1

Heat Flow and Temperature Distribution in

Welding

1.1 Introduction

Welding metallurgy is concerned with the application of well-known metallurgical principles

for assessment of chemical and physical reactions occurring during welding. On purely prac-
tical grounds it is nevertheless convenient to consider welding metallurgy as a profession of its
own because of the characteristic non-isothermal nature of the process. In welding the reac-
tions are forced to take place within seconds in a small volume of metal where the thermal
conditions are highly different from those prevailing in production, refining and fabrication of
metals and alloys. For example, steel welding is characterised by:

High peak temperatures, up to several thousand 0 C.

High temperature gradients, locally of the order of 103 0C mm"1.
Rapid temperature fluctuations, locally of the order of 103 0C s 1 .

It follows that a quantitative analysis of metallurgical reactions in welding requires detailed

information about the weld thermal history. From a practical point of view the analytical
approach to the solution of heat flow problems in welding is preferable, since this makes it
possible to derive relatively simple equations which provide the required background for an
understanding of the temperature-time pattern. However, because of the complexity of the
heat flow phenomena, it is always necessary to check the validity of such predictions against
more reliable data obtained from numerical calculations and in situ thermocouple measure-
ments. Although the analytical models suffer from a number of simplifying assumptions, it is
obvious that these solutions in many cases are sufficiently accurate to provide at least a quali-
tative description of the weld thermal programme.
An important aspect of the present treatment is the use of different dimensionless groups
for a general outline of the temperature distribution in welding. Although this practice in-
volves several problems, it is a convenient way to reduce the total number of variables to an
acceptable level and hence, condense general information about the weld thermal programme
into two-dimensional (2-D) maps or diagrams. Consequently, readers who are unfamiliar with
the concept should accept the challenge and try to overcome the barrier associated with the use
of such dimensionless groups in heat flow analyses.

1.2 Non-Steady Heat Conduction

The symbols and units used throughout this chapter are defined in Appendix 1.1.
Since heat losses from free surfaces by radiation and convection are usually negligible in
welding, the temperature distribution can generally be obtained from the fundamental differ-
ential equations for heat conduction in solids. For uniaxial heat conduction, the governing
equation can be written as:1

(i-D

where T is the temperature, t is the time, x is the heat flow direction, and a is the thermal
diffusivity. The thermal diffusivity is related to the thermal conductivity X and the volume
heat capacity pc through the following equation:

(1-2)

For biaxial and triaxial heat conduction we may write by analogy:1

d-3)
and

(1-4)

The above equations must clearly be satisfied by all solutions of heat conduction problems,
but for a given set of initial and boundary conditions there will be one and only one solution.

1.3 Thermal Properties of Some Metals and Alloys

A pre-condition for obtaining simple analytical solutions to the differential heat flow equa-
tions is that the thermal properties of the base material are constant and independent of tem-
perature. For most metals and alloys this is a rather unrealistic assumption, since both X, a,
and pc may vary significantly with temperature as illustrated in Fig. 1.1. In addition, the
thermal properties are also dependent upon the chemical composition and the thermal history
of the base material (see Fig. 1.2), which further complicates the situation.
By neglecting such effects in the heat flow models, we impose several limitations on the
application of the analytical solutions. Nevertheless, experience has shown that these prob-
lems to some extent can be overcome by the choice of reasonable average values for X, a and
pc within a specific temperature range. Table 1.1 contains a summary of relevant thermal
properties for different metals and alloys, based on a critical review of literature data. It should
be noted that the thermal data in Table 1.1 do not include a correction for heat consumed in
melting of the parent materials. Although the latent heat of melting is temporarily removed
during fusion welding, experience has shown this effect can be accounted for by calibrating
the equations against a known isotherm (e.g. the fusion boundary). In practice, such correc-
tions are done by adjusting the arc efficiency factor Tq until a good correlation is achieved
between theory and experiments.
 Carbon steel
Hx-H0 = PC(T-T0 ),J/mm3

Temperature, 0C

Fig. 1.1. Enthalpy increment H7-H0 referred to an initial temperature T0 = 200C. Data from Refs.
2-4.

Table 1.1 Physical properties for some metals and alloys. Data from Refs 2 - 6 .

Material (WrTIm-10C-1) (mm2 s"1) (Jmnr 3 0C"1) (0C) (J mnr 3 ) (J mnr 3 )

Carbon 0.040 8 0.005 1520 7.50 2.0

Steels
Low Alloy 0.025 5 0.005 1520 7.50 2.0
Steels
High Alloy 0.020 4 0.005 1500 7.40 2.0
Steels
Titanium 0.030 10 0.003 1650 4.89 1.4
Alloys
Aluminium 0.230 85 0.0027 660 1.73 0.8
(> 99% Al)
Al-Mg-Si 0.167 62 0.0027 652 1.71 0.8
Alloys
Al-Mg 0.149 55 0.0027 650 1.70 0.8
Alloys

Does not include the latent heat of melting (AH1n).

 (a)

X9 W/mm 0C

Temperature, 0C

(b)
High alloy steel
X, W/mm 0C

Temperature, 0C

Fig. 1.2. Factors affecting the thermal conductivity X of steels; (a) Temperature level and chemical
composition, (b) Heat treatment procedure. Data from Refs. 2-4.

1.4 Instantaneous Heat Sources

The concept of instantaneous heat sources is widely used in the theory of heat conduction.1 It
is seen from Fig. 1.3 that these solutions are based on the assumption that the heat is released
instantaneously at time t - 0 in an infinite medium of initial temperature T0, either across a
plane (uniaxial conduction), along a line (biaxial conduction), or in a point (triaxial conduc-
tion). The material outside the heat source is assumed to extend to x = + °° for a plane source
in a long rod, to r = °° for a line source in a wide plate, or to R = °° for a point source in a heavy
slab. The initial and boundary conditions can be summarised as follows:
 T-T0 = oo for t = O and x = O (alternatively r = O or R = O)
T-J 0 = O for t = O and x * O (alternatively r > O or 7? > O)
7-T 0 = O for O < t < oo when x = ± oo (alternatively r = oo or R = oo).

It is easy to verify that the following solutions satisfy both the basic differential heat flow
equations (1-1), (1-3) and (1-4) and the initial and boundary conditions listed above:

(i) Plane source in a long rod (Fig. 1.3a):

d-5)

where Q is the net heat input (energy) released at time t = O, and A is the cross section of the
rod.

(ii) Line source in a wide plate (Fig. 1.3b):

(1-6)
where d is the plate thickness.

(iii) Point source in a heavy slab (Fig. 1.3c):

(1-7)

Equations (1-5), (1-6) and (1-7) provide the required basis for a comprehensive theoretical
treatment of heat flow phenomena in welding. These solutions can either be applied directly
or be used in an integral or differential form. In the next sections a few examples will be given
to illustrate the direct application of the instantaneous heat source concept to problems related
to welding.

(a) T

Fig. 1.3. Schematic representation of instantaneous heat source models; (a) Plane source in a long rod.
 (b) T

X y

(C)

Fig. 1.3.Schematic representation of instantaneous heat source models (continued); (b) Line source in a
wide plate, (c) Point source in a heavy slab.
 1.5 Local Fusion in Arc Strikes

The series of fused metal spots formed on arc ignition make a good case for application of
equation (1-7).

Model
The model considers a point source on a heavy slab as illustrated in Fig. 1.4. The heat is
assumed to be released instantaneously at time t = 0 on the surface of the slab. This causes a
temperature rise in the material which is exactly twice as large as that calculated from equation
(1-7):
(1-8)

In order to obtain a general survey of the thermal programme, it is convenient to write

equation (1-8) in a dimensionless form. The following parameters are defined for this pur-
pose:
— Dimensionless temperature:

(1-9)

where Tc is the chosen reference temperature.

— Dimensionless time:
d-10)

where tt is the arc ignition time.

— Dimensionless operating parameter:

(1-11)

where qo is the net arc power (equal to Qlt(), and (Hc-Ho) is the heat content per unit volume at
the reference temperature.

— Dimensionless radius vector:

(1-12)

By substituting these parameters into equation (1-8), we obtain:

(1-13)
 Heat source

Isotherms

3-D heat flow

Fig. 1.4. Instantaneous point source model for assessment of temperatures in arc strikes.

e/n Linear time scale

0Zn1

T1

^i

Fig. 1.5. Calculated temperatures in arc strikes.

Equation (1-13) has been solved numerically for different values ofCT1and T1. The results
are presented graphically in Fig. 1.5. Due to the inherent assumption of instantaneous release
of heat in a point, it is not possible to use equation (1-13) down to very small values OfCT1 and
T1. However, at some distance from the heat source and after a time not much shorter than the
real (assumed) time of heating, the calculated temperature-time pattern will be reasonably
correct. Note that the heavy broken line in Fig. 1.5 represents the locus of the peak tempera-
tures. This locus is obtained by setting 3In(OAi1VdT1 = 0:
from which

Substituting this into equation (1-13) gives:

(1-14)

where Qp is the peak temperature, and e is the natural logarithm base number.

Example (1.1)
Consider a small weld crater formed in an arc strike on a thick plate of low alloy steel. Calcu-
late the cooling time from 800 to 5000C (Af875), and the total width of the fully transformed
region adjacent to the fusion boundary. The operational conditions are as follows:

where r| is the arc efficiency factor. Relevant thermal data for low alloy steel are given in
Table 1.1.

Solution
In the present case it is convenient to use the melting point of the steel as a reference tempera-
ture (i.e. 0 = 0m = 1 when Tc = TJ. The corresponding values OfZi1 and 9 (at 800 and 5000C,
respectively) are:

Cooling time At8/5

Since the cooling curves in Fig. 1.5 are virtually parallel at temperatures below 800 0 C, Af875
will be independent of Cr1 and similar to that calculated for the centre-line ((J1 = 0). By rear-
ranging equation (1-13) we get:
and

Total width offully transformed region

Zone widths can generally be calculated from equation (1-14), as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. Tak-
ing the Ac3-temperature equal to 8900C for this particular steel, we obtain:

and

Alternatively, the same information could have been read from Fig. 1.5. Although it is
difficult to check the accuracy of these predictions, the calculated values for Ats/5 and ARlm are
considered reasonably correct. Thus, because the cooling rate is very large, in arc strikes a
hard martensitic microstructure would be expected to form within the transformed parts of the
HAZ, in agreement with general experience.

1.6 Spot Welding

Equation (1-6) can be used for an assessment of the temperature-time pattern in spot welding
of plates.

Model
The model considers a line source which penetrates two overlapping plates of similar thermal
properties, as illustrated in Fig. 1.7. The heat is assumed to be released instantaneously at time

Heat source

Fig. 1.6. Definition of isothermal zone width in Example (1.1).

 Electrode

Heat source d

Fig. 1.7. Idealised heat flow model for spot welding of plates.

t = 0. If transfer of heat into the electrodes is neglected, the temperature distribution is given
by equation (1-6).
This equation can be written in a dimensionless form by introducing the following group of
parameters:

— Dimensionless time:
(1-15)

where th is the heating time (i.e. the duration of the pulse).

— Dimensionless operating parameter:

(1-16)

where dt is the total thickness of the joint.

— Dimensionless radius vector:

(1-17)

By substituting these parameters into equation (1-6), we get:

(1-18)

where 6 denotes the dimensionless temperature (previously defined in equation (1-9)).

 Linear time scale

e/n2
6/n2

T
2

T2

Fig. 1.8. Calculated temperature-time pattern in spot welding.

Figure 1.8 shows a graphical representation of equation (1-18) for a limited range of a 2 and
T2. A closer inspection of the graph reveals that the temperature-time pattern in spot welding
is similar to that observed during arc ignition (see Fig. 1.5). The locus of the peak tempera-
tures in Fig. 1.8 is obtained by setting d\n{^ln7}ldx2 - 0.

which gives

and

(1-19)

Example (1.2)
Consider spot welding of 2 mm plates of low alloy steel under the following operational con-
ditions:
Calculate the cooling time from 800 to 5000C (Af8/5) in the centre of the weld, and the cooling
rate (CR.) at the onset of the austenite to ferrite transformation. Assume in these calculations
that the total voltage drop between the electrodes is 1.6 V. The M^-temperature of the steel is
taken equal to 475°C.

Solution
If we use the melting point of the steel as a reference temperature, the parameters n2 and 6 (at
800 and 5000C, respectively) become:

Cooling time Atg/5

The parameter A%5 can be calculated from equation (1-18). For the weld centre-line (CT2 = 0),
we get:

and

Cooling rate at 475 0C

The cooling rate at a specific temperature is obtained by differentiation of equation (1-18) with
respect to time. When (J2 = 0 the cooling rate at 9 = 0.3 (475°C) becomes:

and

Since the cooling curves in Fig. 1.8 are virtually parallel at temperatures below 8000C (i.e.
for QZn2 < 0.15), the computed values of Ar8/5 and CR. are also valid for positions outside the
weld centre-line. In the present example the centre-line solutions can be applied down to
(°"2m)2 ~ 2. According to equation (1-19), this corresponds to a lower peak temperature of:

which is equivalent with:

 It should be emphasised that the present heat flow model represents a crude oversimplifica-
tion of the spot welding process. In a real welding situation, most of the heat is generated at the
interface between the two plates because of the large contact resistance. This gives rise to the
development of an elliptical weld nugget inside the joint as shown in Fig. 1.9. Moreover, since
the model neglects transfer of heat into the electrodes, the mode of heat flow will be mixed and
not truly two-dimensional as assumed above. Consequently, equation (1-18) cannot be ap-
plied for reliable predictions of isothermal contours and zone widths. Nevertheless, the model
may provide useful information about the cooling conditions during spot welding if the effi-
ciency factor if] and the voltage drop between the electrodes can be estimated with a reasonable
degree of accuracy.
A more refined heat flow model for spot welding is presented in Appendix 1.2.

1.7 Thermit Welding

Thermit welding is a process that uses heat from exothermic chemical reactions to produce
coalescence between metals and alloys. The thermit mixture consists of two components, i.e.
a metal oxide and a strong reducing agent. The excess heat of formation of the reaction prod-
uct provides the energy source required to form the weld.

Model
In thermit welding the time interval between the ignition of the powder mixture and the com-
pletion of the reduction process will be short because of the high reaction rates involved.
Assume that a groove of width 2L1 is filled instantaneously at time t = 0 by liquid metal of an
initial temperature Tt (see Fig. 1.10). The metal temperature outside the fusion zone is T0. If
heat losses to the surroundings are neglected, the problem can be treated as uniaxial conduc-
tion where the heat source (extending from -L 1 to +L1) is represented by a series of elementary
sources, each with a heat content of:

(1-20)

At time t this source produces a small rise of temperature at position JC, given by equation (1 -5):

(1-21)

The final temperature distribution is obtained by substituting u = (x-xy(4at)m (i.e. dx'-

- du(4at)m) into equation (1-21) and integrating between the limits JC'= -L 1 and x'- +L1. This
gives (after some manipulation):

(1-22)
 Isl'srau*'*'=]

Fusion zone

Fig. 1.9. Calculated peak temperature contours in spot welding of steel plates (numerical solution). Op-
erational conditions: / = 23kA, 64 cycles. Data from Bently et al1

Fusion zone

Fig. 1.10. Idealised heat flow model for thermit welding of rails.

where erf(u) is the Gaussian error function. The error function is defined in Appendix 1.3*.
Because of the complex nature of equation (1-22), it is convenient to present the different
solutions in a dimensionless form by introducing the following groups of parameters:

*The error function is available in tables. However, in numerical calculations it is more convenient to use the
Fortran subroutine given in Appendix 1.3.
 Dimensionless temperature:
(1-23)

Dimensionless time:

(1-24)

Dimensionless jc-coordinate:
(1-25)

Substituting these parameters into equation (1-22) gives:

(1-26)

Equation (1-26) has been solved numerically for different values of Q and T3. The results
are presented graphically in Fig. 1.11. As would be expected, the fusion zone itself (Q < 1)
cools in a monotonic manner, while the temperature in positions outside the fusion boundary
(Q > 1) will pass through a maximum before cooling. The locus of the HAZ peak temperatures
in Fig. 1.11 is defined by 3673T3 = 0. Referring to Appendix 1.3, we may write:

which gives

(1-27)

The peak temperature distribution is obtained by solving equation (1-27) for different com-
binations of Qm and T3m and inserting the roots into equation (1-26).

Example (1.3)
Consider thermit welding of steel rails (i.e. reduction of Fe2O3 with Al powder) under the
following operational conditions:

Calculate the cooling time from 800 to 5000C in the centre of the weld, and the total width
of the fully transformed region adjacent to the fusion boundary. The Ac3-temperature of the
steel is taken equal to 8900C.
 Definition of parameters:
91

T
3

Fig. 1.11. Calculated temperature-time pattern in thermit welding.

Solution
For positions along the weld centre-line (Q. = 0) equation (1-26) reduces to:

Cooling time At 8/5

From the above relation it is possible to calculate the cooling time from Tt = 22000C to 800 and
5000C, respectively:

and

By rearranging equation (1-24), we obtain the following expression for Ar875:

 The computed value for A/8/5 is also valid for positions outside the weld centre-line, since
the cooling curves at such low temperatures are reasonably parallel within the fusion zone.

Total width of fully transformed region

The fusion boundary is defined by:

The locus of the 8900C isotherm in temperature-time space can be read from Fig. 1.11.
Taking the ordinate equal to 0.40, we get:

By inserting this value into equation (1-27), we obtain the corresponding coordinate of the
isotherm:

The total width of the fully transformed HAZ is thus:

Unfortunately, measurements are not available to check the accuracy of these predictions.
Systematic errors would be expected, however, because of the assumption of instantaneous
release of heat immediately after powder ignition and the neglect of heat losses to the sur-
roundings. Nevertheless, the present example is a good illustration of the versatility of the
concept of instantaneous heat sources, since these solutions can easily be added in space as
shown here or in time for continuous heat sources (to be discussed below).

1.8 Friction Welding

Friction welding is a solid state joining process that produces a weld under the compressive
force contact of one rotating and one stationary workpiece. The heat is generated at the weld
interface because of the continuous rubbing of the contact surfaces, which, in turn, causes a
temperature rise and subsequent softening of the material. Eventually, the material at the
interface starts to flow plastically and forms an up-set collar. When a certain amount of up-
setting has occurred, the rotation is stopped and the compressive force is maintained or slightly
increased to consolidate the weld.

Model (after Rykalin et al.5j

The model considers a continuous (plane) heat source in a long rod as shown in Fig. 1.12(a).
The heat is liberated at a constant rate q'o in the plane x = 0 starting at time / = 0. If we
subdivide the time t during which the source operates into a series of infinitesimal elements dt/
(Fig. 1.12b), each element will have a heat content of:

(1-28)
 (a)
Continuous heat source

(b) q

t
Fig. 1.12. Idealised heatflowmodel for friction welding of rods; (a) Sketch of model, (b) Subdivision of
time into a series of infinitesimal elements dt'.

At time / this heat will cause a small rise of temperature in the material, in correspondance
with equation (1-5):

(1-29)

If we substitute t"=t-1'into equation (1 -29), the total temperature rise at time t is obtained
by integrating from t"= t (t'= 0) to /"= 0 (t'= t):

(1-30)

In order to evaluate this integral, we will make use of the following mathematical transfor-
mation:
where

and

Hence, we may write:

The latter integral can be expressed in terms of the complementary error function* erfc{u)
by substituting:

and integrating between the limits u = x I (4at)l/2 and w = <*>.

This gives (after some manipulation):

(1-31)

If the temperature of the contact section at the end of the heating period is taken equal to Th,
equation (1-31) can be rewritten as:

(1-32)

where t'h denotes the duration of the heating period (t < t'h). Measured contact section tem-
peratures for different metal/alloy combinations are given in Table 1.2.
Equation (1-32) may be presented in a dimensionless form by the use of the following
groups of parameters:

Dimensionless temperature:
(1-33)

Dimensionless time:
(1-34)

The complementary error function is defined in Appendix 1.3.

Table 1.2 Measured contact section temperatures during friction welding of some metals and alloys.
Data from Tensi et al.10

Metal/Alloy Measuring Temperature Level Partial

Combination Method [0C] Melting

Steel Thermocouples 1080-1340 No

1
Steel-Nickel Direct readings 1260-1400 No/Yes
Steel-Titanium Direct readings1 1080 No
1
Copper-Al Direct readings 548 Yes
1
Copper-Nickel Direct readings 1083 Yes
Al-Cu-2Mg Thermocouples 506 Yes
Al-4.3Cu Thermocouples 562 Yes
Al-12Si Thermocouples 575 Yes
Al-5Mg Thermocouples 582 Yes

Based on direct readings of the voltage drop between the two work-pieces.

— Dimensionless .^-coordinate:
(1-35)

By substituting these parameters into equation (1-32), we obtain:

(1-36)

Equation (1-36) describes the temperature in different positions from the weld contact sec-
tion during the heating period. However, when the rotation stops, the weld will be subjected to
free cooling, since there is no generation of heat at the interface. As shown in Fig. 1.13(a) this
can be accounted for by introducing an imaginary heat source of power +qo at time t = t'h
which acts simultaneously with an imaginary heat sink of negative power -q o. It follows from
the principles of superposition (see Fig. 1.13b) that the temperature during the cooling period
is given by:9
(1-37)

where 6"(x4) and 6"(T 4 - 1) are the temperatures calculated for the heat source and the heat
sink, respectively, using equation (1-36).
Equations (1-36) and (1-37) have been solved numerically for different values of Q'and T4.
The results are presented graphically in Fig. 1.14. Considering the contact section (Q'= 0), the
temperature increases monotonically with time during the heating period, in correspondance
with the relationship:
(1-38)
 q
(a)

Imaginary heat source

Real heat
source
t

Imaginary heat sink

e"
(b)

Heating
period
$ffl9

Fig. 1.13. Method for calculation of transient temperatures during friction welding; (a) Sketch of
imaginary heat source/heat sink model, (b) Principles of superposition.

Similarly, for the cooling period we get:

(1-39)

Outside the contact section (Q / > 0), the temperature rise will be smaller and the cooling
rate lower than that calculated from equations (1-38) and (1-39).
 Heating Cooling
e"

Fig. 1.14. Calculated temperature-time pattern in friction welding.

Example (1.4)
Consider friction welding of 026mm aluminium rods (Al-Cu-2Mg) under the following con-
ditions:

Calculate the peak temperature distribution across the joint. Assume in these calculations
that the thermal diffusivity of the Al-Cu-2Mg alloy is 70mm2 s"1.

Solution
Readings from Fig. 1.14 give:
 Next Page

In this particular case, it is possible to check the accuracy of the calculations against in situ
thermocouple measurements carried out on friction welded components made under similar
conditions. A comparison with the data in Fig. 1.15 shows that the model is quite successful in
predicting the HAZ peak temperature distribution. In contrast, the weld heating and cooling
cycles cannot be reproduced with the same degree of precision. This has to do with the fact
that the present analytical solution omits a consideration of the plastic straining occurring
during friction welding, which displaces the coordinates and alters the heat balance for the
system.

1.9 Moving Heat Sources and Pseudo-Steady State

In most fusion welding processes the heat source does not remain stationary. In the following
we shall assume that the source moves at a constant speed along a straight line, and that the net
power supply from the source is constant. Experience shows that such conditions lead to a
fused zone of constant width. This is easily verified by moving a tungsten arc across a sheet of
steel or aluminium, or by moving a soldering iron across a piece of lead or tin. Moreover,
zones of temperatures below the melting point also remain at constant width, as indicated by
the pattern of temper colours developed on welding ground or polished sheet.
It follows from the definition of pseudo-steady state that the temperature will not vary with
time when observed from a point located in the heat source. Under such conditions the tem-
perature field around the source can be described as a temperature 'mountain' moving in the
direction of welding (e.g. see Fig. 15 in Ref. 11). For points along the weld centre-line, the
temperature at different positions away from the heat source (which for a constant welding
speed becomes a time axis) may be presented in a two-dimensional plot as indicated in Fig.
1.16. Specifically, this figure shows a schematic representation of the temperature in steel
welding from the base plate ahead of the arc to well into the solidified weld metal trailing the
arc. If we consider a fixed point on the weld centre-line, the temperature will increase very
rapidly during the initial period, reaching a maximum of about 2000-22000C for positions
immediately beneath the root of the arc.11 When the arc has passed, the temperature will start
to fall, and eventually (after long times) approach that of the base plate. In contrast, an ob-
server moving along with the heat source will always see the same temperature landscape,
since this will not change with time according to the presuppositions.
It will be shown below that the assumption of pseudo-steady state largely simplifies the
mathematical treatment of heat flow during fusion welding, although it imposes certain re-
strictions on the options of the models.

1.10 Arc Welding

Arc welding is a collective term which includes the following processes*:

- Shielded metal arc (SMA) welding.

- Gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding.
- Gas metal arc (GMA) welding.
*The terminology used here is in accordance with the American Welding Society's recommendations. 12