulled over the frame and held down against it. This aids in keeping the mouth
of the bag closed. A hook or rod is then pressed against the frame with the
neck of the bag secured between them. Then it is tied off and secured as
discussed above. A custom designed bag stand may employ a built-in clamping
mechanism to secure the bag closed while tying. This would make the
procedure much safer.

Finally, some keepers over the years have used 5-gallon buckets or small
trashcans as bag stands. This can work on smaller specimens and neonates
quite well, but it is less than ideal. The sizes are often too large or too small for
snake bags so security may be compromised. It also makes clipping and tying
more difficult and less safe. The first two methods are highly recommended
over “bucket bagging”.

Unbagging
Removing a snake from a secured bag is very similar to the actual bagging of it.
It is carried above the knot, as always, and placed on the floor or other surface.
A hook or rod is placed below the knot. Next, the rod is used to maneuver the
snake to the rear of the bag. While the rod or hook is held firmly in place
confining the snake, the knot is untied and any “zip ties” removed. It is very
important to remove hands from the bag before removing the rod. Once the
rod is removed, the snake may exit on its own accord. If not, long hemostats
can be used to grasp a rear corner of the bag and gently lift to basically “pour”
out the snake. The animal is then hooked into a holding container or enclosure.
If the animal is going straight into an enclosure, then the keeper may wish to
unbag it in there. Before removing the rod, after the bag is untied, tongs or
large hemostats are used to clamp shut the bag opening. Another pair of tongs
or large hemostats can be used to grasp the rear corner of the bag. It is then
carried, by the hemostats or tongs to the enclosure for release. Once the bag is
untied, it is not touched until the snake is safely out.

Boxing

As with anything venomous, extreme safety is always best, even if it seems like
overkill. A bagged snake may be secure, but it can still envenomate through the
bag. This makes carrying bagged snakes cumbersome and possibly dangerous.
Additional security is needed prior to transport. Transport boxes can be very
simple or extremely complex. A simple version is just a plastic cooler with a

72
Figure 61 – Unbagging: Long hemostats are used to lift the bag and entice the snake to
exit the snake bag..
latch and air holes. A hasp can be installed easily to allow the use of a padlock.
Remember, the goal is to keep safe the snake, the keeper, and the public. A
lock is well worth the effort. Custom boxes may also be fashioned from various
materials and in multiple styles. One such design was created by a Anthony
Gay (Figure 60). The box is made of wood with the lid attached with a piano
hinge. There is a keyed lock build into the unit and the interior is sealed. One
side consists of two layers of staggered pegboard separated by 1” wooden strips.
This gives plenty of air circulation, but virtually eliminates the chance of a fang
protruding. A card holder is attached to the lid so that a note card stating what
is inside is clearly visible. And finally, a warning label reading “Venomous
Reptiles” is clearly posted on each surface. A small eye hook is also installed on
the lid so that the keeper can open it with a hook and not risk placing hands
within strike range. Overall, this is an excellent design. When placing bagged

73
snakes into a transport box, it is important to remember that they can bite
through the bag. Yes, it has been mentioned several times before, but it
deserves reiteration. But this time it is mentioned again to protect other snakes.
If putting multiple bagged snakes into a box, a separator must be used. The
bags must never be allowed to touch each other or there is a risk of one snake
envenomating another. The separators can be virtually any material as long as it
serves the purpose. The most commonly used materials are cardboard and
wood. The dividers should be secure to prevent shifting during transport.

Transportation
We will start with what a keeper should never do. Public transportation does
not exist when transporting venomous species. Trains, busses, and even taxis
are avoided. Using them puts the public in close proximity to dangerous
animals, even if they do not realize it. An escape would be disastrous. If the
animal is simply bagged, then someone could brush against it and suffer an
envenomation. There are a thousand reasons never to use public transportation
to transport venomous species and no viable reasons validating their use. Next,
the keeper always goes straight to the final destination with as few stops as
possible. The less time he takes transporting them, the lower the chance of
unexpected and unfortunate circumstances. This also helps to reduce stress on
the animal. The animals are never left unattended. Anything can happen if the
keeper is not there to ensure the animal’s safety and security. Humans are
renowned for defying logic in their actions. Even if someone gets injured by
the animal out of his or her own stupidity or ignorance, the owner is still liable.
A would be thief could sue if a venomous snake bites him while he is breaking
into the car. Traffic laws are strictly adhered to while transporting venomous
snakes. It should stand to reason that one should always obey traffic laws. But
this is vitally important during this situation. The laws are in place to help keep
everyone safer. Driving conservatively and defensively can help avoid an
accident and a possible escape. Animals are never placed in the trunk of a car.
This is very unhealthy and potentially fatal for the animal primarily because of
unpredictable and uncontrollable temperature variations. This also puts the
animal in an unsupervised position. It would be quite some time before the
keeper realized that something was wrong. Finally, the snake is left in the
transport container until the final destination is reached. There is no reason to
remove it. It only increases the chances of an accident, envenomation, or
escape. Not to mention that the sight of a rattlesnake or cobra may cause
passersby to take their attention off of the road. Many field collectors have seen
vehicles virtually drive off the road while they were securing their catch.

There are some things that the keeper should always do. First and foremost, is
being prepared for worst case scenarios. Ample handling equipment is always
kept handy. It is always better for the handler to have it and not need it. In the
74
event of an emergency, he will be glad it is there. Also, extra transport
equipment, such as bags and secure boxes, is kept on hand. Things do not
always go as planned and he may be faced with bringing back more specimens
than was planned. This is often the case with snake removals. Since many
experienced venomous keepers offer public education and displays, they are
often called for wild snake removals. A Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)
trapped in a cardboard box is not an acceptable transportation method. It is
also a good idea to keep a copy of envenomation protocols in the car. In the
event of an envenomation, it is best if the hospital is not trying to track down
outdated or dangerous procedures. Some keepers opt to leave such items in the
car at all times. This is an excellent idea in the essence of always being
prepared. Finally, the transport containers are always secured within the
vehicle. They should not be able to slide or roll around the car. This would
stress out and possibly injure the snake and increase the risk of container failure.
The rear floorboard of a car is suitable so long as the container is large enough
that it will not slide under the seat. More secure methods are of course
recommended such as strapping them down.

Figure 62 - An excellent wooden transport box with warning labels, hinged lid, and keyed
lock. Design by Anthony Gay.

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Shipping
On occasion, it is necessary to ship venomous reptiles, rather than transporting
personally. When this becomes the case, there are certain procedures and
considerations. First and foremost is the means of shipping. It is dangerous
and a federal violation to ship venomous snakes via an overnight carrier (i.e.
Fed Ex, UPS, and DHL) or through the United States Postal Service.
Attempting to do so could result in an escape, an envenomation of a package
handler, a severe fine, or jail time. There is absolutely no excuse for shipping
venomous snakes improperly. The only legal method to ship venomous
animals is through an airline. There are a couple airlines that offer such services
and it is important to read and follow their regulations exactly. Most airlines
require a wooden shipping container with screws securing the lid. The phrase
“LIVE VENOMOUS REPTILES” should be written large and highly visible
on all exterior surfaces. A species account may be needed for shipping. All
animals should be kept singly and double bagged with the contents clearly
written on the outside of the bag. Sturdy and secured dividers should be used
between each bag. Appropriate insulation and heat or cold packs should be
utilized. All documentation from the receiver must be on file before shipping.
This includes any necessary permits. A copy of the receiver’s driver’s license or
other identification is highly recommended. The shipper should be aware of
state regulations as well. While it is the receiver’s responsibility to know and
adhere to local wildlife regulations, the shipper may still have a degree of
liability. This is just a list of basic considerations when shipping venomous
snakes. It is up to the shipper to know the laws and regulations and ship in a
safe and legal manner.

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 7. Common Mistakes

When dealing with any animal, unpredictability is the only thing a handler can
predict. Experienced venomous herpetoculturists do everything in their power
to minimize the risk of injury or envenomation. But the risk is always present.
Outlined in this chapter are some common mistakes made by both experienced
and novice keepers.

Insufficient Experience/Training
The most common mistake made by novice keepers is not having the
experience and training necessary to work with dangerous animals properly and
safely. All too often, potential keepers enter venomous herpetoculture without
being prepared. Lack of patience in this facet of herpetoculture can be a
dangerous thing. Impulse buying and rushing in without proper instruction are
common occurrences. Many potential handlers feel that they already know
everything they need to know or that they can learn it as they go. This is a
potentially deadly lapse in judgment. Most experienced handlers feel that any
individual considering a venomous snake should have, at the very least, five
years of experience with a variety of nonvenomous snakes and at least a year of
training and instruction from a veteran handler. Five years of experience with
nonvenomous does mean that if someone has kept a Ball Python (Python regius)
and a Corn Snake (Pantherophis guttata) for five years, then they are ready. A
broad spectrum of experience should be gained from many groups of reptiles.
This experience is imperative for understanding the basics of husbandry and
behavior for different species. A potential keeper learns to recognize behavioral
differences between not only species, but individuals within that species. With
this experience, they are more likely to grasp the vast differences of behaviors
between venomous serpents and their constricting counterparts. This also
reduces the learning curve of husbandry issues. The potential keeper is already
versed in preparing proper temperature and humidity for various species of
differing requirements. A minimum of one year of training is also highly
recommended by most experienced handlers. There are countless things that
cannot be read in a book or verbalized in conversation that experienced
handlers do as second nature. Proper timing is a prime example. Seeing when a
handler acts and how he reacts cannot be expressed, only experienced. There
are dozens of thought processes that dictate each and every action taken.
Training helps hone these instincts and increase understanding in potential
keepers. And of course, there is no substitute for experience. Particularly when
a seasoned handler is involved. This is especially true when dealing with more
advanced and hands-on techniques such as tailing, tubing, and pinning.

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Improper Equipment
As with any profession, there is no substitute for having the right tool for the
job at hand. Particularly when a mistake may have dire consequences.
Experienced handlers have tools that are specific for each procedure. A tool
cannot just “do the job”, it must perform flawlessly. For example, using a
wrench to drive in a nail will “work”, but not work well. It is also not just a
matter of owning the correct equipment, but knowing when each item is
appropriate. This is taught during training. Probably the most common misuse
of equipment is choosing a hook of improper length. Using a 24” hook for a
40” snake may put the keeper in strike range. This is, of course, a mistake that
can teach a painful lesson. Conversely, using a hook that is too large for the
specimen is also a problem. Using a 48” hook for a newborn Eyelash Viper
(Bothriechis schlegelii) may be cumbersome and difficult to work with. Only
experience and proper training can prepare novices to make such decisions.
The right tool for the job. Always.

Misjudging Strike Range

There is truly no accurate or encompassing rule for strike ranges. They vary not
only by species, but also by individual. Judging strike range is tricky and is best
learned during training. But no amount of training can prepare a keeper for
every instance. Misjudging strike range is not only a mistake made by novice
keepers, but veteran handlers as well. After all, snakes are unpredictable. It is
generally held that most viperids strike one-third their body length. Many can
strike up to one half. And as a particularly feisty Canebrake Rattlesnake
(Crotalus horridus atricaudatus) taught the author, some can strike farther than their
total length! Luckily, whenever experienced handlers judge strike length, they
add more for safety. Pitvipers usually coil in the standard “S” formation before
a full strike, although they are capable of biting from virtually any position.
There are notable exceptions such as the Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica) which is
notorious for exploding into a full-length strike from a resting position with
little or no warning.

Elapids may be just as unpredictable. It is generally held that most cobra

species have a determined strike range. Since most cobras usually hood before
striking, the strike range is gauged at about 10% - 20% longer than the distance
the snake is raised above the ground while hooded. Some notable exceptions
are the Forest Cobra (Naja melanoleuca) and the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah).
Both of these species have had consistent reports of advancing on the handler
while hooded in order to get the handler into strike range. One King Cobra, in
particular, would strike and then advance on the keeper along the ground with
its mouth gaping. Some other elapids exhibit a strike pattern more akin to a
typical colubrid. Species such as Mambas (Dendroaspis sp), Taipans (Oxyuranus
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sp), and Forest Cobras (Pseudohaje sp) are often capable of incredible strike
distances and impressive acrobatics. Spitting species such as the Black Neck
Spitting Cobra (Naja nigricollis nigricollis) and the Rinkhals Cobra (Hemachatus
haemachatus) have not only a strike range for a bite, but also a strike range for
projectile venom. The latter can exceed 10 feet, with great accuracy, in some
species.

The examples stated are just that, examples. Many other species may be capable
of exhibiting a strike scenario that is not considered the “norm”. By the same
token, certain specimens of the listed examples may fall short of the capabilities
described. Judging strike range is difficult, even for the most seasoned handlers.
But through proper training, experience, and communication with other
keepers, more accurate judgments can be made.

Figure 63 - This Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus) skull illustrates the large,

hinged fangs of vipers and how improper hand placement could be a costly error. Photo
courtesy of John White.

Hand Placement
The keeper’s hands are often the most vulnerable part of their body. Proper
hand placement is imperative for safe handling. It is much easier to discuss
where NOT to place hands rather than where to place them. Most venomous
snakes, particularly vipers can project fangs through the screen mesh that is
used for ventilation on many enclosures. A keeper’s hands should never come
in direct contact with the screen. This is one of the very common errors. It is
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far too easy to place a hand improperly while moving an enclosure, leaning
over, or talking. Hand placement while opening an enclosure is another
common mistake. This is precisely why tools are used to open and close
enclosures. If tools cannot be used, then the enclosure should not be used.
Often when using the highly discouraged glass terrariums, a clipping top is used.
Trying to open or close this type of lid will often place the keeper’s fingers well
within range of a strike, not only from the opening it creates, but also because
the skin may touch the screen offering an even greater surface area for a
potential strike. As discussed earlier, reptiles are often transported in bags and
are often sold in deli style plastic containers. Both of these offer the potential
for poor hand placement and a subsequent envenomation. Carrying a bag
below the knot or in a way that may cause it to come into contact with the body
are common errors. Likewise, poor placement while unbagging the animal can
be equally dangerous (refer to the Transportation chapter). Removing a snake
from a deli style container, or deli cup, can be a bit tricky even for seasoned
venomous keepers. These are often small containers with snap on lids making
them difficult to maneuver. It takes time, experience, and instruction on how to
safely remove the lid and the snake while keeping the keeper’s flesh out of
harm’s way. These deli cups generally have air holes as well. As discussed with
mesh ventilation, the same danger of a protruding fang exists. Keeping fingers
away from air holes is a necessity.

Other hand placement mistakes occur during actual handing procedures. It has
been discussed that pinning a venomous snake is dangerous to both the keeper
and the animal. Proper finger and hand placement is crucial during this
maneuver. Many viperids have the ability to perform remarkable acrobatics with
their fangs. Often moving each one independently of the other. Bitis species,
such as the Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica) and Rhino Vipers (Bitis nasicornis), are
notorious for this. A slight miscalculation in proper finger placement may result
in an envenomation. In addition to finger placement, position of the second
hand is also important. The Canebrake Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus
atricaudatus), for example, will sometimes whip their body much like a sine wave
when restrained. This can compromise the handlers grip. Placement of a
second hand midbody disrupts this defensive motion and lessens the risk of the
pin becoming compromised. Even while hooking a snake, proper hand
placement is vital. Holding a hook too far down or improper grip on the animal
during a tailing can be disastrous. The same can be said for tubing. Proper
tubing methods lessen the risk of the handler’s appendages coming into strike
range. Improper placement of hands during tubing or while restraining are
common errors and may result in an envenomation or the snake pulling free
from the restraining tube. Experienced keepers are always aware of their hands
and the proximity to the animal. There is no room for error.

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Improper Housing
The proper housing of venomous snakes has already been discussed thoroughly.
However, improper housing remains a common mistake. This is particularly
true when dealing with temporary housing for new acquisitions or quarantined
specimens. The phrase “it will do” should not be in any venomous
herpetoculturist’s vocabulary. It is far too easy to place a new acquisition in a
glass terrarium or other unsuitable container until the proper enclosure is
prepared. Experienced and responsible keepers are always prepared for new
arrivals. Even if a permanent enclosure is not ready, a suitable temporary
enclosure is. Many keepers have secured enclosures on hand for just such an
occurrence. Preparation is particularly important when dealing with the
occasional venomous snake removal call. The same precautions should go into
each and every container that will or may possibly confine a venomous species.

Figure 64 - While the enclosure itself for this Canebrake Rattlesnake (Crotalus
horridus atricaudatus) is quality commercial plastic model, the locking mechanism is
certainly not ideal.

Some other common housing mistakes include using enclosures that are not
lockable or are easily opened. This may include improper doors or lids as
discussed earlier. Providing excess cage decorations is a far too common error.
Many novice keepers wish to create an extravagant and complicated enclosure.
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Figure 65 - While aesthetically pleasing, the use of this naturalistic hiding area would
make this small Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) difficult to
remove.
This may significantly inhibit the handler’s ability to maneuver the animal safely.
There may also be species specific housing errors. An obvious example is
housing for a Spitting Cobra species. They are able to project venom through
screen with great ease. Thus screen should never face any direction that a
keeper may be. This eliminates screen ventilation on the front, sides, or top of
the enclosure. Even with rear ventilation, many advanced keepers have a way to
close the vents for maintenance behind the enclosures or transportation. Much
of this has been discussed already, but it bears repeating.

Distraction/Losing Focus
When a keeper is working with venomous snakes, the attention must be
completely on the task at hand. Distraction and losing focus are far too
common mistakes. Socialization has taught us to answer a telephone when it
rings, almost out of instinct. Talking on the phone while working with
dangerous animals not only inhibits movement, but scatters concentration.
While it is recommended that a telephone be present in the Hot Room for
emergency use, many keepers turn the ringer off. Besides a ringing telephone,
virtually any background noise can be distracting. One of the most common
mistakes is listening to the radio or having a television on in the background
while doing maintenance. Worse yet, is human voices. Trying to hold a
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conversation while working with the animals forces the keeper to focus on two
things at once. This can be dangerous for obvious reasons. However, even
while the handler is a bit distracted, at least he is aware of the other person. A
more unfortunate event is being surprised by an unexpected visitor. For this
reason, most keepers keep the Hot Room locked while working. A sealed hot
room eliminates unexpected visitors and any means of escape for an
uncooperative animal.

Probably one of the most common means of losing focus is trying to rush or
multitask. Working with venomous animals should never be rushed. Haste
leads to errors. And errors can have dire consequences. There is very little
maintenance that cannot wait until the keeper has ample time to perform it
safely and properly. In addition to trying to rush procedures, a common
mistake is to try to work with multiple snakes or cages simultaneously.
Responsible keepers only work with one snake at a time. Trying to handle
multiple animals at once tears the concentration from one focus to two. The
same can be said for enclosures. Two enclosures containing animals should not
be open at the same time. Trying to perform too many procedures at once is a
dangerous practice and is discouraged by responsible keepers. Focus on the
task at hand is important, multitasking should never be performed when
venomous snakes are involved.

Earlier, it was discussed how important it is to have an organized Hot Room

with equipment within reach and in its proper place. This, unfortunately, is a
common error and bears repeating. Far too often, the proper equipment is not
on hand. A keeper should never have to break focus on the animal in order to
search for a tool. Looking for the proper equipment, particularly when the
snake is out of the enclosure, not only breaks concentration and focus, but may
offer the snake a strike while procuring the equipment or a means of escape to
inaccessible areas. Finally, we come to smoking. It stands to reason that
smoking is unhealthy to the smoker and to the animals. But none the less,
some keepers smoke in their facility. Health reasons aside, safe handlers never
smoke while working with the animals. The reasons are simple, smoke and ash.
A cigarette requires dispensing ash, which requires use of one hand and finding
an ashtray. This is distracting. But more importantly, there is a risk of smoke
entering the keeper’s eyes. Cigarette smoke can temporarily blind the handler
for several seconds. A great deal can happen in those few seconds.

Overestimating Ability

Safely working with venomous species takes experience, patience, and training.
A very common handling error among novice keepers is overestimating their

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Figure 66 - Species such as the Black Mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) are agile, quick,
and dangerous snakes that are best left to seasoned handlers.
own ability. Working with a Southern Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix
contortrix) does not prepare a handler for working with a Forest Cobra (Naja
melanoleuca). Unfortunately, pride, arrogance, or simple overzealousness is
common among novices. The most obvious is undertaking advanced species
with exceptional abilities and potential without proper training or experience. A
safe keeper knows his or her limitations and comfort level. There is a fine line
between being confident and being cocky. In addition to novice keepers getting
over their head in species selection, quantity is also an issue. Often a collection
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grows at a faster rate than the keeper can safely handle. It is easy for a novice to
take on more specimens than they are prepared to care for properly. This can
lead to rushing during maintenance or neglect and improper care of the animal.
A fast growing collection is also an invitation for substandard housing.
Housing any reptile, particularly a venomous species, is expensive. If a
collection grows too quickly, monetary restraints may prevent the owner from
providing proper enclosures.

Figure 67 - The potential of many rear fanged species are often underestimated. The
fangs are highly visible in this Sand Snake (Psammophis sp.)

Underestimating Potential
All venomous species contain venom and a delivery system. The majority of
these are considered dangerous to humans to some extent. It is even more
dangerous if this potential is underestimated by the keeper. All venomous
snakes should be treated at all times with respect and care. Reckless handling is
often seen in species that are not considered deadly to humans. Rear fanged
species are an excellent example. The Mangrove Snake (Boiga dendrophila) and
the Sand Snake (Psammophis sp.) (Figure 63) are a rear fanged colubrids with
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venom that is considered “mild” by most experts. However, it is still venomous
and thus carries a certain potential. And while I am unaware of any fatalities
caused by this species, there have been reports of moderate to severe
envenomations. The potential of the venom is the major factor, but one must
also look at the reactions of the handler. Many people are allergic to bee venom
and thousands of people die each year. There no way to gauge if a keeper is
going to have an allergic reaction to the venom of snakes that are considered
“mildly venomous.” Thus, every venomous serpent should be treated with the
same care and respect. A step above this is the complacency that may arise
from species that are considered “nonlethal”. Examples of these include the
Carolina Pygmy Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius miliarius), the Eyelash Viper
(Bothriechis schlegelii), and the American Copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix).
These are generally considered to lack the potential to cause a fatality in a
human under normal circumstances. However, they each have the potential to
cause great pain, disfigurement, and possibly amputation. A common mistake is
to take these types of snakes more lightly than a species that is considered
deadly. Even nonlethal snakes have the potential to cause a great deal of
damage and severe pain. Each venomous species should always be handled in a
safe manner.

Placid Snakes
Once in captivity for some time, many snakes tend to calm down and become
less aggressive. Some may stop showing defensive behavior or attempting to
bite the handler. Some keepers feel that these are the most dangerous snakes of
all. If a snake sits nicely on a hook and seems placid, it is far too easy for the
keeper to slip into complacency with that animal. With aggressive specimens,
the handler is constantly on guard and ready for the unexpected. Novice
handlers may get a false sense of security from animals that seem placid and
may utilize lax handling tactics because of the lower perceived risk. This can be
a dangerous mistake. While a snake may rarely strike, it only takes one strike
landed to cause serious problems for the keeper. This falls under another
aspect of underestimating a snake’s potential.

Feeding Errors
Of all of the regular maintenance required to house a venomous species, feeding
is one of the most common times for costly mistakes. Many times snakes
develop a feeding response. This means that they recognize that it is feeding
time and prepare themselves for securing prey. During a feeding response, they
are ready to deliver a full envenomation to the prey item or anything else that
comes into strike range. Envenomations during feeding rarely will produce a
dry bite. This is particularly true of animals that are fed within their enclosure.
They get accustomed to anything entering their domain as a prey item. Thus
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once the enclosure is opened, they may strike at anything that moves, including
the keeper’s appendages. Some feeding responses are so strong that they will
fling themselves out of the cage going after prey. Some snakes with intense
feeding responses have been known to produce a much longer strike range than
normal. This is why prey should only be offered with long hemostats or a
similar tool. The snake may miss the prey item altogether and strike beyond it,
toward the keeper. This illustrates another common mistake, using hemostats
that are too short or not using them at all. It is easy to think that one could just
fling in a rat by the tail to feed the snake, but the snake might have different
plans. Even short hemostats are inappropriate. One keeper the author is aware
of was feeding a 3’ Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) while
using short hemostats or the like. The feeding response of the animal was
strong but its aim was weak. It struck toward the rat, missed, and bit the hand
of the keeper. This was a feeding response envenomation and a very severe one
at that. This individual nearly died because of a stupid feeding mistake, but a
common one.

Most keepers prefer to keep each individual specimen in its own enclosure.
More than one venomous snake per enclosure gets dangerous to handle safely.
However, there are times that multiple snakes are housed together by some
keepers, such as for breeding purposes. And while they are temporarily housed
together, they are never fed together. Each snake should get its own enclosure
or feeding container. Animals that are aggressive feeders may go after the same
prey item. Often this does not happen until snakes begin eating thawed or
prekilled items. Once one snake begins to maneuver the prey, that prey is now
moving and the other snake’s prey is not. So the second snake is enticed by the
movement and may try to relieve its cage mate of the meal. Trying to separate
two venomous snakes on each end of mouse is dangerous and is a completely
avoidable complication by simply feeding separately.

Unnecessary Handling
All handling of venomous species should be kept to an absolute minimum. It is
stressful to the snake and dangerous to the handler. Unnecessary handling is a
common mistake, particularly among novices. Experience cannot be rushed, it
comes with time. Unfortunately, some people handle the snakes more often
than necessary. The most common excuse is so that they “can get more
experience.” This has no validity. Maintenance and necessary handling will
offer the experience. The more times an animal is handled, the more chances
there is for something to go wrong. There are also some maneuvers that need
to be done rarely, if at all. These include pinning and milking. It is rare that a
venomous snake requires pinning. This is a dangerous practice that places the
handler’s appendages very close to the fangs. It is also stressful and dangerous
for the snake. There is no excuse to pin simply for the sake of pinning. To a
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greater extent is milking the venom. There is no reason for a keeper to milk the
venom from a snake unless they are working in a venom extraction lab. It is a
skill that very few keepers even need to have. Again, it is dangerous to the
handler and the snake and serves no purpose other than the amusement of the
keeper. Practices such as this may lead to a very serious or life threatening
envenomation. Finally, there is what is commonly referred to as
“Showboating”. This is common in inexperienced keepers and those that keep
venomous as a type of status symbol. There is NO place in venomous
herpetoculture for showboating. Showboating is working with an animal for no
other reason than to show off. Not only does this produce unnecessary
handling, but it is not uncommon for a showboater to use more liberal and
dangerous handling tactics for the amusement of his audience. Some may do it
just to show off a new or exceptional animal. Others are more dangerous.
They do it in order to impress others. These tactics are not only dangerous to
the keeper and the snake, but anyone present as well. All unnecessary handling
is avoided by responsible keepers.

Physical and Mental State

It is important that any handler be focused and clear headed when working with
venomous animals. There are various physical states that may alter this ability.
Fatigue lowers concentration and response time. Keepers avoid working with
the snakes anytime they are extremely tired. This also goes for illness.
Sneezing, coughing, weakness, and many other symptoms of any illness
seriously inhibit a keepers ability to work with animals safely. Alcohol is
probably the most dangerous item when working with venomous species.
Many bites are attributed to the victim being inebriated. Most snake bites in the
wild occur with males aged 18 to 25 who have been consuming alcohol or
drugs. This will never be a factor for a responsible keeper. They would never
add any substance to their body that will inhibit their ability to handle safely.
Alcohol not only reduces reflexes, but also tends to reduce logical thinking.
Someone that is inebriated is at greater risk of not only incurring an
envenomation, but of taking greater risks as well. All mind or body altering
substances should be avoided at all costs when working with dangerous animals.
There is no excuse.

Celebrity Mimicry
There has been an increased interest in exotic animals in recent years. Some of
this can be attributed to the popularity of many nature programs and television
personalities. A greater awareness, compassion, and attraction to many animals,
including venomous snakes, has arisen. Such shows often aid in conservation
issues. However, they may also lead to celebrity mimicry. Television
personalities often use melodramatic and unsafe handling practices.
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Unfortunately, there are many people that idolize these dramatic handlers and
feel that if they can do it on television, than it must be the right way. This is far
from the case. Bottom line is that danger sells on television, so that is what they
offer. Just as it says on most of their disclaimers, nothing seen on these shows
should be attempted. Such tactics may include hookless tailing. Tailing is
generally done with a hook supporting the front portion of the snake’s body.
For entertainment value, some of the personalities do not use a hook at all,
much less for tailing. This puts all of the snake’s weight on the spine and makes
it much easier for the animal to turn and strike unencumbered. Freehandling
venomous species is also seen on television. The use of no handling equipment
is a dangerous and irresponsible practice and should never be attempted. Even
something as seemingly harmless as photography is taken to the extreme on
some of these programs. The photographer puts himself within strike range to
get that “perfect shot.” In one such program, the photographer was bitten by
several venomous snakes during the program. Each one of them could have
been avoided with a little common sense. When photographing dangerous
animals, a zoom lens works wonderfully.

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90
 8. Tips and Tricks

This chapter offers tips and tricks on a variety of topics to make the keeping of
venomous species safer and more efficient. Most of these methods were
derived from conversations and correspondence within the venomous
community. Not all of them will work for every situation. Keepers talk to
other keepers regularly. New methods and techniques are being discovered
daily.

Adding Water
Sometimes the animal’s water bowl just needs to be “topped off” rather than
removed and changed completely. With nonvenomous, the keeper can just
reach in and add water, but as with anything related to venomous, it gets tricky.
Ideally, the handler does not want to remove the water bowl or the snake. This
is where keepers use a watering extension. Several people have very ingenious
methods and designs. One common example is a funnel with tubing inserted
over the end. The end of the tube is placed in or above the bowl and water is
poured into the funnel. The keeper is able to add water from a safe distance
without causing too much disturbance to the animal. A variation on this
method is a bit simpler by using what should already be in the Hot Room,

Figure 68 - A restraining tube is being used to fill a water bowl.

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restraining tubes. Water can be poured directly down a restraining tube and
into the bowl. The hands of the keeper should always be above or to the side
of the cage opening for added security. Both methods accomplish the same
goal, giving water to the snake from a safe distance without having to maneuver
it.

Empty Cages/Containers
Particularly in a larger collection, animals are consistently removed from their
enclosures for a variety of reasons. The cage may in the process of being
cleaned, an animal may be in a feeding container, one may be on loan to
another facility, and hundreds of other reasons the snake may be removed. It is
imperative to know where each animal is at all times. Tented cards are often
used for enclosures whose inhabitants have been removed. Once the snake is
removed, the card is placed in the cage. This lets every keeper at a facility know
that the particular cage is empty. More advanced cards may also be used with a
location written on it. Examples of specific cards would include “Feeding
Container 3” or “Exam Room”. Others prefer to have something along the
lines of a dry erase board so that specifics can be quickly jotted down. Simple
methods may work for private keepers such as turning off the cage light or
flipping the water bowl upside down. But there should be a method to quickly
tell if a snake has been purposely removed for any reason. This prevents other
keepers from thinking that the particular animal has escaped its enclosure. One
method that should not be used is leaving the enclosure door ajar, as that may
be indicative of an escape. Similar methods should also be used for holding
containers. Probably the simplest method for distinguishing an empty holding
container from one that contains a snake is the lid. Some handlers leave the lid
upside down when empty and it is always secured when an animal is inside. All
of these methods are quick and easy, and are highly recommended.

Neonate Transport
Many newborns of smaller species can be difficult to maneuver safely. Neonate
Pygmy Rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius), for example, do not hook very well and
may become very frustrating to work with. Even a seemingly simple task such
as separating newborns into individual containers may become a daunting task
because of this. For these animals, a large cooking spoon or scoop (Figure 42)
works well. Particularly well suited are camping style spoons with an extremely
long handle. The newborns can then be gently scooped up onto the spoon so
that they can be moved. The snake still feels as though it is on solid ground and
is less prone to try to escape.

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Watch for Babies
Many venomous keepers have been surprised by a clutch of newborn
venomous snakes in an enclosure. Sometimes they are expected and even
awaited, but often they are a surprise. This generally only applies to live bearing
species such as most vipers and pitvipers. Neonates like to hide, and do so
quite well. This can be dangerous for an unsuspecting keeper who removes the
adult snake then reaches in to work on the enclosure. This situation can happen
more often than many people realize. So after the snake is removed from the
cage, the keeper takes a good look inside and pokes around with a snake hook
to make sure the collection did not gain in numbers overnight. It only takes a
few seconds and could save life or limb.

Figure 69 - Sometimes unplanned births occur, such as this Dusky Pygmy Rattlesnake
(Sistrurus miliarius barbouri). If these offspring had been born on a mulch
substrate, locating them safely would have been difficult.
Clothing
When working with venomous species, being dressed properly is important.
Naturally, the snakes do not care if your outfit coordinates, but they can take
advantage of certain fashion errors. Shoes, of course, should be worn at all
times. This should be a matter of common sense. The keeper should offer
themselves as much protection as possible while handling venomous snakes.
Shoes add a puncture “resistant” aspect that bare feet or stocking feet simply
cannot offer. While tennis shoes will do, thick leather boots with high ankles
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are preferable. Sandals do not count as shoes as they offer little protection.
Relaxed fitting jeans are also advised. This is for a couple reasons. First, is the
aspect of ease of movement. Tight fitting pants may make certain maneuvers
difficult by constricting on the leg, knee, or stomach. The second reason for
relaxed fitting jeans is added protection in the event of a strike. Tight pants
often lay snugly against the skin. This gives a rogue set of fangs a direct route
into the flesh. By using looser fitting pants, the handler gives the snake a more
difficult target. There is a greater chance that the snake will grab cloth rather
than skin. The snake may also begin to expel venom once the layer of clothing
is punctured. In this way, even if an envenomation does occur, less venom may
be injected into the victim. Notice that relaxed fitting jeans and not loose jeans
are recommended. Clothing items that fit extremely loosely should be avoided.
This includes extremely loose pants, unbuttoned shirts, jackets, and even lab
coats. These all may inhibit movement, catch on furniture or equipment, or
become tangled. Take a lab coat, for example. If the keeper is wearing one and
must kneel, the fabric may be lodged under their foot or knee. This may not
only inhibit the ability to rise quickly, but may cause the keeper to fall. The
keeper must be in complete control at all times and avoid anything that can
inhibit movement.

High Stacks
There is only a limited amount of floor space in any room. For this reason,
cages are often stacked. This allows maximum use of floor surface area in a
given space. Care must be taken when stacking cages containing venomous
species. Large, fast, or aggressive specimens should be kept at a level that
facilitates a safe working environment. Many keepers prefer to keep these types
of animals in cages at heights between the knee and shoulder. This is usually
the most comfortable range of movement when working with these types of
snakes. If such animals are kept in high cages, they may be much more difficult
to work with. There should also be a limit to how high the enclosures are
stacked. A good guideline is that the floor of the top cage be lower than chin
level of the keeper. At this height, the keeper can easily see the animal and can
remove it while keeping handling equipment at a safe angle. Ladders or step
stools should never be used. These put the keeper in a very precarious position.
Such a small surface area to work on is never recommended. There is of course
the risk of falling. This danger is greater if an enclosure is open at the time, or
worse, a snake is on the hook. Sometimes keepers need to react quickly. Such
items do not allow for quick or accurate maneuvering. The easiest way to avoid
each of these problems is to have cages stacked only to a comfortable and safe
height.

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Know the Hot Room
When the keeper has to work directly with dangerous animals, it is imperative
that concentration is completely on the task at hand. A keeper should know the
layout of the work area. He knows the location of each cage, object, hook,
obstruction, and everything else in the room. In this way, it is second nature to
avoid obstructions without looking when working with these animals and the
focus can be kept on the snake itself. A keeper should be able to grab another
hook or set of tongs from their resting place without having to take their eyes
off of the snake. One way a handler can familiarize themselves with the layout
is to stand at dozens of places all over the room and take calculated steps to
different objects or equipment. This will program their brain that if they are
standing in a certain position, it knows that they are 2 steps from a hook, 6
steps from a door, 3 steps from caging behind them, etc. It will become second
nature, and it should. This has been taken a step further by some keepers.
Drills such as the one described can be done with the eyes closed or
blindfolded. Some opt to run drills with the lights off in the room. These
advanced drill should only be performed if the Hot Room is 100% secured and
safe and only after the standard method has been done dozens of times, if not
hundreds.

Figure 70 - A stack of commercial plastic enclosures housing various venomous species.

95
Figure 71 - Trying to retrieve a snake from this tangle wires would not only be difficult,
but dangerous.
Avoid Clutter
Clutter is a killer. The work area should be free from obstructions that are not
part of the room or setup. The keeper should already be comfortable with the
layout of the room, as discussed. Adding random items to the floor makes for a
dangerous environment. Anytime someone is working with a venomous snake,
tripping or falling can have dire consequences. That bag of substrate lying on
the floor can easily distract or trip a keeper. The floor should be clear at all
times.

Wiring

Anytime there is artificial heat or lighting, there are going to be wires running
from the enclosure to the outlets or power strips. Often there may even be two

96
Figure 72 - Here Zip Ties were used to create a neater and safer wiring system.
or three wires from one single enclosure. This can turn into a real mess when
there are a large number of enclosures. It is best to keep all of these wires neat
and tied together as well as possible. If a snake gets behind caging and the wires
are haphazard, it is like trying to remove a snake from a thicket of vines. Not
only does the snake have a large number of surfaces to wrap around, but it can
make using a hook a very daunting and frustrating task.. Zip ties do very well in
securing wires. There are also plastic sleeves available at most office supply
stores.

Organized Equipment
Handling equipment is only useful if the handler can find it. And in particular,
find it when they need it. Each piece should have a specific location where it
belongs and each should be strategically placed for easy access from any
number of locations and positions. When learning the layout of the Hot Room,
these locations are memorized. But it only works if the items are put back after
each use. This way, they are always where they are supposed to be and the
keeper never has to look for them. This avoids having to use a piece of
equipment that is not well suited for a particular use because the task specific
piece cannot be located.

97
Extra Equipment
A keeper should never have “just enough equipment to get by”. He should
strive to have more equipment than he could possibly use. A good rule is to
have enough handling tools for three people. This large number means that the
keeper is never far from his tools and each type is readily accessible. Some
species are known for “stealing hooks”. They may move in a way that that no
longer makes the particular hook safe. One example is a large elapid or arboreal
snake climbing the shaft of a hook. At that point, the only safe thing to do is to
let the snake have the hook. So now there is a snake between the hook and the
keeper. But responsible keepers are prepared for such occurrences and another
appropriate tool is always available and within reach. It is always better to have
too much than not enough.

Other People
This can be a bit of a catch 22. Anytime a keeper is dealing with venomous
snakes, anyone else in the room or area should always be at a safe distance. But
people are clutter too. A person in the Hot Room while a handler is working
becomes a large obstruction in the room with unpredictable movements.
Bystanders should be out of danger and not an obstruction or distraction. It is
best that they remain near the exit in case of an emergency, if they must be
present at all. It can be a different story with two experienced handlers. Those
that have worked together for some time know each others movements and can
work like a well oiled machine. If the procedures being performed require more
than one handler, the primary keeper must be confident in the others abilities.
Of course, it is recommended that venomous snakes not be handled while the
keeper is alone. That may sound like a contradiction, but the clarity lies in the
definition of “alone”. For our purposes, “alone” means that there is no other
person available in the event of an emergency. If there is someone in another
room, another part of the building, the adjacent building, or on the other end of
a panic button, then the keeper is not alone. There is someone available to help
in case of an envenomation. Monitored security systems are excellent for
keepers that are forced to work with no one in close proximity. The monitoring
company can be made aware that if the panic button on the system is pressed,
then an envenomation has likely occurred. In this way, help can be sent even if
the victim is unable to speak.

Dry Runs
A dry run is when someone performs exactly as they would in a certain situation
in order to practice. This can save the handler’s life in the event of a bite.
Seconds count and knowing what to do and how to do it can make all of the

98
difference. As Dr. Sean Bush states it, “Time is Tissue”. So speed of treatment
is imperative. The best way to prepare for an envenomation is to practice what
to do in case of one. Each part of the protocol starting with securing the animal
is practiced over and over until they can perform it without thinking. If there is
a partner or assistant, they should also be well versed in protocols and aid in dry
runs. If they can perform some of the pre-hospital protocol, then there is less
activity for the victim thus reducing blood circulation and the spread of venom.
Having them prepared is also important if the victim loses consciousness and is
unable to communicate with the hospital staff. Practice is done until they have
it perfect, then they do it a few more times. Each keeper should perform these
regularly to keep it fresh in their mind and to update any protocol procedures as
they may advance.

Open Wounds
Very often in a venomous snake enclosure, there is venom residue that is
unseen. A snake striking at the door, hook, or prey may produce overspray of
venom. This venom may be on the sides of the enclosure, the substrate, the
cage decorations, the water bowl, or handing equipment. Keepers that have
open wounds or injuries should take extra precautions to avoid such venom
deposits coming in contact with the affected areas. This is particularly true of
the keeper’s hands. Thus, anytime there is any injury to the hand, latex or
equivalent gloves should be worn for protection. Such a precaution greatly
reduces the chance of random and invisible venom deposits inadvertently
entering the body.

Shed Fangs
Just as reptiles shed their skin, venomous snakes also shed their fangs regularly.
For example, recent research shows that Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes
shed their fangs roughly every month or about every two feedings (LaDuc,
2005). The new fangs come in behind the existing ones. Once the existing
fangs are shed, the new ones are ready to immediately go into action. It is not
uncommon, particularly in vipers, to see three or even 4 fangs present in the
mouth during this event. Often, all visible fangs are fully functional and capable
of delivering venom. Shed fangs either fall out of the mouth or are swallowed
and excreted during defecation. This can pose a problem for the keeper as
there are likely dried venom deposits on these shed fangs. If the fang punctures
the skin, then an envenomation to some extent is possible. Because of this
danger, many keepers elect that virtually nothing in the enclosure is worked with
bare handed. Scoops, tongs, hemostats, dust pans and brushes all but eliminate
the need to the handler to come in contact with substrate, decorations, or fecal
matter.

99
Figure 73 - A shed fang from an Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus
adamanteus) found in its water bowl.
Leaving the Hot Room
Many responsible keepers have a specific routine for when maintenance is done
in the Hot Room. By having a set routine and through repetition and habit, the
occurrence of oversights is greatly reduced. This may include spot checking
each enclosure. During spot checking, the keeper makes sure of the animal’s
condition, overall condition of the enclosure, and that the cage is secured
properly. Failure to properly secure enclosures is a common oversight. Spot
checking each cage before leaving lowers this risk. After spot checking, all
equipment is returned to its proper location if not already there. Before exiting
the hot room, a quick clean up is also common. The keeper removes any
clutter that may be in the room such as snake bags or boxes on the floor. This
way, the room is in perfect order for the next time.

Emergency Heating
As with any aspect of venomous herpetoculture, preparation for unexpected
scenarios is recommended. Once such instance may be the loss of heat to the
Hot Room during cold weather. This may be due to loss of power or natural
gas or a heating unit breaking. Nonvenomous species keepers have a wide
variety of options during such an event. Harmless species may simply all be
bagged and transported to a suitable area or even regulated with the keeper’s
100
own body heat. This is certainly not the case for venomous species. In the
event of a heating unit malfunction or loss of natural gas, a simple electric
heater can be used to maintain an acceptable ambient temperature in the room.
Large, individual heat packs may also be used in such a situation. Loss of
electricity is a more difficult situation to remedy. Heat packs may not be
feasible since it is unsafe to work with venomous species in low light conditions.
In this case, an alternate style of room heater is often used. Such models may
include kerosene heaters. These do not rely on electricity and produce a
substantial amount of heat to quickly raise the ambient temperature.

Emergency Lighting
When working with venomous snakes, a sudden power failure could be
disastrous. For this reason, emergency lighting is highly recommended. There
are very sophisticated types of emergency lighting available (Figure 5). These
are, of course, preferable. But monetary constraints may become a factor for
such hard wired systems. There
are also less expensive
alternatives. Small units can be
purchased from most home
improvement stores and even
grocery stores. These small units
plug directly into an electrical
outlet. Once the current is no
longer flowing to the unit, the
lights come on and it runs on a
battery. Of course these small
units will not produce the same
amount of light as the larger
ones, so multiple units should be
placed strategically around the
Hot Room. Additional battery
operated lights may also be
Figure 74 - This inexpensive, yet effective installed around the room to
emergency lighting device was found at a local provide additional lighting after
grocery store for under $10.
the back-ups have engaged.

Trap Boxes for Escapes

With proper housing design and handling procedures, a venomous snake should
never be able to escape its enclosure. But one point that has been mentioned
several times is the importance of the keeper being prepared for a worst case
scenario. This is why the Hot Room is sealed. Another precaution that some
keepers implement is the placement of trap boxes on the floor. Snakes
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generally will crawl along the walls and try to find refuge. By placing trap boxes
along the walls, in corners, or behind caging, it may entice an escaped snake to
utilize it. This makes locating the loose snake and returning it to its enclosure
much quicker, easier, and safer.

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 9. Venom, Envenomation & Antivenin

Venom
There are volumes of literature already in existence regarding venom, so this is a
very basic overview. Venom is a complex combination of toxins used by snakes
for three purposes: the acquisition of prey, the digestion of prey, and for
defense against predators. There is no accurate method to make broad
statements about venom composition since each species and each individual
may have varying concentrations of various toxins. There is current evidence
that concentrations of toxins may vary greatly throughout the geographic range
of a particular species.
There are seven primary toxins found in venom (Toxinology, WCH). This is by
no means a complete list or detailed medical information. Please refer to our
recommended reading for further research on venom.

Neurotoxin Flaccid paralysis

Haemorrhagins Damage vascular wall, causing bleeding
Cardiotoxins Direct cardiotoxicity
Necrotoxins Direct tissue injury at the bite site/bitten limb
Nephrotoxins Direct renal damage
Haemostatic System Interfere with normal haemostasis, causing
Toxins either bleeding or thrombosis
Myotoxin Systemic skeletal muscle damage
(Toxinology, WCH)

Specific clinical effects of the toxins are generally described in detail in species
envenomation protocol literature.

LD50 Information
A “Lethal Dose 50” (LD50) is a measurement of the toxicity of venom. With
this method, mice are injected with a strictly controlled amount of venom from
different species in order to determine the amount of venom necessary to be
lethal to 50% of the control group. The results are listed as milligrams of
venom per kilogram of body mass (mg/Kg). It is designed to be an indicator as
to the toxicity of particular venoms when introduced into a mammal. There are
four groups of LD50s referring to each method of artificial envenomation:

103
Intramuscular, Intraperitoneal, Intravenous, and Subcutaneous. During
intramuscular LD50 experiments, the venom is injected directly into muscle
tissue. The venom is injected into the abdominal cavity during the
intraperitoneal method and into a vein for the intravenous method.
Subcutaneous is perhaps the most common envenomation type, particularly
with elapids. For a subcutaneous LD50 measurement, the venom is injected
directly beneath the skin.

LD50s are intended only as references. Much of the available data is outdated
or inaccurate. Some species may be misrepresented or excluded. Geographical
variations in venom composition are also not considered. Additionally, each
species and individuals within that species may have varying venom yields.
Venom that may appear less toxic on the chart may, in fact, be quite deadly due
to copious amounts injected.

LD50 Charts

LD 50 Values by Scientific Name

SQ – Subcutaneous IM – Intramuscular
IV - Intravenous IP - Intraperitoneal

*Refer to LD50 Species Notes for more information

Common
Scientific name SQ IV IM IP
Name
Acalyptophis Horned Sea 0.079
peronii Snake
Acanthophis Common Death 0.5 0.25
antarcticus* Adder
Agkistrodon Cantil 2.4 1.155
bilineatus
Agkistrodon Ornate Cantil 2.4 2.3
bilineatus taylori
Agkistrodon Southern 25.6 10.9 10.9
contortrix contortrix Copperhead
Agkistrodon Broad-Banded 20
contortrix laticinctus Copperhead

104
Agkistrodon Northern 2.7 4.222
contortrix mokeson Copperhead
Agkistrodon Western 2.044 4.844
piscivorus Cottonmouth
leucostoma
Agkistrodon Cottonmouth/ 25.8 4 5.1
piscivorus* Water Moccasin
Aipysurus duboisii Dubois's Sea 0.044
Snake
Aipysurus eydouxii Spine-Tailed Sea 4
Snake
Aipysurus laevis Olive Sea Snake 0.09 0.264
Atractaspis Mole Viper 2.24
dohomeyensis
Atractaspis Mole Viper 0.25
engaddensis
Atropoides Jumping Viper 2.4
nummifer*
Atropoides picadoi* Picado's Pitviper 1.6
Austrelaps superbus Lowland 0.5 0.28
Copperhead
Bitis arietans Puff Adder 1.32 2 0.716
Bitis caudalis Horned Puff 0.2
Adder
Bitis gabonica Gaboon Viper 12.5 6.722 5.2 1.589
Bitis nasicornis Rhino Viper 8.6
Bothriechis Eyelash Viper 33.2 1.6
schlegelii*
Bothrops alternatus Urutu 15.8 1.96
Bothrops asper Fer-De-Lance 1.244 2.844

Bothrops atrox* Common 22 2.835 3.8

Lancehead
Bothrops Mapanare 2.3
colombiensis Lancehead
Bothrops jararaca Jararaca 7 1.1
Bothrops Jararacussu' 13 0.46

105
 jararacussu
Bothrops neuwiedi Jararaca Pintada 14.2 2.3
Boulengerina Banded Water 0.143
annulata Cobra
Boulengerina Congo Water 0.12
christyi Cobra
Bungarus caeruleus Indian Krait 0.365 0.169 0.089
Bungarus fasciatus Banded Krait 3.6 1.289 1.55
Bungarus Many Banded 0.108 0.113 0.08
multicinctus Krait
Calloselasma Malayan Pit 23.4 5.2 4.989
rhodostoma* Viper
Causus rhombeatus Night Adder 15 9.25
Cerastes cerastes Desert Horned 15 4 0.3
Viper
Cerastes cornutus* Desert Horned 5.05
Viper
Cerastes vipera Sahara Sand 0.64 0.25
Viper
Crotalus Eastern 14.6 1.65 2.295
adamanteus Diamondback
Rattlesnake
Crotalus atrox Western 18.5 2.72 20 5.588
Diamondback
Rattlesnake
Crotalus basiliscus Mexican West- 2.8
Coast
Rattlesnake
Crotalus Santa Catalina 10.9 4.1
catalinensis Island Rattleless
Rattlesnake
Crotalus cerastes Sidewinder 4
Crotalus durissus Neotropical 1.244 0.667
durissus Rattlesnake
Crotalus durissus Cascabel 0.262 0.216
terrificus
Crotalus durissus Totonacan 2.5

106
totonacus Rattlesnake
Crotalus enyo enyo Baja California 4.6
Rattlesnake
Crotalus exsul* Red Diamond 9.92 2.17 9.2 3.9
Rattlesnake
Crotalus horridus Timber 3.1 2.107 2.272
horridus Rattlesnake
Crotalus Small Headed 1.58
intermedius Rattlesnake
Crotalus lepidus Mottled Rock 23.95 9
klauberi Rattlesnake
Crotalus mitchelli Panamint 0.3 0.18
mitchelli Speckled
Rattlesnake
Crotalus mitchelli Southwestern 9.6 2.7
pyrrhus Speckled
Rattlesnake
Crotalus polystictus Mexican 13.3 3.37 13.3
Blotched
Rattlesnake
Crotalus pricei Twin-Spotted 3.07 11.5
pricei Rattlesnake
Crotalus scutulatus Huamantlan 0.24
salvini Rattlesnake
Crotalus scutulatus Mojave Green 0.34 0.189 0.159
scutulatus Rattlesnake
Crotalus tigris Tiger Rattlesnake 0.21 0.056
Crotalus viridis Rattlesnake 2.26
caliginsis* Species
Crotalus viridis Midget Faded 0.083 0.2
concolor Rattlesnake
Crotalus viridis Southern Pacific 1.135 2.44
helleri Rattlesnake
Crotalus viridis Great Basin 2.2
lutosus Rattlesnake
Crotalus viridis Prairie 1.01 2

107
 viridis Rattlesnake
Crotalus willardi Ridge-Nosed 1.61
willardi Rattlesnake
Cryptophis Small Eyed 2.67
nigrescens Snake
Daboia russelii Russell's Viper 1.37 0.4 0.489
formosensis* Subspecies
Daboia russelli Russell's Viper 0.75 0.133 0.4
russelli Subspecies
Daboia russelli Russell's Viper 2.11
siamensis* Subspecies
Deinagkistrodon Sharp-Nosed Pit 9.2 0.38
acutus* Viper
Dendroaspis Eastern Green 3.05 1.5 0.117
angusticeps Mamba
Dendroaspis Jameson's 1 0.72 0.414
jamesoni Mamba
Dendroaspis Black Mamba 0.32 0.25 0.941
polylepis
Dendroaspis viridis Western Green 0.7 0.8 0.33
Mamba
Dispholidus typus Boomslang 0.071
Echis carinatus* Saw-Scaled Viper 0.151 2.15
Echis carinatus Saw-Scaled Viper 3.26
multisquamatus
(Iran)
Echis carinatus Saw-Scaled Viper 2.98
sochureki
(Pakistan)
Echis coloratus Carpet Viper 4.375 0.263
Echis ocellatus Saw-Scaled Viper 2.71
(Nigeria)*
Echis pyramidum Saw-Scaled Viper 0.65
(Egypt)*
Echis pyramidum Saw-Scaled Viper 0.94
(Kenya)*

108
Echis pyramidum Saw-Scaled Viper 1.67
(Saudi Arabia)*
Emydocephalus Turtle-Headed 25
annulatus Sea Snake
Enhydrina schistosa Beaked Sea 0.113 0.26 0.107
Snake
Eristicophis Asian Sand Viper 7.5
macmahoni
Gloydius blomhoffi Mamushi 20
Gloydius halys* Pallas' Viper 9.75
Hemachatus Rinkhals Cobra 2.65 1.5
haemachatus
Hoplocephalus Stephen's 1.36
stephensii Banded Snake
Hydrophis belcheri Belcher's Sea 0.155
Snake
Hydrophis Annulated Sea 0.464 0.456 0.24
cyanocinctus Snake
Hydrophis elegans Elegant Sea 0.26 0.21
Snake
Hydrophis fasciatus Banded Small 0.175
Headed Sea
Snake
Hydrophis klossi Kloss' Sea Snake 0.365
Hydrophis major Olive-Headed 0.193
Sea Snake
Hydrophis Black Banded 0.111 0.081 0.4
melanosoma Sea Snake
Hydrophis Duadin's Sea 0.343
nigrocinctus Snake
Hydrophis ornatus Reef Sea Snake 2.2 0.12
Hydrophis spiralis Yellow Sea Snake 0.315
Hydrophis Gunther's Sea 0.164
stricticollis Snake
Kerilia jerdonii Jerdon's Sea 0.53
Snake

109
 Lachesis muta* Bushmaster 36.9 4.51 6.17
Lapemis hardwickii Hardwicke's Sea 0.541 0.8 0.26
Snake
Laticauda colubrina Wide Faced Sea 0.435
Krait
Laticauda colubrina Banded Sea Krait 0.4
Laticauda laticauda Banded Sea Krait 0.163
Laticauda Broad Banded 0.273
semifasciata Sea Krait
Laticauda Erabu Sea Snake 0.34
semifasciata*
Macrovipera Levantine Viper 16 0.64
lebetina*
Micrurus alleni Coral Snake 0.74 0.705
Species
Micrurus annulatus Coral Snake 1.76 0.951
hertwigi Species
Micrurus dumerillii Coral Snake 1.02 0.96
Species
Micrurus frontalis Brazilian Coral 0.592
frontalis Snake
Micrurus fulvius* Eastern Coral 1.3 0.3
Snake
Micrurus Black Banded 0.394 0.701
nigrocinctus Coral Snake
Micrurus spixii Amazonian 1.16
obscurus Coral Snake
Subspecies
Naja atra Chinese Cobra 0.29 0.345
Naja haje* Egyptian Cobra 1.15 0.42 0.185
Naja kaouthia Monocled Cobra 0.373 0.225
Naja melanoleuca Black Forest 0.289 0.324
Cobra
Naja naja* Spectacled Cobra 0.45 0.35 0.315
Naja nigricollis Black Necked 0.63 0.44 0.4
Spitting Cobra

110
Naja nivea Cape Cobra 0.72 0.57 0.42
Naja oxiana Central Asian 0.96
Cobra
Naja pallida Sudan Red 2
Spitting Cobra
Notechis a. niger Peninsula Tiger 0.131
Snake
Notechis a. Western Tiger 0.194
occidentalis Snake
Notechis a. serventyi Chapel Island 0.338
Tiger Snake
Notechis Mainland Tiger 0.214 0.04
scutulatus* Snake
Ophiophagus King Cobra 1.7 1.31 1.644
hannah*
Oxyuranus Inland Taipan 0.025
microlepidotus*
Oxyuranus Coastal Taipan 0.106 0.013 0.009
scutellatus*
Pelamis platurus Yellow Bellied 0.067 0.22
Sea Snake
Porthidium nasuta* Hognosed Viper 4.6
Praescutata viperina Viperine Sea 4.5
Snake
Pseudechis australis Mulga Snake 1.94 0.3
Pseudechis colletti Collett's Snake 2.38 0.84
Pseudechis guttatus Spotted Black 2.13
Snake
Pseudechis Papuan Black 1.09
papuanus Snake
Pseudechis Red-Bellied 2 0.54
porphyriacus Black Snake
Pseudocerastes fieldi Field's Horned 0.275 0.02
Viper
Pseudocerastes Persian Horned 0.83
persicus* Viper

111
 Pseudocerastes Persian Horned 15.26
persicus* Viper
Pseudonaja affinis Dugite 0.66
Pseudonaja Gwardar/Wester 0.473
nuchalis* n Brown Snake
Pseudonaja textilis Eastern Brown 0.037 0.01
Snake
Rhapdophis Red-Necked 1.29
subminatus* Keeled Snake
Sistrurus miliarius Dusky Pygmy 24.3 12.59 6.822
barbouri Rattlesnake
Thelotornis Twig Snake 1.24
kirtlandii
Trimeresurus White Lipped 12.75 0.37
albolabris Tree Viper
Trimeresurus Sakishima Habu 5.225
elegans
Trimeresurus Okinawa Habu 3.689 5.07
flavoviridis
Trimeresurus Indian Green 8.6
gramineus* Tree Viper
Trimeresurus Chinese Habu 5.225
mucrosquamatus
Trimeresurus Himehabu 3
okinavensis
Trimeresurus Himehabu 15
okinavensis
Trimeresurus Chinese Green 5.225
stejnegeri Tree Viper
Tropidolaemus Wagler's Viper 6.19 0.783 3.58
wagleri*
Vipera ammodytes Long-Nosed 6.59 0.8 0.415
Viper
Vipera aspis Asp Viper 1 4.7
Vipera berus Adder 6.45 0.55

112
 Vipera bornmuelleri Hermon 6.25 0.605 1.92
Mountain Viper
Vipera latifii Lar Valley Viper 4.61 0.348 2.07
Vipera palaestinae Palestine Viper 9.4 2.09
Vipera xanthina Near East Viper 6.7
Walterinnesia Desert Cobra 0.4 0.3 0.133
aegyptia
(Frye)

LD 50 Species Notes

Scientific name Common Name Notes

Acanthophis antarcticus Common Death Species is complex. No
Adder geographical data present.
Agkistrodon piscivorus Cottonmouth/ Subspecies not indicated.
Water Moccasin
Atropoides nummifer Jumping Viper Formerly in Bothrops genus
Atropoides picadoi Picado's Pitviper Formerly in Bothrops genus
Bothriechis schlegelii Eyelash Viper Formerly in Bothrops genus
Bothrops atrox Common Species is complex. No
Lancehead geographical data present.
Calloselasma Malayan Pit Viper Fomerly in Agkistrodon genus.
rhodostoma
Cerastes cornutus Desert Horned Synonym of C. cerastes
Viper
Crotalus exsul Red Diamond Synonym for Crotalus ruber, but
Rattlesnake Crotalus exsul exsul is the Cedros
Island Diamond Rattlesnake
Crotalus viridis Rattlesnake Species Undetermined subspecies.
caliginsis
Daboia russelii Russell's Viper Synonym of D.r. siamensis. No
formosensis Subspecies geographical data present.

113
 Daboia russelli Russell's Viper No geographical data present.
siamensis Subspecies Geographic variations in
venom present.
Deinagkistrodon acutus Sharp-Nosed Pit Fomerly in Agkistrodon genus
Viper
Echis carinatus Saw-Scaled Viper Species is complex. No
geographical data present.
Echis ocellatus Saw-Scaled Viper Formerly part of E. carinatus
(Nigeria) species complex
Echis pyramidum Saw-Scaled Viper Formerly part of E. carinatus
(Egypt) species complex
Echis pyramidum Saw-Scaled Viper Formerly part of E. carinatus
(Kenya) species complex
Echis pyramidum Saw-Scaled Viper E.c. sochureki if from Western
(Saudi Arabian) Saudi Arabia,. Formerly part of
E. carinatus.
Gloydius halys Pallas' Viper Formerly in Agkistrodon genus.
Misleading, most data likely to
refer to G. blomhoffi; (Mamushi).

Lachesis muta Bushmaster No geographical data present.

L. muta split into 3 separate
.species
Laticauda semifasciata Erabu Sea Snake Also known as Broad-Banded
Blue Sea Snake
Macrovipera lebetina Levantine Viper Specimens from N. Africa are
referable to M. mauritanica
Micrurus fulvius Eastern Coral May include Micrurus tenere.
Snake
Naja haje Egyptian Cobra No geographical data present..
Southern African forms now
regarded as N. annulifera
Naja naja Spectacled Cobra Any Asiatic cobra may have
been referred to as N. naja in
the past
Naja oxiana Central Asian Also known as Oxus Cobra
Cobra

114
 Notechis scutulatus Mainland Tiger No geographical data present.
Snake Geographic variations in
venom present.
Ophiophagus hannah King Cobra No geographical data present.

Oxyuranus Inland Taipan Formerly known as Fierce

microlepidotus Snake or Small-Scaled Snake
Oxyuranus scutellatus Coastal Taipan Oxyuranus scutellatus canni (Papua
New Guinea Taipan) has not
been shown to have differing
venom.

Porthidium nasuta Hognosed Viper Formerly in Bothrops genus

Pseudocerastes persicus Persian Horned May be P. fieldi, depending on
Viper locality.
Pseudonaja nuchalis Gwardar/Western Complex Species
Brown Snake
Rhapdophis subminatus Red-Necked A very toxic colubrid. Formerly
Keeled Snake a popular pet snake regarded as
"harmless".
Trimeresurus gramineus Indian Green Tree Very rare species. Most likely
Viper samples are from other species

Tropidolaemus wagleri Wagler's Viper Formerly in Trimeresurus genus

(Fry)

Antivenin
Antivenin is the drug used to treat envenomation. It is produced by introducing
small amounts of raw venom into a host animal such as a horse or sheep. Once
the animal begins to build up a resistance, the antibodies are removed and
purified. During a human envenomation, the antivenin is introduced into the
body to aid in neutralizing the effects of the venom. There are two groups of
antivenin, polyvalent and monovalent. Polyvalent antivenin is produced using
several species. This makes it much more versatile for use on envenomations
from different species. These are generally species that are somewhat similar in
venom and common to a particular area or country. A monovalent is produced
from a single species and may only be effective treating that particular type or
those very closely related.

115
Figure 75 - An Antivenin Kit. Photo courtesy of John White.

Since snake venoms vary a great deal, the effectiveness of antivenins can be
unpredictable at times. They are by no means a “cure all” for envenomations.
The antivenin itself may have serious side effects. The most serious of these
complications may involve an anaphylactic reaction. This is particularly
common in horse based antivenin. Even with antivenin administered in a
timely manner, a fatality is still possible.

116
Envenomation Protocols
Envenomation protocols are documents and procedures produced by
professionals in the emergency medical field that outline medical treatment
following an envenomation. These are vital to acquire for any species kept.
Most hospitals are not prepared or experienced in venomous snakebite,
particularly exotic species. Responsible keepers will have these protocols on
hand along with personal medical history in case of an envenomation. This is
naturally a vast amount of information that is ever-changing as antivenin and
treatments continue to improve. Thus it is not feasible to include such
protocols here. There is wealth of information both in print and on the
Internet. Several such information websites are listed in the Resources section
of this publication.

Figure 76 - There is little evidence to support the use of venom extractors such as this
one.

Venom Extractors
For many years, extraction devices have been recommended for
envenomations. The premise behind these devices is that by applying negative
pressure directly to bite site, a percentage of venom can be removed. These
devices began as a simple suction mechanism. Newer devices, such as the one
pictured above (Fig. 76), are designed in syringe style. Manufacturers often
boast that these devices can extract up to 30% of venom injected. However,
recent evidence presented at the 2005 Biology of the Rattlesnakes Symposium
suggests that use of such devices actually remove only a minute amount of
venom and may actually cause damage to the victim. Given the recent
evidence, use of a venom extraction device is not generally recommended.

117
118
10. Emergency Agencies

During an envenomation, seconds count. Thus having emergency telephone

numbers in the Envenomation Emergency Kit is vital. Included here is contact
information for Poison Control Units serving each state and the Venom One
unit of the Miami-Dade Fire Rescue. Venom One is the authority in the United
States on envenomations by both native and exotic species. They hold in
reserve many different antivenins from around the world.

Venom One
Miami-Dade Fire Rescue
Captain Al Cruz and Lieutenant Ernie Jillson
Station 29
Sweetwater
351 S.W. 107th Avenue
Miami, FL 33174
Non-Emergency: (786) 331-4444
EMERGENCY NUMBER: (305) 596-8576

All United States Poison Control Centers use the same toll free
Emergency Number: EMERGENCY NUMBER: (800) 222-1222

State Poison Control Centers

Alabama Alabama (cont.)

Alabama Poison Center Regional Poison Control Center
2503 Phoenix Drive Children's Hospital
Tuscaloosa, AL 35405 1600 7th Avenue South
Birmingham, AL 35233

Alaska
Oregon Poison Center
Oregon Health Sciences University
3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road,
CB550
Portland, OR 97201
Arizona
Arizona Poison & Drug Info Center
Arizona Health Sciences Center,
Room 1156
1501 North Campbell Avenue
Tucson, AZ 85724

119
 Arizona (cont.)
Banner Poison Control Center
901 East Willetta Street
Room 2701
Phoenix, AZ 85006
California
California Poison Control System -
Fresno/Madera Division
Children's Hospital Central
California
9300 Valley Children's Place, MB 15
Madera, CA 93638-8762
California (cont.)
California Poison Control System -
San Francisco Division
UCSF Box 1369
San Francisco, CA 94143-1369
TDD/TTY: (800) 972-3323
Colorado
Rocky Mountain Poison & Drug
Center
777 Bannock Street
Mail Code 0180
Denver, CO 80204-4028
TDD/TTY: (303) 739-1127
Delaware
The Poison Control Center
Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
34th & Civic Center Blvd
Philadelphia, PA 19104-4303
TDD/TTY: (215) 590-8789
120
Arkansas
Arkansas Poison & Drug
Information Center
College of Pharmacy, University of
Arkansas for Medical Sciences
4301 W. Markham, Mail Slot 522-2
Little Rock, AR 72205
TDD/TTY: (800) 641-3805
California (cont.)
California Poison Control System -
Sacramento Division
UC Davis Medical Center
2315 Stockton Boulevard
Sacramento, CA 95817
TDD/TTY: (800) 972-3323
California (cont.)
California Poison Control System-
San Diego Division
University of California, San Diego,
Medical Center
200 West Arbor Drive
San Diego, CA 92103-8925
TDD/TTY: (800) 972-3323
Connecticut
Connecticut Poison Control Center
University of Connecticut Health
Center
263 Farmington Avenue
Farmington, CT 06030-5365
District of Columbia
National Capital Poison Center
3201 New Mexico Avenue, NW,
Suite 310
Washington, DC 20016
TDD/TTY: (800) 222-1222
 Florida
Florida Poison Information Center -
Jacksonville
655 West Eighth Street
Jacksonville, FL 32209
TDD/TTY: (800) 222-1222
Florida (cont.)
Florida Poison Information Center -
Tampa
Tampa General Hospital
P.O. Box 1289
Tampa, FL 33601
Hawaii
Rocky Mountain Poison & Drug
Center
777 Bannock Street
Mail Code 0180
Denver, CO 80204-4028
TDD/TTY: (303) 739-1127
Illinois
Illinois Poison Center
222 S. Riverside Plaza, Suite 1900
Chicago, IL 60606
TDD/TTY: (312) 906-6185
Iowa
Iowa Statewide Poison Control
Center
St. Luke's Regional Medical Center
2910 Hamilton Boulevard Lower A
Sioux City, IA 51104
Florida (cont.)
Florida Poison Information Center -
Miami
University of Miami, Dept of
Pediatrics
P.O. Box 016960 (R-131)
Miami, FL 33101
Georgia
Georgia Poison Center
Hughes Spalding Children's
Hospital
Grady Health System
80 Jesse Hill Jr. Drive, SE, P.O. Box
26066
Atlanta, GA 30335-3801
TDD/TTY: (404) 616-9287
Idaho
Rocky Mountain Poison & Drug
Center
777 Bannock Street
Mail Code 0180
Denver, CO 80204-4028
TDD/TTY: (303) 739-1127
Indiana
Indiana Poison Center
Methodist Hospital
Clarian Health Partners
I-65 at 21st Street
Indianapolis, IN 46206-1367
TDD/TTY: (317) 962-2336
Kansas
Mid-America Poison Control Center
University of Kansas Medical Center
3901 Rainbow Blvd., Room B-400
Kansas City, KS 66160-7231
TDD/TTY: (913) 588-6639
121
 Kentucky
Kentucky Regional Poison Center
Medical Towers South, Suite 847
234 East Gray Street
Louisville, KY 40202
Maine
Northern New England Poison
Center
22 Bramhall St
Portland, ME 04102
TDD/TTY: (877) 299-4447
Massachusetts
Regional Center for Poison Control
and Prevention Serving
Massachusetts and Rhode Island
300 Longwood Avenue
Boston, MA 02115
TDD/TTY: (888) 244-5313
Michigan (cont.)
DeVos Children's Hospital Regional
Poison Center
1300 Michigan, NE, Suite 203
Grand Rapids, MI 49503
TDD/TTY: (800) 222-1222
Mississippi
Mississippi Regional Poison Control
Center
University of Mississippi Medical
Center
2500 N. State Street
Jackson, MS 39216
Montana
Rocky Mountain Poison & Drug
Center
777 Bannock Street
122
Louisiana
Louisiana Drug and Poison
Information Center
University of Louisiana at Monroe
College of Pharmacy, Sugar Hall
Monroe, LA 71209-6430
Maryland
Maryland Poison Center
University of MD at Baltimore
School of Pharmacy
20 North Pine Street, PH 772
Baltimore, MD 21201
TDD/TTY: (410) 706-1858
Michigan
Children's Hospital of Michigan
Regional Poison Control Center
4160 John R Harper Professional
Office Bldg, Suite 616
Detroit, MI 48201
TDD/TTY: (800) 356-3232
Minnesota
Hennepin Regional Poison Center
Hennepin County Medical Center
701 Park Avenue
Minneapolis, MN 55415
TDD/TTY: (612) 904-4691
Missouri
Missouri Regional Poison Center
7980 Clayton Rd, Suite 200
St. Louis, MO 63117
TDD/TTY: (314) 612-5705
Nebraska
Nebraska Regional Poison Center
8401 West Dodge Road, Suite 115
Omaha, NE 68114
 Mail Code 0180
Denver, CO 80204-4028
TDD/TTY: (303) 739-1127
Nevada
Oregon Poison Center
Oregon Health Sciences University
3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road,
CB550
Portland, OR 97201
New Hampshire
New Hampshire Poison
Information Center
Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical
Center
One Medical Center Drive
Lebanon, NH 03756
New Mexico
New Mexico Poison & Drug Info
Center
Health Science Center Library,
Room 130
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, NM 87131-1076
New York (cont.)
Finger Lakes Regional Poison &
Drug Information Center
University of Rochester Medical
Center
601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 321
Rochester, NY 14642
TDD/TTY: (585) 273-3854
New York (cont.)
New York City Poison Control
Center
Nevada (cont.)
Rocky Mountain Poison & Drug
Center
777 Bannock Street
Mail Code 0180
Denver, CO 80204-4028
TDD/TTY: (303) 739-1127
New Jersey
New Jersey Poison Information and
Education System
located at University of Medicine
and Dentistry at New Jersey
65 Bergen Street
Newark, NJ 07107-3001
TDD/TTY: (973) 926-8008
New York
Central New York Poison Center
750 East Adams Street
Syracuse, NY 13210
New York (cont.)
Long Island Regional Poison and
Drug Information Center
Winthrop University Hospital
259 First Street
Mineola, NY 11501
TDD/TTY: Suffolk (516) 924-8811,
Nassau (516) 747-3323
New York (cont.)
Western New York Poison Center
Children's Hospital of Buffalo
123
 NYC Bureau of Labs, 455 First
Avenue, Room 123, Box 81
New York, NY 10016
TDD/TTY: (212) 689-9014
North Carolina
Carolinas Poison Center
Carolinas Medical Center
5000 Airport Center Parkway,
Suite B
Charlotte, NC 28208
Ohio
Central Ohio Poison Center
700 Children's Drive, Room L032
Columbus, OH 43205
TDD/TTY: (614) 228-2272
Ohio (cont.)
Greater Cleveland Poison Control
Center
11100 Euclid Avenue
Cleveland, OH 44106-6010
Oregon
Oregon Poison Center
Oregon Health Sciences University
3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road,
CB550
Portland, OR 97201
Pennsylvania
The Poison Control Center
Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
34th & Civic Center Blvd
Philadelphia, PA 19104-4303
TDD/TTY: (215) 590-8789
124
219 Bryant Street
Buffalo, NY 14222
North Dakota
Hennepin Regional Poison Center
Hennepin County Medical Center
701 Park Avenue
Minneapolis, MN 55415
TDD/TTY: (612) 904-4691
Ohio (cont.)
Cincinnati Drug & Poison
Information Center
3333 Burnet Avenue
Vernon Place - 3rd Floor
Cincinnati, OH 45229-9004
TDD/TTY: (800) 253-7955
Oklahoma
Oklahoma Poison Control Center
Children's Hospital at OU Medical
Center
940 N.E. 13th Street, Room 3510
Oklahoma City, OK 73104
TDD/TTY: (405) 271-1122
Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh Poison Center
Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh
3705 Fifth Avenue
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
Rhode Island
Regional Center for Poison Control
and Prevention Serving
Massachusetts and Rhode Island
300 Longwood Avenue
Boston, MA 02115
TDD/TTY: (888) 244-5313
 South Carolina
Palmetto Poison Center
College of Pharmacy
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC 29208
Tennessee
Middle Tennessee Poison Center
501 Oxford House
1161 21st Avenue South
Nashville, TN 37232-4632
TDD/TTY: (615) 936-2047
Texas (cont.)
North Texas Poison Center
at Parkland Memorial Hospital
5201 Harry Hines Blvd.
Dallas, TX 75235
Texas (cont.)
South Texas Poison Center
The Univ of Texas Health Science
Ctr - San Antonio
Department of Surgery,
Mail Code 7849
7703 Floyd Curl Drive
San Antonio, TX 78229-3900
Texas (cont.)
West Texas Regional Poison Center
Thomason Hospital
4815 Alameda Avenue
El Paso, TX 79905
Vermont
Northern New England Poison
Center
22 Bramhall Street
Portland, ME 04102
TDD/TTY: (877) 299-4447
South Dakota
Hennepin Regional Poison Center
Hennepin County Medical Center
701 Park Avenue
Minneapolis, MN 55415
TDD/TTY: (612) 904-4691
Texas
Central Texas Poison Center
Scott and White Memorial Hospital
2401 South 31st Street
Temple, TX 76508
Texas (cont.)
Southeast Texas Poison Center
The University of Texas Medical
Branch
3.112 Trauma Building
Galveston, TX 77555-1175
Texas (cont.)
Texas Panhandle Poison Center
1501 S. Coulter
Amarillo, TX 79106
Utah
Utah Poison Control Center
585 Komas Drive, Suite 200
Salt Lake City, UT 84108
Virginia
Blue Ridge Poison Center
Jefferson Park Place
1222 Jefferson Park Ave.
Charlottesville, VA 22903
125
 Virginia (cont.)
National Capital Poison Center
3201 New Mexico Avenue, NW,
Suite 310
Washington, DC 20016
Washington
Washington Poison Center
155 NE 100th Street, Suite 400
Seattle, WA 98125-8011
TDD/TTY: (206) 517-2394
Wisconsin
Children's Hospital of Wisconsin
Poison Center
PO Box 1997, Mail Station 677A
Milwaukee, WI 53201-1997
TDD/TTY: (414) 266-2542
(AAPCC)
126
Virginia (cont.)
Virginia Poison Center
Medical College of VA Hospitals
Virginia Commonwealth University
Health System
P.O. Box 980522
Richmond, VA 23298-0522
West Virginia
West Virginia Poison Center
3110 MacCorkle Ave, S.E.
Charleston, WV 25304
TDD/TTY: (304) 388-9698
Wyoming
Nebraska Regional Poison Center
8200 Dodge Street
Omaha, NE 68114
 11. U.S. Federal and State Agencies

Exotic animals, including venomous snakes, are often subject to government

regulation. This may include shipping and possession regulations, permitting,
licensing, or a total ban. It is imperative that all venomous herpetoculturists
abide by federal, state, and local laws and ordinances. It can be a daunting task
to research all of these regulations, particularly at the county or city level. But
these jurisdictions may have differing restrictions than the state. While the state
may allow the possession of venomous serpents, the city may prohibit them.
Knowing and following ALL laws pertaining to the keeping of venomous
species is a necessity for each responsible keeper. While it would be impossible
to list regulations for each county or city, below is a reference of federal and
state agencies that may be helpful. Actual regulations are not included, as they
tend to change regularly. The applicable agencies for each can be contacted for
further information.

Federal Agencies

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

www.fws.gov

Office of Management Authority Region 1 Office

4401 N. Fairfax Dr., Room 432 Eastside Federal Complex
Arlington, VA 22203 911 N.E. 11th Avenue
Portland, OR 97232

Region 2 Office Region 3 Office

500 Gold Ave S.W. Whipple Federal Building
Albuquerque, NM 87103 Fort Snelling, MN 55111

Region 4 Office Region 5 Office

1875 Century Center Blvd 300 Westgate Center Dr.
Atlanta, GA 30345 Hadley, MA 01035

Region 6 Office Region 7 Office

134 Union Blvd 1011 East Tudor Road
Lakewood, CO 80228 Anchorage, AK 99503

Other Federal Agencies

U.S. Department of Agriculture U.S. Department of Health and

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Human Services

127
 Service (APHIS)
4700 River Road
Riverdale, MD 20737
U.S. Food and Drug
Administration
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
State Agencies2
Alabama
Alabama Department of
Conservation and Natural Resources
Game and Fish Division
Law Enforcement Section
64 N. Union Street
Montgomery, AL 36130-1456
Arizona
Arizona Game and Fish
Department
Permits Coordinator
2221 W. Greenway Road
Phoenix, AZ 85023
California
Californian Department of Fish and
Game
Wildlife Protection Division
1416 Ninth St.
Sacramento, CA 95814
Connecticut
Connecticut Department of
Environmental Protection
Wildlife Division
79 Elm Street Richardson and Robbins Building
Hartford, CT 06102-5127
128
200 Independence Ave S.W.
Washington, DC 20201
National Marine Fisheries
Service
Silver Springs Metro Center 1
1335 East West Highway
Silver Springs, MD 20910
Alaska
Alaska Department of Fish and
Game
PO Box 25526
Juneau, AK 99802-5526
Arkansas
Arkansas Game and Fish
Commission
2 Natural Resources Drive
Little Rock, AR 72205
Colorado
Colorado Division of Wildlife
6060 Broadway
Denver, CO 80216
Delaware
Delaware Dept. of Natural
Resources Division of Fish and
Wildlife
89 Kings Highway
Dover, DE 19903
 Florida
Florida Game and Freshwater Fish
Commission
620 South Meridian Street
Tallahassee, FL 32399-1600
Hawaii
Hawaii Department of Land and
Natural Resources
1151 Punchbowl Street
Honolulu, HI 96813
Illinois
Illinois Department of Natural
Resources
Endangered Species Project
Manager
524 S. Second St., Lincoln Tower
Plaza
Springfield, IL 62701-1787
Iowa
Iowa Department of Natural
Resources
Wallace State Office Building
Des Moines, IA 50319-5145
Kentucky
Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources
#1 Game Farm Road
Frankfort, KY 40601
Maine
Maine Department of Inland
Fisheries and Wildlife
State Station House 41
Georgia
Georgia Department of Natural
Resources
Special Permit Unit
2070 U.S. Highway 278 S.E.
Social Circle, GA 30279
Idaho
Idaho Department of Fish and
Game
600 S. Walnut Street, P.O. Box 25
Boise, ID 83707
Indiana
Indiana Department of Natural
Resources
Division of Fish and Wildlife
Commercial License Clerk
Indiana Government Center
South402 W. Washington Street-
Room W273
Indianapolis, IN 46204-2267
Kansas
Kansas Department of Wildlife and
Parks
Route 2, Box 54A
Pratt, KS 67124-9599
Louisiana
Louisiana Department of Wildlife
and Fisheries
PO Box 98000
Baton Rouge, LA 70898-9000
Maryland
Maryland Department of Natural
Resources
Wildlife Division
129
 284 State Street
Augusta, ME 04333
Massachusetts
Massachusetts Division of Fisheries
and Wildlife
100 Cambridge Street
Boston, MA 02202
Minnesota
Minnesota Department of Natural
Resources
Endangered Species Permit
Coordinator
500 Lafayette Road
St. Paul, MN 55155-4001
Missouri
Missouri Department of
Conservation
2901 West Truman Boulevard
PO Box 180
Jefferson City, MO 65102-0180
Nebraska
Nebraska Game and Parks
Commission
2200 N. 33rd Street
PO Box 30370
Lincoln, NE 68503-0370
New Hampshire
New Hampshire Fish and Game
Department
2 Hazen Drive
Concord, NH 03301
New Mexico
130
Tawes State Office Building
580 Taylor Avenue
Annapolis, MD 21401
Michigan
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Stevens T. Mason Building
Box 30028
Lansing, MI 48909
Mississippi
Mississippi Department of Wildlife,
Fisheries, and Parks
Museum of Natural History
111 N. Jefferson St.
Jackson, MS 39202
Montana
Montana Department of Fish,
Wildlife, and Parks
Law Enforcement Division
1420 E. Sixth Avenue
Helena, MT 59620
Nevada
Nevada Division of Wildlife
PO Box 10678, 1100 Valley Road
Reno, NV 89520-0022
New Jersey
New Jersey Dept of Environmental
Protection and Energy
Division of Fish, Game, and
Wildlife
CN 400
Trenton, NJ 08625-0400
New York
New Mexico Department of Game
and Fish
Villagra Building
PO Box 25112
Sante Fe, NM 87504
North Carolina
North Carolina Wildlife Resources
Commission
Archdale Building
513 N. Salisbury Street
Raleigh, NC 27611
Ohio
Ohio Department of Natural
Resources
Division of Wildlife
1840 Belcher Drive
Columbus, OH 43224-1329
Oregon
Oregon Department of Fish and
Wildlife
2501 SW First Ave., PO Box 59
Portland, OR 92707
Rhode Island
Rhode Island Department of
Environmental Management
Division of Fish and Wildlife
Washington County Government
Center
Wakefield, RI 02879
South Dakota
South Dakota Department of
Game, Fish, and Parks
New York State Department of
Environmental Protection
Division of Fish and Wildlife
Special License Unit
50 Wolf Road
Albany, NY 12233
North Dakota
North Dakota Game and Fish
Department
100 North Bismarck Expressway
Bismarck, ND 58501-5095
Oklahoma
Oklahoma Department of Wildlife
Conservation
1801 North Lincoln Boulevard
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Fish and Boat
Commission
Division of Fisheries Management
Herpetology and Endangered
Species Coordinator
450 Robinson Lane
Bellefonte, PA 16823-9685
South Carolina
South Carolina Wildlife and Marine
Resources Department
Rembert C. Dennis Building,
PO Box 167
Columbia, SC 29202
Tennessee
Tennessee Wildlife Resources
Agency
131
 License Office Ellington Agricultural Center
412 West Missouri PO Box 40747
Pierre, SD 57501 Nashville, TN 37204

Texas Utah
Texas Parks and Wildlife Utah Department of Natural
Department Resources
4200 Smith School Road Division of Wildlife Resources
Austin, TX 78744 Wildlife Registration Office
1596 West North Temple
Salt Lake City, UT 84116

Vermont Virginia
Vermont Fish and Game Virginia Department of Game and
Department Inland Fisheries
Law Enforcement Division 4010 West Broad Street
103 South Main Street PO Box 11104
Waterbury, VT 05676 Richmond, VA 23230-1104

Washington West Virginia

Washington Department of Fish
and Wildlife
600 Capitol Way North
Olympia, WA 98501-1091
West Virginia Department of
Natural Resources
Division of Wildlife
PO Box 67
Elkins, WV 26241-0067

Wisconsin Wyoming
Wisconsin Department of Natural Wyoming Game and Fish
Resources Department
PO Box 7921 5400 Bishop Boulevard
Madison, WI 53791-9414 Cheyenne, WY 82006

(Levell, 1997)

132
 12. Recommended Resources and Reading

Publications
Snake Venom Poisoning, Russell, Findley. 1983
Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere Campbell, Jonathan &
Lamar, William. 2004
Venomous Snakes of the Southeast Minter, Chad. 2005
Venomous Snakes: Snakes in the Terrarium Trutnau & Stremme 2004
Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind,
Klauber, Laurence. 1982
Rattlesnake: Portrait of a Predator Rubio, Manny 1998

Online Articles

Anaphylaxis and the Venomous Keeper: What you need to know.

By Chris Harper, NREMT-P and Bryan Grieg Fry, Ph.D.
http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/97

The Legalities and Philosophies of Venomous Herpetoculture

by Thomas Eimermacher http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/100

Are You Really Prepared?

By Manny Rubio
http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/56

Venomous Keepers Under the Microscope

By Adam "Goatsby" Grayson http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/64

Should Anyone be Allowed to Keep Horses

By J. Whitfield Gibbons Ph.D. http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/9
Safe Veterinary Restraint of Venomous and Dangerous Reptiles: A manual for
responsible veterinarians and zookeepers working with venomous reptiles
By Tanyth Tyrr http://www.snakegetters.com/manuals.html

Websites
Southern Reptile Education – www.reptileeducation.com
Southern Reptile Education was founded by the author, B. W. Smith in 1998. It
is a tremendous resource for information on snakes native to the Southeastern
United States. Highlighted are educational programs and conservation efforts.

133
Midwest Custom Products – www.tongs.com
Producers of some of the finest handling equipment available. The majority of
the equipment used by the author on a daily basis are all Midwest products.

Southeastern Hot Herp Society – www.venomousreptiles.org

The SHHS is a warehouse of experience and information regarding venomous
reptiles. The website is the largest site on the internet dedicated to the
creatures. Hundreds of articles touching on every aspect of venomous
herpetology and herpetoculture are available.

Snake Getters – www.snakegetters.com

Tanyth Tyrr, the owner of this site, is one of the premier experts on veterinary
care and handling of venomous reptiles. The site is full of useful information
and fantastic articles.

The Venom Doc – www.venomdoc.com

Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry is the Deputy Director of the Australian Venom Research
Unit. His website contains a wealth of information regarding animal venom
and toxins. Additionally, there is a large interactive forum in which visitors can
ask specific questions. Dr. Fry also conducts ground breaking research relating
to venom and toxins.

WCH Clinical Toxinology Resources – www.toxinology.com

This is an extensive and easy to navigate site with a wealth of information on
venomous animals, plants, arachnids, and insects.

eMedicine – www.emedicine.com
This is an extensive medical reference website which includes some very good
envenomation protocol documentation.

Snakebite – www.surgery.ucsd.edu/ent/DAVIDSON/Snake/index.htm
This is an excellent site containing common and scientific names of many
species of venomous snakes along with a vast collection of envenomation
protocols and antivenin information.

Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake Page – www.envenomated.com

A tremendous resource on Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes, Snakebite,
venom, and field work.
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 Bibliography

Levell, John P. 1997. A Field Guide to Reptiles and the Law. 2nd Ed.,
Serpent's Tale Books, Lanesboro, MN.

Campbell, Jonathan & Lamar, William. 2004. Venomous Reptiles of the

Western Hemisphere , 1st Ed., Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY

Russell, Findley. 1983. Snake Venom Poisoning Revised Ed. Scholium Intl,
Great Neck, NY

Altimari, William. 1998. Venomous Snakes: A Safety Guide for Reptile

Keepers, Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, St. Louis, MO

Hunter, Allen. “Venom 101” [On-Line]

http://www.kingsnake.com/venom101/ (2000)

Tyrr, Tanith. “Handling Venomous Snakes Safely” [On-Line]

http://www.snakegetters.com/demo/index.html (2004)

Fry, Dr. Bryan Grieg “Snake LD50” [On-Line]

http://www.venomdoc.com/LD50/LD50men.html (2005)

Toxinology, WCH. “Snake Venoms” [On-Line]

http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?staticaction=snakes/ns-
snvenom.htm (2005)

“List of antivenoms ordered by producer defined and used by the current version of MAVIN”
[On-Line] http://www.toxinfo.org/antivenoms/Index_Product.html (2004)

Rubio, Manny. “Are You Really Prepared” [On-Line] 2000.

http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/56 (2002)

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Miami-Dade Florida Fire Rescue, www.co.miami-
dade.fl.us/MDFR/stations_units.asp

American Association of Poison Control Centers, www.aapcc.org

“Fang replacement rates in the Western Diamondback Rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox”,

LaDuc, Biology of Rattlesnakes Symposium, 2005

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 About the Author

B. W Smith, founder of Southern Reptile

Education, began working with venomous
reptiles at the age of eighteen. Through the
past ten years, he has dedicated thousands of
hours to learning, teaching, and conservation
of these magnificent creatures. In addition to
providing many educational displays and
classes each year, he also engages in volunteer
work for Georgia Department of Natural
Resources, Nature Centers, and other
institutions. In 2004, B. W. Smith organized
and executed the first Rattlesnake Roundup
Rescue. He is a licensed Wildlife Exhibitor from Georgia Department of
Natural Resources. Memberships include the Southeastern Hot Herp Society,
the Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council, and is an associate member of the
American Zoo and Aquarium Association.

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