Module 1 Introduction to welding processes ¥ Introduction ¥ Classification ¥ Fusion welding ¥ Brazing and soldering Y Solid state welding processes ¥ Advanced welding processes Y Wire additive manufacturing processes Advanced Welding Processes ¥ Laser welding ¥ Laser-assisted hybrid welding ¥ Electron beam welding ¥ Microwelding ¥ Advances in laser microwelding 43Conduction mode and keyhole mode laser welding Conduction mode > Power density less than 10° Wicm? vaporizing > The penetration is controlled by the conduction only Keyhole mode > Laser power density exceeding 10° Wem? > Molten metal starts to vaporize > opens up a blind hole (keyhole) in the molten metal VV > Vapour pressure from the hot metal keeps the hole open during the weld > Heating the workpiece above the melting temperature without > Increase the energy efficiency of welding process due to multiple reflections of beam within cavity Pulse shaping in laser welding > Pulse shaping is advantageous than steady state pulse to overcome some inherent problems during joining of materials > The instrumentation of pulse shaping over millisecond level is used for macro welding > Temporally distribution of energy within a single laser pulse > Modulation of suitable pulse shaping in time domain enables - Y optimized penetration depth Y welding of highly reflective materials Y decides the mode ie. keyhole or conduction mode welding Y crack sensitive material Power [1 Time Phases of pulse shaping - initiation of melting - starting to grow the melting - initiation of welding between two materials - stabilizing the weld between the materials - cooling down of the weld 44Pulse shaping in laser welding Power is varied over pulse time Upslope at beginning — 2 5 8 prevent thermal shock & z Downslope at end — = controlled cooling Time Large tolerance ‘Time Low peak power — melt first material and then second Crack sensitive materials material Power reduced gradually — stable the melt and cool down High peak power — to start melting Molten material — absorption rate increases Reduce power — rapidly, not gradually Power Time High reflective material Laser-assisted Hybrid welding + Hybrid welding involve use of laser in combination with a second energy source (are welding) Examples: laser with TIG, Laser with plasma, laser/MIG-MAG Laser Welding direction = A 45Laser-assisted Hybrid welding Principle = Combination of gas or solid state laser (CO, or Nd:YAG) and are welding (GTAW, GMAW or PAW) processes supply energy to the work surface = The focused laser beam impinges on the workpiece surface may cause vaporization of the workpiece material and formation of a deep vapor-filled capillary i.e. keyhole = The power of the are welding process introduces more energy to the zone of laser beam impingement causing the process gas to be ionized, thus enhances are stability = The hybrid process results in an increase in both weld penetration and welding speed as compared to each process individually = The are heats the metal and helps the laser beam absorption for welding of highly reflective aluminium surface Laser-assisted Hybrid welding Classification of Hybrid welding on the basis of selected heat source abcd arte eees at Metin Note: Hybrid laser brazing - use resist inerease the temperature of the wire. ‘The laser then is used to take the brazing alloy to a melting temperature while at the same time heating the substrate to a high enough temperature 1c¢ heating between the part and the tip ofthe wire feeding system to 46Electron beam welding + The electron beam gun has a tungsten filament which is heated, freeing electrons + The electrons are accelerated from the source with high voltage potential between a cathode and anode + The stream of electrons then pass through a hole in the anode. The beam is directed by magnetic forces of focusing and deflecting coils. + This beam is directed out and strikes the workpiece + The kinetic energy of the electrons is transferred to heat upon impact of the workpiece and cuts a perfect hole at the weld joint + Molten metal fills in behind the beam, creating a deep finished weld Electron beam welding Y Maximum amount of weld penetration with the least amount of heat input reduces distortion, Y Acleaner, stronger and homogeneous weld is produced in a vacuum ¥ The electron beam machine's vacuum environment eliminates atmospheric contaminates in the weld Y Dissimilar metal combination involving high thermal conductivity metals such as copper can be welded without preheating Y The power density of these process is higher 10° Wim’. ¥ As a consequence of the high energy concentration, the mechanism of weld pool formation is somewhat different from the normal fusion welding process 47Comparison between laser and electron beam welding Deen i Snr Weld zone and HAZ Narrow/smaller Narrow/smaller Penetration Deep penetration Moderate penetration Welding speed Very high high Shielding gas Not required ‘Nitrogen or argon shielding Vacuum chamber Required Not required Cost Very high Comparatively low Generation of X-ray Possible ‘Not possible Power efficiency 80-90% 10-20% Size of work piece Limited due to vacuum Not limited chamber EBW of dissimilar materials Deflection of beam The residual magnetism of weldments in their fixtures (in ferromagnetic materials) because of contact. with electromagnetics during welding Thermo-electric magnetic fields caused by temperature gradients in dissimilar metals (Seebeck effect) Electric currents on the wall of the vacuum chamber of an electron-beam welding unit (by interaction with eddy currents) terial Electron beam 48EBW of dissimilar materials Three different sets of dissimilar metals namely (1)Iron and Copper (2)SS 304 and Low Carbon Steel (3)Low carbon Steel and Ni-Cu alloy Seebeck effect is the conversion of heat directly into electricity Eemy = ~SVT where $ is the Seebeck coefficient and VT is the temperature gradient Fundamentals of Fusion Microwelding O Techniques for microwelding - with power similarly controlled variables such as voltage, current and travel speed von Continuous or pulse mode of energy # release afar reroferefreeeee i U Processes divided dependent upon how eo] ot lon} om |O — the heat is applied and the effect of the a heat Resistance, are (TIG, MIG and plasma) and laser Also electron beam welding could be considered for miniature welding 49Solid state bonding Y No melting of material Y Joints are made - plastic flow occurs at the interface; intimate contact and form a bond Y Microjoining processes - ultrasonic vibration or friction welding Diffusion bonding - either in the liquid or solid phase Friction Welding o Heat generation by friction — applied pressure or extensive stirring of materials © Suitable for wide range of materials including non-metals and dissimilar combination © Geometry of components is symmetric in nature © Preferably used to join components to heat sinks in the electronics industry Example: aluminium heat sinks to alumina substrates Most commonly used for attaching tubes or rods to bulk or sheet components Solid state bonding Micro friction stir welding (uFSW) = Down scaling of FSW with thicknesses of 1000 pm or less = Applications: thin walled structures, electrical, electronic and micros assemblies = Advantageous over fusion welding = Specifically useful for joining dissimilar materials CNC programmable micro-milling machines Challenges: Exit hole is left at the end of the weld Scale sensitive and careful selection of tool design and fixture Applications: Aluminium alloys, Brass, Pure copper, Aluminium to copper, Polypropylene, Polypropylene/polyethylene Welding traverse speeds: 50 and 500 mm/min Rotational speed: upto 3000 rpm Weld joints in butt, lap and spot formats Sear Th Vig aT, ted Kilo 50Solid state bonding Ultrasonic Bonding - Displacing the interfacial oxides and contaminants and using pressure to form abond - Normally high frequency vibration with a low pressure to cause plastic flow - Small rise in temperature ¥ It is commonly used for plastics, and especially for joining dissimilar materials Y Most significant process in the electronics industry ¥ Choice in cases of thermally sensitive materials ¥ Bonding force can be much lower compared to thermo-compression bonding ¥ Advantageous if materials are susceptible to deformation or cracking. Solid state bonding Diffusion Bonding ¥ Principle of solid-state diffusion - the atoms of two solid, metallic surfaces intermix themselves over time Y Diffusion is aided by intermediate heat (0.5 - 0.7 Tm) along with high pressure for a period of time Y Asperities on the two surfaces contact and plastically deform - they interlink, forming interfaces between the two surfaces ¥ Cause minimal distortion to components ¥ Prior to welding, these surfaces must be machined to as smooth a finish as economically viable, and kept as free from chemical contaminants as possible. SIMicroelectro: s wire bonding ¥ Joining between an integrated circuit or other semiconductor device Y Wire bonding is the most cost-effective and flexible interconnect technology ¥ If properly designed, wire bonding can be used at high frequency (order of GHz) Principle of the joining: ultrasonic welding Bond head oscillates at ultrasonic frequencies, scrubbing the two metals together and forming a weld ‘The bonders are capable of making a bond almost every half-second Process description: Brings together the two materials - to be bonded using heat — pressure - ultrasonic energy Referred as thermosonic bonding ” Microelectro: s wire bonding Materials Aluminium, Copper, Silver, Gold Size: 15 ym — 100 pm Shifting from gold to copper Copper It is harder than both gold and aluminium © The formation of oxides is inherent with this material © Special packaging is required in order to protect copper wire © Palladium coated copper wire is a common alternative which has shown significant resistance to corrosion ‘Types of bonding ¥ Ball bonding Y Wedge bonding 52Microelectro: s wire bonding Ultrasonic wire bonding ‘Wedge bonding - performed using aluminium wire ¥ Wire is wedge bonded at one point using ultrasonic energy ¥ Drawn out in a loop then similarly wedge bonded at the other end Y Performed at ambient temperature ¥ Drawing - directional . . Wedge Ball Ball bonding - characterised as a thermosonic proce heat (~ 150°C) is applied during the bonding process, ¥ Ball bonding with gold wire is mostly used Process: forming a small ball on the end of the wire ¥ Ball is bonded as the first joint, then the wire is drawn out in an are befor a wedge bond ¥ Able to be drawn out in any direction ttaching this as Bonding using nano-particles ‘Nano-particles: 1 — 100 nm ¥ The surface energy of a substance is related to the strength of the forces between particles ¥ Diamond and iron with much stronger forces between their particles, have higher surface energies ¥ The properties of minute particles such as nanoparticles differ from larger ones because of their high surface area to volume ratio ¥ With a large surface area, surface effects like friction have a bigger impact ¥ A surface that appears smooth is actually quite rough at the atomic level v Nano-sized particles come together - the contact areas and stresses between them increase significantly 53Bonding using nano-particles ‘Nanoparticles: Composite Ag consists of Ag metallo-organic nanoparticles and Ag,CO, particles Joining of various metals: Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Ti and Al Pressure Temperature and holding time Layer of nano-particles Sintering of nano particles between each metal Bonding using nano-particles Decomposition of oxide films is needed to activate metallurgical bonding — between sintered Ag layer and each metal Based on the shear strength of the joints, the order of bondability to each metal is as follows Ag > Cu>Ni>Ti>Al Identical to the order of free energy value of the oxide formation In reduction reaction — mainly forms CO and CO, Joint strength of Cu, Ag and Au are relatively good — the oxides are less stable and can be reduced by the organie shell Joint strength of Al and Ti are extremely less — the oxides are more stable than carbon oxides and can not be reduced easily 54Microjoining of medical components and devices Medical devices made from a wide range of materials: - ensure that they are safe to be implanted - biocompatibility and extreme reliability for human body - outer case hermetically sealed enclosure and long-term corrosion resistance Medical metals: and plastics itanium, shape memory alloys, platinum (Pt) alloys, stainless steel (316L.), Welding techniques: Resistance welding, Ultrasonic welding, transmission laser welding and radio frequency (RF)/dielectric welding (spot and seam welding). Y metal-ceramic joining techniques for orthopaedic applications and tissue adhesives and sealants for surgical applications. Microjoining of medical components and devices Challenges and issues in selecting materials + electrical and biocompatibility performance - corrosion resistance surface quality = microscale weldability - weldability of dissimilar combination of materials Materials and joining methods Platinum/Tantalum/Titanium — Resistance, laser, ultrasonic Kovar alloy/Stainless steel — Resistance, laser , brazing Lead free solders — Brazing, soldering, ultrasonic Polyurethane — laser, adhesive Silicone - adhesivesMicrojoining of medical components and devices Vascular devices: Catheters and guidewires to Different shape, size baloon angioplasty and stents i and functionaries Guidewire for catheter application: some part of the wire ~ Joining small diameter wire in butt weld configuration mostly joining of 316L SS wire to nitinol end affecter (some part) $S316L provides good torque transmission and low cost Alignment of the diameters and control in weld zone is difficult Microjoining of medical components and devices Stent (permanent implants) - typically laser cut from tube and welded on small wire ~ is collapsed and delivered in precise location - challenges of excellent surface and edge finish, control of HAZ and extreme control on orientation and laser cutting path Pumps and sensors — Several types of internal and external pumps are used Fxample: Insulin pump and left ventricular assist devices Challenges: Welding and joining of plastic foils Bonding fragile semiconductor layers to each other Microscopic circuit assembly Wire or tube attachment for interconnects 56Microjoining of medical components and devices Pacemaker manufacturing - Mainly a pulse generator and leads Pulse generators consists of - Battery —to generate electricity - Circuitry —to generate, control and deliver the pulses Battery - is hermetically laser sealed to prevent leakage of chemicals Battery and circuitry — are inside a titanium case that is hermetically laser sealed Internal circuits — connected through brazed joint Connecter block - encapsulated in a biocompatible polymer such as polyurethane — interconnected by Ti wires using laser and resistance microwelds Microjoining of medical components and devices Radioactive seed implants — internal radiation therapy has been developed as an alternative to external beam irradiation for cancer treatments - Use a radioactive substances sealed in seed that are implanted near the cancer - The cancer cell is destroyed by the energy given off as radioactive material decays Radioactive substances ~ sealed inside Ti tube by laser microwelding Laser microwelding — developed and suitable for precision manufacturing 3S7Advances in laser microwelding ‘SHADOW - Step! High-Speed Accurate and Discrete One-Pulse Welding Transforms macro laser spot welder to micro laser seam welder Maximum pulse length — diode pumped laser typically used SHADOW welding of watch components + normally used for metals and alloys Refs AM Olowinky, K = Klages, J Gediek’ SHADOW now welding technique bases nd application, Pros. SPI 662, 191-208, 2004 SHADOW (0-91 Pulse Shaped Advances in laser microwelding Laser droplet wel = Overcome gap bridging, highly reflective materials and heat sensitive materials = Liquid metal droplet is ereated at the end of a wire by pulsed laser = Pulse laser with triple optical beam splitting (normally Nd:YAG laser) = Awire feed system = A target positioning system Shielding gas supply = Mechanical positioning system Five phases cone” © droplet creation aie © droplet detachment ie poten © Droplet fight «© Droplet landing Ref abana, Eset M Gries E Over: ase © Proplet solsification Soncaon pb, SP 9 SN Application: Stainless steel, Titanium and stainless steel of 200 um thick and 200 ym gap ws Power Time 58Advances in laser microwelding Laser spike welding - Gaps in microwelding is problematic le to join even there is gap Recoil-pressure driven material flow to bridge gaps in lap joint by spot welding. Process: ‘Melting using low power in the upper layer (conduction mode) Allow sufficiently large or completely penetrated weld Increase the laser power to generate sufficient recoil pressure ‘The diaphragm-like liquid pool contact with lower layer ‘Aaherence via either superficial surface melting or a braze like adhesion ‘ling techniae ening novel rode desent Lower surface clean —braze like adhesion Lower layer is too conductive ~ difficult to join Application: Stainless steel of 250 pm thick Advances in laser microwelding TWIST — Trans n Welding by an incremental Seannl Technique Y High beam quality laser like fiber laser — easy degradation of thermoplastic materials ¥ Fast rotating and slow linear motion of focused high-quality laser beam > Local and temporal laser beam modulation strategy © Dynamic periodic beam deflection is applied to control fusion and solidification © The voids and porosity can be reduced and J formation of sharp weld seam are avoided ‘sing advanced stadiion statics, JLMN-Journal of Laser Mito Naoengineetiog, 5 Twist — welding of transparent polymers without any absorbing additives 59Thank you for your kind attention Module 1 Introduction to welding processes v Introduction ¥ Classification Fusion welding Brazing and soldering Y Solid state welding processes v Advanced welding processes Y Wire additive manufacturing processes 60Introduction additive manufacturing Y Layer by layer deposition - one layer at a time Y 3D printing and additive manufacturing are synonyms Y 3D printing/additive manufacturing is the process - rapid prototyping is the end result Common methods for producing layers in 3D printing SLA or SL: Stereolithography FDM: Fused deposition modeling SLM: Selective laser melting SLS: Selective laser sintering DMD: Direct metal deposition Introduction additive manufacturing Major AM processes based on Hopkinson and Dickens’ classification * Stereolithography + ting Systems + Direct Light Processing Selective Laser Sintering Three-Dimensional Printing Fused Metal Deposite Systems Electron Beam Melting Selective Laser Melting lective Masking Sintering lective Inhibition Sintering Electro photographic Layered Manufacturing, High (| e4 Deposition Modeling eet Stacking Technologies 61Introduction to additive manufacturing > Layer by layer manufacturing process > Creates 3D objectives - not by subtractive methods > It is additive method — Effective utilization of materials > Creates object according to 3D models > Computer interface is required > Surface roughness — post processing is required Is this optimum layer thickness? Additive manufacturing of metallic components ¥ Powder Bed Fusion ¥ Wire Feed Directed Energy Depositio Y Powder Feed Directed Energy Deposition ¥ Wire arc additive manufacturing > Fusion of successive layers of metal using a focused heat source - Laser or electron beam > Awell defined pre-programmed path > Layer thickness, surface roughness and material deposition rate - Focused beam diameter - Scanning speed - Power particle size - Power flow rate - Shielding gas type (Nitrogen/Argon) - Shielding gas flow rate - Solidification 62Additive manufacturing of metallic components - Consists of many complex physical processes Melting/solidification, solidification shrinkage, absorption, vaporization, wetting, sintering Application to metallic materials Y Stainless steel — medical grade (316L) Y Maraging steel Difficult for steel having high percentage of carbon Y Nickel and nickel alloy (Inconel) Y Aluminum and aluminum alloy Y Titanium alloy Stereolithography (SLA or SL) widely recognized as the first 3D printing process -based process that works with photopolymer resins > It react with the laser and cure to form a solid > It is generally accepted as being one of the most accurate 3D printing processes with excellent surface finish Limiting factor: - post-processing steps are required - stability of the materials over time — may more brittle 633D metal printing V 3D geometry of object - computer-aided design (CAD) files Y Slicing with layers — decide the layer thickness Y CAD file - converted to a format usually .STL format Y All date fed to 3D printer V Path of melted/solidified metal ~ controlled by XYZ movement of table or movement of laser source > Most of the metal 3D printing technologies - SLM > Transformation of powdered metal into a solid metallic object 3D metal printing Selective laser sintering (SLS) Y Use laser as the power source to sinter powdered material (mainly polymer) Y Bind the material together to create a solid structure Y mainly been used for rapid prototyping and for low-volume production of component parts Y Similar to direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) Y Same concept but differ in technical details Selective laser melting (SLM) Y Material is fully melted rather than sintered — allow different properties Y Based on powder bed system 643D metal printing Fused deposition modeling (FDM) ¥ Use a continuous filament of a material Y This is fed from a large coil ¥ Molten material is forced out of the print head's nozzle ¥ It is deposited on new layer Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) Y Use a laser to melt metallic powder ¥ It is not based on a powder bed ¥ Powders are projected through nozzle ¥ Powders are fused by focused laser beam ¥ Concept is similar to FDM, but powder is used here 3D metal printing ¥ In laser based metal 3D printing technologies - DMD is the only one not based on a powder bed YIn SLM and DMLS, the unfused metallic powder is used as support material and can be reused ¥ In DMD, supports can be required to maintain the building object ¥ In DMD almost all the powder is transformed into solid ¥ DMD technology also has the ability to comply with a freeform substrate ¥ Cooling times can be considerable for laser sintering ¥ Porosity of may be an issue for laser sintering ¥ Metal sintering requires much higher powered laser than plasticWire arc additive manufacturing Y Variation of a direct energy deposition technology but uses an welding are Y It works by consumable electrode (metal wire) of a welding system instead of powder ¥ 3D path movement is controlled either by robotic hand or simple CNC machines Y Deposition of metallic wire is often associated with some machining operation to improve the surface finish Y The deposited material is melted near melting temperature without much superheating Y Therefore, the material is deposited either by extruded in the form of beads on the substrate or in the form of molten droplets to the substrate material Wire are additive manufacturing — Benefits and limitations NNN NKNKOSN < Suitable for manufacturing large-scale metallic parts or components But powder based technology typically produces high-definition and smaller components Also powder bed fusion technology is limited by the size of the closed chamber Wire are based technology do not have such limitation The cost of welding wire is less expensive than a powder The equipment cost is also less for wire arc additive manufacturing process It is mostly suitable for repair works such as turbine blades Even the wire-out or damaged part can be repaired by wire arc additive manufacturing process Thermal management and the generation of residual stress and distortion is one of the significant problems in wire arc additive manufacturing process The resolution of the wire arc additive manufacturing process is generally poor 66Wire are additive manufacturing — Recent developments Y WAAM relies on the fundamental concepts of automatized welding processes: Gas metal are welding (GMAW), plasma are welding (PAW), and gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) Y A variant of GMAW - cold metal transfer (CMT) is suitable for additive manufacturing vIn CMT, the droplet transfer occurs with the help of electromechanical process ¥ Tandem GMAW - two wires are fed to achieve high deposition rates. This method requires a high amount of energy to maintain the arc and hence some efficient heat dissipation technique is required to control the molten pool shape. Welding to metal printing Metal transfer in arc welding GMAW, cTaw, PAW ‘Metal addition in laser welding — metal printing GMAW has also been used to develop low - cost 3D metal printer Mode of metal transfer in GMAW Continuous mode / Pulse mode GMAW - CMT Cold metal transfer (CMT) is new form of gas metal are welding (GMAW). It's not exactly cold. It is in lower temperature than regular GMAW process 67Modes of metal transfer - GMAW Transfer of molten metal from consumable electrode to the weld pool Secondary Factors Shielding gas, composition of the electrode, diameter of the electrode Current, Voltage, are gap ‘Types of metal transfer © Short Circuit Transfer — controlled to some extent © Globular Transfer — slow process, bigger droplet © Spray Transfer — small droplet size Cold metal transfer (CMT) Y¥ CMTis actually a part of GMAW Y In principle, it works at reduced welding current and retracting the weld wire at a short circuit condition Y Ensure a drop-by-drop deposit of weld material. ¥ First developed for thin materials with strict control of weld parameters © Now-a-days, the welding of dissimilar metals and thicker materials along with improved weld bead aesthetics are developed © It is one of the option of metal printing technology development, > CMT process is developed by Fronius of Austria in 2004. > This process differs from GMAW in terms of mechanical droplet dethatching method 68GMAW-Based 3D Metal Printing Useful for large volume of material deposition Surface roughness very high Precision and small scale is not feasible Metal transfer ~ significant Pulsed MIG to supply controlled number of small droplets Movement of welding troch 3D CNC bed Stepper motor ad scr Stl fil Thank you for your kind attention End of Module 1 Finite Element Modelling of Welding processes 18 69