Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems 39: 365–391, 2004.

365
© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Conceptual Design of an AUV Equipped with a

Three Degrees of Freedom Vectored Thruster

EMANUELE CAVALLO⋆ and RINALDO C. MICHELINI

Mechanics and Machine Design Department, University of Genova, Via all’Opera Pia 15/A,
16145 Genova, Italy; e-mail: cavallo@dimec.unige.it

VLADIMIR F. FILARETOV
Far Eastern State Technical University, 10 Pushkinskaya Str., 690600, Vladivostok, Russia

(Received: 26 May 2003; in final form: 30 November 2003)

Abstract. The early stages of design and simulation of a new concept, autonomous underwater
vehicle equipped with vectored thrusters is investigated. The opportunity to increase the research
effort in innovative solutions for AUV propulsion and guidance systems is related to the state-of-
the-art analysis. The dynamics of submersibles is briefly recalled, to justify the choice to equip the
vehicle with a three degrees of freedom mechanism capable to orient both the propeller and the
stabilising tail-fins. The vehicle presented has to be considered as a “concept submersible”, that
needs further improvements and tuning to become a completely running test-bench for navigation
system assessment. A tailored simulation package and results are also described, in order to perform
a wide ranging numerical test campaign to foresee life cycle behaviour.

Key words: autonomous underwater vehicles, 3 dof vectored thruster, integrated path-and-attitude
follower.

1. Introduction
This study deals with the design process of a new-concept powering and steering
system for an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle, developed to exceed the limita-
tions inherent in existing settings. Presently, a big effort is made to realise everyday
use AUVs, enhancing the robustness of navigation control and autonomy, studying
ease of use interfaces and reducing the size of the vehicle (Amat et al., 1999). The
need for better manoeuvrability and agility stimulated the research and develop-
ment of sophisticated real time control systems (Filaretov and Kiheney, 2000). As
a matter of fact, a large number of papers have been written dealing with the
problem of underwater vehicles control, aiming at new solutions and strategies.
However, contemporary AUVs need several actuated degrees of freedom, in order
to ensure good manoeuvrability. Therefore, underwater vehicles, as a rule, have
4–6 thrusters. This setting increases considerably the vehicle’s size and weight, and
deteriorates its dynamical properties emphasising the disturbing effects of a fluid
⋆ Corresponding author.
366 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

environment (viscous friction, added mass and added moment of inertia), notably,
in the face of unpredictable water turbulences and marine currents. The design of
a compact and nimble vehicle requires the development of a unified propulsion-
and-regulation system that can change its orientation and takes care of the AUV’s
motion along arbitrary space trajectories. Obviously, this entails the definition of
convenient control strategies, purposely tailored for the specific problem.
Our idea is to design a cost-effective vehicle, by means of a new concept inte-
grated solution for propulsion and guidance. The new design addresses a stream-
lined body, lacking fins and hydroplanes, as the direction control is delegated to the
pivoting thruster located in the vehicle’s stern, with adaptive roll torque compensa-
tion; the set-up assures low drag forces and high manoeuvrability at low speed, as
described in the following.
The state-of-the-art investigations highlight that very little research has been
developed in the design of vectored thruster AUVs, and few prototypes, equipped
with two degrees of freedom, pan and tilt-like mechanism, exist to test this propul-
sion system (Le Page and Holappa, 2000); however, the compensation of the pro-
peller torque at different speeds and mission conditions seems to have been ne-
glected.
Therefore, the present investigation explicitly deals with a three degrees of
freedom, full parallel, spherical mechanism, developed to perform the orientation
of the AUV tail, where the propeller is located: two mobilities are used to orient
the thruster, around the yaw and pitch angles; the third degree of freedom is used
to generate a moment on the body, in order to nullify the effect of the screw torque
around the path axis (roll angle).

2. Task Setting
This paper deals mainly with three different tasks:
• to elaborate and investigate a new concept design of the AUV equipped with
a vectored thruster located on the body’s stern;
• to develop a device able to contrast the reaction torque due to the propeller
motion in the fluid; and:
• to design a control system for the special 3 dof spherical mechanism.
In order to explain the behaviour of the submersible, a compact description
of submerged body dynamics is given with insights on the benefits of vectored
thrust propulsion, and whether the propeller torque compensation is achieved. The
orienting device is described and the noteworthy characteristics and parameters are
discussed.
The paper takes into account the disturbing effect that the screw propeller causes
on the submersible during its motion. This fact, which causes considerable de-
viation from the desired trajectory, is specially felt in the control of small and
light vehicles. To increase the control capabilities of the vehicle, a counter rotation
device coupled with the propulsion rig has been studied. This does not increase
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 367

the complexity of the system, as the spherical mechanism supplies the required
mobility without structural modification.
The control system for the special spherical mechanism with 3 dof is finally ad-
dressed. Some simulation results are also provided to demonstrate the advantages
of the proposed solution.

3. The Vehicle’s Dynamics

The dynamical behaviour of a generic AUV with vectored propeller is considered,
mainly, within the approximation of small roll, pitch and yaw φ, θ and ψ (aero-
nautical angles), and of low-speed manoeuvres. The equations of motion refer to
the body-solid co-ordinate frame FAUV (Gxyz) (see Figure 1), with: the origin
located in the vehicle’s centre of gravity G; the x axis directed onward at the front
of the body; the z axis, from the CoG through the centre of buoyancy (or in any
generic transversal direction with pitch θ, if CoG and CoB coincide); the y axis,
from the CoG, to complete the frame; they might be assumed to be in principal

TRANSLATIONS SURGE SWAY HEAVE

Position x y z
Linear vel. u v w
Force X Y Z

ROTATIONS ROLL PITCH YAW

Angle φ θ ψ
Angular vel. p q r
Moment K M N

Figure 1. Degrees of freedom of the submersible body.

368 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Figure 2. Forces and moments acting on the AUV.

inert. To obtain the vehicle trajectory, the motion is transferred to the world co-
ordinate frame Fw (OXY Z) by the local (inertial, etc.) or global (sonar driven, etc.)
navigator, computing the actual range vector r = (G − O) and rotation matrix R.
This leads to the generalised position vector: η = [X, Y, Z, φ, θ, ψ]T , giving the
location of the CoG and the vehicle attitude around it.
Within the vehicle coordinate system FAUV(Gxyz), the nonlinear dynamics can
refer to the rigid body Euler’s description, making use of the velocity vector V =
[vT , ωT ]T , where: v = [u, v, w]T , specifies the surge, sway and heave components;
and ω = [p, q, r]T ≈ [φ̇, θ̇ , ψ̇]T , the roll, pitch and yaw angular speeds.
Differently to standard underwater vehicles, the propulsion system presented in
this paper consists of a ducted propeller, with rotation axis T that can be:
• oriented, by tilt (about y) and pan (about z) angles, to modify the trajectory
for either vertical, or lateral bending; and
• twisted, by a rotation angle (around x).
The thruster characteristics are, thus, ruled by the screw rotation speed n, and
by the three angles: δr , δd and δt , that express the rudder depth and lateral set-ups
and the twist angle off-set (Figure 2). The layout allows to suppress independent
rudders and fins, with the related control blocks, since the propulsion and guidance
tasks are supplied by the vectored self-compensating propeller assembly. The vec-
tor (P G), which defines the location of the thruster pivoting point with respect to
the body frame, is defined once the kinematics of the bearing articulated wrist is
known.

3.1. THE REFERENCE MODEL

The equations of motion of the 6 dof solid body immersed in a fluid, within the
recalled considerations, are, thereafter, given by the matrix relation:

Mv̇ + C(v̇)v̇ + D(v̇)v̇ + g(η) = τ + τE , (3.1)

AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 369

where
M ∈ R6×6 : global mass matrix including rigid body inertia matrix and
hydrodynamic added mass;
6×6
C ∈ R : nonlinear Coriolis and centripetal matrix, including rigid body
and added mass terms;
6×6
D ∈ R : nonlinear damping matrix;
V ∈ R6×6 : viscous damping matrix, including drag and lift forces contributes;
g ∈ R6×1 : vector collecting field restoring forces components;
τE ∈ R6×1 : environment (waves and currents) forces vector;
τ ∈ R6×1 : propulsion and guidance forces vector.

A short introduction and classification of the effects modifying underwater ve-

hicles motion is provided, to specify the aims of the study. The paper does not
investigate hydro-mechanical principles, pertinent to submersible design, that need
extended treatment to be fully assessed; the interested reader might refer to de-
tailed works by, e.g., (Allmendinger, 1990; Randall, 1997). In a landmark work
on marine vehicles (Fossen, 1994), AUVs, surface ships and high speed crafts,
professor Fossen categorised in three groups the actions deriving from motion
through fluids: (a) radiation induced forces, in which take place added mass forces,
hydrodynamic damping and restoring forces; (b) propulsion forces, that include
propeller(s) thrust(s) and control surfaces actions, applied by the fluid on rudder,
fins and hydroplanes; and (c) environmental forces like submarine currents, waves
and, for vehicles moving on the sea surface, wind. To these, one shall add: (i) the
field forces, namely gravity and buoyancy, that affect the body wether still or in
motion; and (ii) the inertial forces for acceleration and bending. For the present
purposes, the actions, forces and moments acting on the submersible are assumed
to be (see Figure 2):
1. body’s weight W, caused by the gravitational field g; and displacement, hydro-
static pressure on the body ;
2. resistance, split in drag and lift components due to the relative motion; the
vector v is the instantaneous velocity between vehicle and the surrounding
fluid, generally marine water; the d and l components are given by means of
shape-dependent coefficients;
3. propeller thrust and torque, T and QT ;
4. re-equilibrating moment Qd generated by the duct rotation;
5. waves and submarine currents forces;
6. inertia forces i during unsteady motion.
The main effects require short comments. Looking at a body’s mobility in vis-
cous media, one can observe that some of the surrounding fluid shares the motion.
Obviously, a force must be applied in order to accelerate and keep the speed of this
boundary layer, and a reaction, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, will
act on the moving object. Dealing with properly shaped, low-speed vehicles, this
370 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

additional mass can be considered constant and independent of the velocity and the
wave number; then, such hydrodynamic effect is equivalent to a steady added mass
matrix.
The nonlinear damping is the most delicate part in underwater vehicle specifi-
cation. Some simplification came from the hypothesis of low speed motion and
axis-symmetric body, but deeper and more rigorous investigations need digital
mock ups, CFD analyses and prototypes. As a first order guess, the hydrodynamic
resistance affects the body motion by drag and lift forces. For underwater vehicles
moving at speeds of 1.2–1.5 m/s, or more, the drag is all but negligible and it be-
comes a basic reference; simplistically, one quantifies such action on a completely
submerged vehicle, moving along a straight trajectory, as a function of relative ve-
locity, main body cross section, fluid density and a drag coefficient that depends on
the body shape. Like drag, the lift force depends on the shape and speed of the vehi-
cle and is caused by not null net circulation of fluid around the body, that is, by the
generation of vortices from the tail of the body caused by the separation of the fluid
flow; as the velocity increases, the size of these vortices grows and the lift forces
become more significant. Since prediction and evaluation of such phenomena is
extremely difficult, people involved in AUVs development and building preferred
to avoid the problem, studying vehicle shapes able to reduce to a minimum the
fluid’s unsymmetrical separation, allowing one to ignore the lift forces.
Field forces, moreover, affect generic submerged bodies; the displacement ac-
tion is the result of the Archimede’s principle, according to which a body immersed
in a fluid is subjected to a force, directed opposite to gravity, equal to the weight
of the removed volume and applied at the centre of mass of the displaced fluid.
Similarly, fluid acceleration can be thought as yielding the resultant force due to
pressure that acts on the body, when the vehicle moves through the viscous fluid.
The short listing shows that for current AUV, the propulsion and guidance vector
forces require complex models, obtained by summing all the actions (forces and
moments) that the fluid apply to the control surfaces, rudders and fins, as effect of
the relative motion and the propeller (or propellers) thrust. The nonlinearity and
velocity dependency makes the description of such dynamic systems not straight-
forward. On the other hand, vectored thruster vehicles present only one driving
action, which allows vehicle control and affects the body’s behaviour during mo-
tion by all-inclusive steering laws. The analysis hereafter goes on to quantify the
above-described action, using both theoretical and empirical formulae and data,
to predict the AUV’s behaviour in actual operation conditions. In the following
points, each of Equations (3.1) terms are briefly recalled and explicit relationships
are worked out for the vectored thrust vehicle case.

3.2. THE ADDED MASS

For completely submerged vehicles, we assume that added mass coefficients are
constant and independent of the wave frequency. The added mass matrix is, then,
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 371

defined by means of the kinetic energy of the fluid volume that is accelerated by
the moving body (Equation (3.2)):
1
TA = vTA MA vA , (3.2)
2
where vA , the six components velocity vector of the water volume; and MA ∈ R6×6 ,
the added mass matrix, given by:
 
Xu̇ Xv̇ Xẇ Xṗ Xq̇ Xṙ
 Yu̇ Yv̇ Yẇ Yṗ Yq̇ Yṙ 
∂X  
Z Zv̇ Zẇ Zṗ Zq̇ Zṙ 
Xu̇ = MA = −  u̇ 
∂ u̇  Ku̇ Kv̇ Kẇ Kṗ Kq̇ Kṙ 
M M M Mṗ Mq̇ Mṙ  (3.3)
u̇ v̇ ẇ
Nu̇ Nv̇ Nẇ Nṗ Nq̇ Nṙ
 
MA11 MA12 ∂X
=− , being: Xu̇ = , and so on.
MA21 MA22 ∂ u̇
In an ideal fluid, the added mass matrix is positive and symmetric about the
diagonal, thus only 21 terms are needed to define it completely. Since the ki-
netic energy spent by the body to accelerate the surrounding fluid is provided by
pressure forces acting normal to the vehicle’s hull, the importance of the body
geometry becomes evident; refer to (Perrault et al., 2002) for a detailed treatment
on the sensitivity of the matrix coefficient to the vehicle’s geometry variations. All
the matrix elements can be considered constant for vehicles travelling deeply, say
more than five hull diameters below the sea surface, but may vary significantly for
near-surface manoeuvres. Due to the complexity of the added mass matrix, several
simplifications have been studied for particular vehicle geometry and motion char-
acteristics. For example, submersibles with three planes of symmetry moving at
low speed (0.8–1.2 m/s), and the one here presented may reasonably be considered
to satisfy these hypotheses, have a simplified added mass matrix, with non-null
elements only on the main diagonal, thus, MA′ = diag(MA ).
In order to foresee the added mass diagonal terms of such an AUV, we as-
similate its shape to a spheroid and exploit the simplified relations proposed by
(Imlay, 1961):
α0 β0
Xu̇ = − m; Yv̇ = Zẇ = − m; Kṗ = 0;
2 − α0 2 − β0
(3.4)
1 (b2 − a 2 )2 (α0 − β0 )
Nṙ = Mq̇ = − m,
5 2(b2 − a 2 ) + (b2 + a 2 )(β0 − α0 )
being: a, b: the body semi-axes (a > b); m: the mass of the submersible;

2(1 − e2 ) 1 1+e 1 1 − e2 1+e

α0 = ln −e , β0 = 2 − ln ,
e3 2 1−e e 2e3 1−e

2
b
with e = 1 − .
a
372 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Other simplified empirical relations exist for commonly used shapes (ellipsoidal,
cylindrical, etc.) (Watt, 1988).

3.3. THE CORIOLIS AND CENTRIPETAL MATRIX

The matrix C, as presented in Equation (3.1), is commonly split into two (6×6) ma-
trices, representing hydrodynamic Coriolis and centripetal mass/inertia contribu-
tions for both the body (CRB ) and the surrounding water, i.e., the added mass (CA ).
 
03×3 −mS(v)
CRB = ;
−mS(v) −S(Iω)
 
03×3 −S(MA11 v + MA12 ω)
CA = ;
−S(MA11 v + MA12 ω) −S(MA21 v + MA22 ω)

S(x) is a skew symmetric matrix operator of the vector x, defined as it follows:

 
0 −x3 x2
S(x) = x3 0 −x1 ,
−x2 x1 0
where, as previously stated, v and ω are the vector of the translational and rota-
tional velocity, respectively, and Mxy is the correspondent minor of the added mass
matrix MA .

3.4. THE DRAG AND LIFT EFFECTS

The hydrodynamic resistance is decomposed into drag and lift components: the
former acts parallel to the relative velocity between the fluid and the submersible;
the latter, normal to this direction. Both forces depend, mainly, on the body shape,
according to: L = (1/2)ρv 2 ACL , D = (1/2)ρv 2 ACD , where CL and CD are shape
coefficient function of the angle of attack; v is the relative velocity and A is the
frontal area of the AUV. For axisymmetric bodies moving at low velocity forward
along their longitudinal axis, the lift force is null.

3.5. THE FIELD FORCES

A body, fully immersed in a fluid, undergoes the action of two forces, weight and
displacement, applied to the centre of gravity G and, respectively, to the centre of
buoyancy B. Stable equilibrium conditions exist when B is above G (see Figure 3).
For a neutral buoyant body, that is, a body with displacement equal to weight,
this leads to the definition of two restoring moments, longitudinal and transversal,
defined as follows: ML = (BG) sin α, ML = (BG) sin θ.
Obviously submersibles with G and B coincident are always in a neutral equi-
librium state.
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 373

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Longitudinal (a) and transversal (b) equilibrium.

3.6. THE PROPULSION FORCES AND MOMENTS

The vectored thrust AUV aims at lower drag forces and better guidance abilities
for low-speed manoeuvres, based on the unified attitude and propulsion control
fixture. In the following, the benefits derived from the option are shown, with
constructive hints on the prospective orienting device. The preliminary description
and quantification of force and moment supplied by the thruster are needed, for
design and development purposes, based on computer simulation.
The resort to a screw propeller causes the joint generation of a thrust component
along the propeller axis T and a reactive twist QT , that tends to turn the submersible
opposite to the propeller rotation. The unwanted effect significantly disturbs the at-
titude of small vehicles, and the trim actions depend on many, not easy predictable,
hydro-dynamical facts, depending on the surrounding flow. The use of a propeller
equipped with two counter-rotating screws, with fixed pre-set velocities, would of
course be a solution for torpedo-shaped AUV’s unable to modify the corrective
action, for instance, in the face of unsteady currents or local surges; moreover,
the addition of separate propeller regulation would increase the complexity of
the power supply, becoming unsuitable for small vehicles. The prospective so-
lution is, on the contrary, very simple, since it exploits the rotation about the
propeller axis (roll), to contrast the reactive moment by rotating the propeller duct
strictly for compensation. A purposely-conceived wrist, actuated through a parallel
mechanism, so that independent commands are possible, supplies this additional
mobility.
The analytical expressions of thrust vector T in body frame components Tx , Ty
and Tz are (see Figure 4):
Tx = T cos(δd ) cos(δr ); Ty = T cos(δd ) sin(δr );
(3.5)
Tz = T sin(δd ).
374 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Figure 4. Orientation of the thrust.

Since the centre of rotation of the orienting mechanism has an off-set GT from
the centre of gravity, the vectored thruster creates disturbing moments on the AUV,
when the propeller axis does not lie along the body’s longitudinal axis x; namely,

Qy = Tz × (P G); Qz = Ty × (P G). (3.6)

The rotation of the screw in the water, simultaneously with the thrust force, causes
the generation of a reaction torque on the vehicle. It is well known (Fossen and
Blanke, 2000) that for a fixed pitch propeller the thrust T and the torque QT de-
pend on the vehicle speed u, the advance speed ua and the screw velocity n. More
complex models take into account other dynamic effects due to unsteady flows, but
we will ignore them, considering a vehicle moving in deep water with no boundary
influences.
In the scientific literature, several papers and publications explain the relation
between the vehicle motion (u and ua ) and the propeller rate n (Healey et al., 1995;
Whitcomb and Yoerger, 1999), making use of non-dimensional thrust and torque
coefficients KT (J0 ) and KQ (J0 ):

T Q
KT (J0 ) = , KQ (J0 ) = , (3.7)
ρ · D 4 · n|n| ρ · D 5 · n|n|

where J0 = ua /(D · n) is the vehicle advance ratio, D is the propeller diameter

and ρ is the water density.
The advance speed may be computed by imposing the steady state condition:

ua = (1 − w)u, being 0 < w < 1 the wake fraction number.

AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 375

Figure 5. Open water thrust and torque coefficients as function of the advance ratio J0 .

Figure 5 shows KT and KQ values as functions of the advance ratio J0 for a

Wageningen B-screw series (Oosterveld and van Oossanen, 1975).
Using Equation (3.7), one can calculate the actual amount of thrust and torque
applied by the propeller for every condition of motion. The effect of the reaction
moment QT causes the AUV to rotate around its own longitudinal axis, with a loss
of control of the vehicle. To eliminate this disturbing effect, we can use the third
degree of freedom, the rotation about the propeller axis, to generate a corrective
torque by revolving the thruster duct. Now, since the spherical mechanism takes
care of both the orientation of the propeller and the rotation of the tunnel, the
rotation axis of the screw always coincides with the rotation axis of the duct, so
the control system can nullify the propulsion torque Qd without generating any
undesired effect.

3.7. BUOYANCY AND FLUID ACCELERATION FORCES

The present study assumes that the vehicle is neutrally buoyant, i.e., gravitational
and displacement forces coincide. This results in a vehicle that flies in water freely
and changes its depth by the effect of dynamic actions given by the thruster and
control fins. The inclusion of more complex hydrodynamic effects would require
numerical solving of the Navier–Stokes equations; this is perfectly compatible
with the prospected solution, once the proper regulation set-up is assessed and the
related effects duly computed. We have ignored, in the present preliminary inves-
tigation, additional forces and moments, focusing the attention on the feasibility
of vectored thrust vehicles, namely, on exploiting assemblies with powered wrists,
with three independent mobilities.
376 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Figure 6. Definition of actions on the propeller duct: u is the vehicle speed, ua and uw
represent the speed of the water in the inlet and outlet sections, respectively.

3.8. FORCES DUE TO THE FINNED DUCT AROUND THE PROPELLER

The last dynamic effect acting on the submerged body is the hydrodynamic resis-
tance of the propeller’s duct. For steady state, (surge motion u, with the thruster
aligned to the body’s longitudinal axis), this effect may be included in the calcula-
tion of the net thrust applied by the system, T = F − R (Figure 6(a)), as is well
known in the scientific literature (see, for example, (Allmendinger, 1990)). The
problems arise when the vehicle accomplishes a bend and the fluid collides with the
external surfaces of the duct (Figure 6(b)), generating extra resistance R1 (α) whose
intensity depends on duct orientation against motion. Since this action needs de-
tailed analysis to be completely and clearly described, this paper ignores this effect,
assuming to track low swirl trajectories in keeping with the previously established
assumptions.

4. The Orienting Device

The orienting device consists of a spherical parallel mechanism, comprising a

fixed and a moving platform connected by three identical chains. It is well known
(Tsai, 1999) that this architecture is possible only if each chain is made by two
different members, connected by a rotation (cylindrical) joint. Rotational bearings,
also link each chain to the fixed and the moving platform. The axes of all joints con-
verge to the same point: the mechanism’s centre. Several architectures with such
features are possible, changing the values of the characteristic angular parameters.
A theoretical analysis, followed by structural optimisation (Cavallo and Miche-
lini, 2003, 2004), has been accomplished and the actual choice retained. This
preliminary investigation, heavy from a computational point of view, is very use-
ful to address the wrist design to a balanced lay-out, allowing one to drop out
unsuitable solutions, for mechanical complexity or for on-duty performance.
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 377

(a)

(b)
Figure 7. The spherical parallel mechanism: general solution (a) and special architecture (b).

The three actuators, located in the fixed frame, are chosen to have the same
axis of revolution; in this way the motors referred vectors ui (i = 1, 2, 3) co-
incide. The mechanism, Figure 7, has nine revolute joints, with rotation angles:
θi (i = 1, . . . , 9); the first three of them θ1 , θ2 , and θ3 correspond with actu-
ator rotation and define the position of the proximal links; then, the vectors wi
(i = 1, 2, 3) follow, being known the overall geometry, defined by the link an-
gles: α1i and α2i . The vectors vi (i = 1, 2, 3) directed along the moving plat-
form’s revolute joints are similarly obtained. Following the notation proposed by
378 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

(Gosselin and Angeles, 1989), the mechanism architecture, Figure 7, is specified

by eight angular parameters, say:
• α1i (i = 1, 2, 3), angles between vectors ui − wi of the ith proximal member
of the chain;
• α2i (i = 1, 2, 3), angles between vectors wi −vi of the (i +3)th distal member
of the chain;
• β1 , angle that every vector ui form with the normal to the fixed platform; in
our case, the vectors ui are parallel and β1 = 0, always;
• β2 , angle formed by vectors vi and the normal to the moving platform; in our
case; β1 = π/2, always.
The symmetry, moreover, makes α11 = α12 = α13 = α1 , and α21 = α22 =
α23 = α2 , always. This reduces the independent choices, in keeping with the
hypothesis to aim at symmetric workspaces.
The device characterisation requires one to discover the (forward and back-
ward) relations between the actuator’s rotations (θ1 , θ2 , θ3 ) and the end base-plane
orientation (through the mechanism centre). Using the Denavit–Hartenberg nota-
tion, as in (Craig, 1989), the kinematics of each link is described, treating every
branch as a serial chain and using the cinematic constraints that impose the three
branches to have common fixed and moving base-planes. The coordinate frame
Ci (O, Xi , Yi , Zi ) is solid to the ith body (i = 1, . . . , 6) in such a way that every
frame origin coincides with the centre O and the Zi axes point toward the axes of
the revolute joint that links body i and i − 3. The body 0 is fixed. The coordinate
frames C7, C8 and C9 are all attached to body 7. By that way, we have the following
relations:
z1 ≡ u1 , z2 ≡ u2 , z3 ≡ u3 ,
z4 ≡ w1 , z5 ≡ w2 , z6 ≡ w3 , (4.1)
z7 ≡ v1 , z8 ≡ v2 , z9 ≡ v3 .
Figure 6 shows the device in its reference set-up and the exposed coordinate frames.
For clarity, only vectors ui , wi and vi are drawn and the frames do not coincide at
the mechanism centre, but are translated near the pertinent body.
Making use of the transform matrix uwii R ∈ R3×3 , the constrained joint axes
vector wi attitude is expressed as function of actuator vector ui , actuator rotation θi
and proximal link angle α1i , to obtain the following matrix:
 
cos ϑi − cos ϑi sin α1i sin ϑi sin α1i
ui
wi R = sin ϑi cos ϑi cos α1i − cos ϑi sin α1i ,
0 − sin α1i cos α1i (4.2)
with i = 1, 2, 3.
The transform matrix wvi R, from the vector wi to the mobile base-plane vector vi is
i

similarly defined. These matrices simplify, in our case, as the angular parameters α1
and α2 only survive due to the device’s symmetry.
The design and development of the special rigs is suitably outlined in
(Cavallo and Michelini, 2003). The quantitative investigation allowed an optimi-
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 379

sation analysis to choose the most effective parametrical lay-out. While the proto-
typal construction of the wrist continues, the study has turned, more specifically to
the AUV domain, to look at basic assembly requirements. The reference dynamical
model is our main reference for selecting the critical operation constraints, either
for the structural parts, or for the expected manoeuvre capabilities (Cavallo and
Michelini, 2004).
These specific data have resulted in several up-dates. The need to completely
separate the wet zone, where propeller and fins are located, from the dry one, in
which actuators, electronic boards, battery pack and general instrumentation are
placed, suggested to modify the architecture of the spherical wrist, Figure 6(a), to
the particular lay-out in which all three actuators have the same revolution axis (b)
and may be relocated outside the working space. Moreover, the moving platform is
simplified, imposing co-planarity and symmetry of the distal revolute joints axes.
The geometric constraints are synthetically expressed by the following conditions:
u1 · u2 = u2 · u3 = u3 · u1 = 1; (v1 × v2 ) · v3 = 0,
where vi · vi+1 = −1/2, i = 1, 2, 3, v4 ≡ v1 .
Since the vectors ui , (i = 1, 2, 3) coincide, two other sets of three axes wi
(i = 1, 2, 3) and vi (i = 1, 2, 3), for medial and distal joints respectively, are
directly specified.
The moving platform, where the propeller and stabilisation fins are mounted,
may be oriented inside a conical workspace, which opening depends on the value
of the proximal and distal members angles α1 and α2 ; as for the rotation about
its normal axis (roll angle), there is virtually no limit, thus every point inside the
workspace is reached with the selected lay-out.
Figure 8 shows a virtual reality representation of the orienting device; the pro-
peller shaft is connected to the screw by means of an universal joint, which is

Figure 8. Digital mock-up of the propulsion system.

380 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

located at the mechanism’s centre, allowing the desired mobility and providing
the transmission of motion. A duct is, moreover, fixed to the moving platform,
increasing the thruster’s efficiency.
The particular architecture gives to the device good dexterity capabilities and
lets it move inside a wide workspace in order to assume the requested orientation,
still allowing suitable power transmission to the screw.

5. The Control System

As mentioned above, the orienting device (Figure 8) has the possibility to change
the position of thrust vector T with reference to the body coordinate system. This
capability allows control of the navigation of the AUV by means of a single pro-
peller, avoiding the presence of hydroplanes or supplemental thrusters.
The first task, in order to develop a control system for the vehicle, is to transform
the required orientation of the thrust vector T(t), expressed in the body’s coordinate
frame Gxyz, in the actuators laws of motion θ1 (t), θ2 (t) and θ3 (t). Moreover, since
the stabilising counter moment is generated by the rotation rate of the duct about
the thrust axis, the control system must modify the actuator’s laws in order to si-
multaneously carry out the planned orientation, necessary to let the vehicle follow
the space trajectory and the duct rotational velocity, which create the stabilising
counter moment.
Obviously, the relation between the duct rotation and the consequently gen-
erated moment has a nonlinear behaviour that highly depends on the geometry
and the motion conditions (laminar or turbulent), and the AUV controller needs to
adapt the feedback to provide the zero off-setting of the different path and attitude
set-points.

5.1. THE PATH PLANNING

The resolution of the inverse kinematics of a spherical parallel manipulator has
been widely discussed in several papers (Gosselin and Angeles, 1989). Our con-
cern regards mainly the definition of a quick and robust algorithm that could be
implemented in the controller. The analytical solution of the problem leads to
complex and cumbersome equations that cannot be used for real-time control pur-
poses. Making use of dedicated software (Maple7™ by Waterloo Maple Inc. and
Matlab/Simulink™ by The Math Works Inc.) it has been possible to write the
complete model that describes the transformation from workspace reference to
actuator space, i.e., the solution of the backward cinematic problem. Since the
complexity of the expression is highly affected by the number of parameters used
to describe the mechanism architecture, we decided to fix the proximal link angle
α1 and left the distal angle α2 as variable. This choice is also justified by the design
criteria. Indeed, once the mechanism is assembled, we can substitute the distal
links, characterised by different geometry, α2 , to change the system performance
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 381

and, thus, to obtain the corresponding set of transformation equations making use
of the developed programs.
Moreover, as recalled in paragraph 4, the particular architecture of the mecha-
nism implies that for every position of the end effector, i.e., the thrust orientation,
two different solutions exist. Due to this duality, the control system must choose,
for every time step, the correct solution, excluding the wrong one. The simplest
rule to find the proper value of the actuator angles θi is to compare both the values
obtained by analytical solution with the position of the mechanism calculated in the
previous time step and then excluding the one characterised by the larger error. This
criterion is always applicable, since the mechanism is designed to avoid singular
configurations.
In Figure 9, the analytical description of solution θi∗ is provided as an example.
The control system calculates and compares a set of six equations like this for every

t2 = cos(delta[r-1]);
t3 = sin(alpha);
t4 = t2*t3;
t5 = cos(delta[d-1]);
t6 = t5*t5;
t7 = cos(alpha);
t8 = t7*t7;
t9 = t6*t8;
t10 = t2*t2;
t12 = sin(delta[r-1]);
t14 = cos(alpha);
t17 = t8*t10;
t20 = sin(delta[d-1]);
t21 = t20*t7;
t22 = t2*t12;
t24 = t21*t22*t3;
t30 = t6*t10*t8;
t32 = t14*t14;
t36 = sqrt(t9*(4.0*t10-4.0*t12*t3*t14-8.0*t17-1.0+4.0*t8+8.0*t24
+4.0*t21*t2*t14+4.0*t30-4.0*t32));
t58 = 1/(t10+2.0*t24+t8-2.0*t17+t30);

theta1_star = atan2((-t4*t36-t12*t20*t36*t7+t2*t20*t6*t8*t7-2.0*t8*t14*t6
-t8*t12*t3*t6)/t7/t5*t58,(t22+2.0*t4*t14+t21*t3
-2.0*t21*t3*t10-2.0*t22 *t8+t22*t9+2.0*t21*t12*t14
-t36)*t58);

Figure 9. Analytical description of the actuator angle θi∗ .

382 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Figure 10. Structural scheme of servo actuation.

time step. We ignore any further study of this relation since this paper is aimed at
describing the general concept of the vectored thrust AUV.

5.2. THE TRIM CORRECTION

It is possible to develop a functional scheme for each brushless DC motor of the
spherical parallel mechanism, to take into account the real behaviour of the system,
with its characteristics delays and errors (Figure 10). Here, the following notation
is used:
θi∗ : desired value of θi (i = 1, 2, 3);
θi: actual angular position of ith actuator;
Sm : compensation signal of Qc ;
K: correction by the error ε; the corrective function has the form
K = (T1 s + 1)/(T2 s + 1);
Ka : power amplificatory gain;
L: DC motor inductance;
Ra : motor resistance;
Km : motor torque coefficient;
Kω : counter electromotive force coefficient;
Qa : torque generated by the electric motor;
QCi : torque generated by the external disturbances;
ir : reducer ratio;
Ja : total moment of inertia reduced to the motor shaft;
b: dry and viscous friction nonlinear characteristic;
ω: rotation speed of the motor shaft;
Va : armature voltage;
ε= θi∗ − θ i : angular error of the motor shaft;
s: differential operator.
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 383

The reference angular position for each actuator is expressed by the following
equation:

θi (n, t) +
θi∗ (t) = θi (t) + θ i (β, t), i = 1, 2, 3, (5.1)

where t is the time, θi is the angular position of the output shaft of each servo actu-
ator (see the spherical parallel mechanism in Figures 7 and 8) necessary to obtain
the desired orientation of the thrust, θi is the angular correction necessary to modify
the duct rotation velocity as a function of the propeller rate n and θ i is a further
angular correction due to the measured twist angle β around the longitudinal axis
of the vehicle (see Figure 3(b)).
An explanatory example is shown in Figure 11: the thruster is required to change
orientation according to a sinusoidal law θ1 (t). In the meantime, the controller
computes the duct rotation velocity which, as previously said, is a function of the
body’s geometry and propeller rotation rate n, and adds to the input of the DC
motor 1 an additional signal θi . The sum of the two input signals gives the actuator
reference position θ1∗ . For the sake of clarity, in this example the on-line correction
of the AUV trim θ i (β, t) is ignored. As Equation (5.1) shows, the counter moment
is originated by the duct rotation and the amount of torque generated, which de-
pends by the duct rate, is controlled automatically. In order to supply the proper
compensation, the control system uses a provisional strategy, based on analytical
and empirical relations, mainly affected by n, and an on-line error measure β̃.
The control scheme shows the further presence of the feedback loop that com-
pensates the effect of dry friction. The mechanism links and end platform move in
a fluid medium and, thus are subjected to the action of viscous forces. The total
effect of such forces is, nevertheless, divided by the reduction gear ratio before
acting on the motor shaft. Dry friction, on the contrary, works directly on the ac-
tuator axis and the gear head, having, thus, a significant effect on the block. These
considerations lead to guess the dry friction as being the predominant dissipative
feature for the mechanism, at a rate of 80–90%, and we can define the corrective
effect of the feedback loop by
Ka Km b
MT = 0.8 .
Ra
The simulation, which will be further discussed, shows that the spherical paral-
lel mechanism allows one to apply the desired moment with relatively small driving
forces, since the total torque is supplied simultaneously by the three DC motors.
Namely, the average effort of each actuator during one revolution of the duct, QCi ,
may be evaluated as
1
QCi = Qd , (5.2)
3
where Qd represents the torque exerted by the duct during its own revolution.
384 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Figure 11. Motion laws for actuator 1.

The control system parameters used in the simulations are given in Table I. In
this way, the design of the control system for the spherical parallel mechanism can
be very easily fulfilled.

6. Simulation Study
As the conclusion of the theoretical investigation, a numerical model of the system
has been developed in order to perform a provisional simulation campaign. For this
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 385
Table I. Control system parameters

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION VALUE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION VALUE [ ]

Kω Counter EMF 0.02 [V s/rad] ir Reduction ratio 100 [-]

Ka Power 0.2 [m] Ja Inertia 10−4 [kg m2 ]
amplification
L Motor 4 · 10−3 [H] b Friction 1 · 10−6 [N m/rad s]
inductance characteristic
Ra Armature 0.4 [Ohm] T1 Correction 0.03 [sN]
resistance constant 1
Km Torque constant. 0.02 [N M/A] T2 Correction 0.0015 [s]
constant 2

task, we used two different approaches to solve the equations that characterise the
problem.
The first model, developed in Matlab/Simulink™, deals with the solution of
the backward kinematics and DC servomotor position control tasks: the desired
position of the propeller, expressed in X, Y and Z workspace coordinates, are
acknowledged and transformed into the desired angular positions of the three ac-
tuators (θ1 , θ2 , θ3 ); then, a dynamic model of the DC servomechanism is used
to compute the actual rotation of the motors, taking in account external distur-
bances and the motor’s dynamics. These partial results are used as input for the
rigid-bodies model, built within a Pro/Engineer™-Pro/Mechanica™ integrated
environment. The model, which contains all the actions from the surroundings
(gravity, pressure, viscous friction, . . .), can be used to perform several analyses
oriented, to verify the mechanism’s behaviour in actual operating conditions. The
simulation process is reassumed in Figure 12.
In order to verify the system’s capabilities, we define a test mission for the
vectored thruster AUV. It consists changing the propeller orientation according to
a sinusoidal law, and in the simultaneous correction of the vehicle’s trim by means
of the counter-rotation of the duct around its own axis. For simulation purposes, we
initially estimate the entity of the moment acting on the body by the effect of the
screw’s rotation, making use of the previously defined, torque coefficient KQ (3.7).
For a body of revolution with a single propeller on the axis, it is possible to
assume, for stationary conditions, that forward speed equals the submersible’s
velocity, e.g., 1 m/s. Then, the torque effect is readily computed. For example,
substituting the design parameters, as shown by Table II, in Equation (3.7), and
using the tabulated data for the torque coefficient KQ as a function of the propeller’s
pitch diameter ratio and advance coefficient J0 for a 4-blade, B series, Wageningen
screw, we obtain:

1000 2
Q = KQ · ρ · D 5 · n2 = 0.015 · 1025 · 0.25 · = 1.36 [Nm].
60
386 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Figure 12. The simulation flow.

Table II. Simulation parameters

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION VALUE [ ] SYMBOL DESCRIPTION VALUE [ ]

ρ Water density 1025 [kg/m3 ] n Propeller rate 1000 [rpm]

D Propeller diam. 0.2 [m] u Surge velocity 1 [m/s]
w Wake factor 0.2 [-] p Propeller pitch 0.15 [m]
ua Advance speed 0.8 [m/s] KQ Torque factor 0.015 [-]
(J0 = 0.24)
ωd Duct rate 60 [rpm]

As previously described, the real system should react to the trim error deriving
from such a twisting moment by using the effect of the duct rotation. It is not the
principal purpose of this paper to investigate the link between the duct rotation rate
and the torque generated on the vehicle. Thus, as a preliminary guess, we impose a
constant revolving velocity ωd to the tail assembly of 60 rpm, assuming it generates
the proper counter moment to balance the AUV. Thus, for the given example, we
use the motion laws shown in Figure 13.
For the described example we direct the propeller to perform a change of orien-
tation following a sinusoidal law and, at the same time, to rotate the duct, around
the propeller axis, at a constant speed ωd of one revolution per second. In this case
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 387

Figure 13. Propeller orientation laws for the simulation [degree].

the duct rate is constant, to simplify our understanding of the results. In actual
situations, as previously described, the duct should rotate according to the com-
pensation requirements, thus at variable speed, to correct the vehicle’s trim. Under
this hypothesis, the ideal path of the propeller vertex, which coincides with the
intersection of the revolution axis and the screw hub, lies on the surface. The effect
of real DC servomotors dynamics, inertia, friction and of the other environment ef-
fects, cause a deviation of that trajectory from the ideal one; this may be measured,
to quantify the off-setting of each disturbance action and, thus, to properly develop
the control system.

6.1. DISCUSSION OF SIMULATION RESULTS

Making use of the Matlab/Simulink™ software, the reference angular positions
of the three actuators are computed and corrected by the DC servomotors posi-
388 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

Figure 14. Error between reference and actual position of the three proximal links [degree].

Figure 15. Angular error [deg] of the propeller with ideal, no friction (continuous stroke), and
real (dashed stroke) joints.

tion controller, to obtain on-duty set-points. Figure 14 shows the measured errors,
expressed in degrees, between actual and reference position for the each of the
three proximal links during the execution of the previously described test analy-
sis. The results demonstrate that the position control system operates with good
performance and assures proper capabilities to the mechanism.
The simulation, moreover, gives the possibility to evaluate how the error prop-
agates through the link chains, up to the propeller, causing a misalignment of
the duct with respect to desired position. In order to completely test the behav-
iour of the system, we simulated different operating conditions for the mechanism
equipped with real actuators (affected by position inaccuracy); Figure 15 repre-
AUV EQUIPPED WITH A 3 DOF VECTORED THRUSTER 389

Figure 16. Virtual reality model of the AUV assembly.

sents the state of the propeller axis error, as defined previously, measured as the
separation from the planar surface, on which lies the ideal trajectory and the axis
of the screw. This measure, expressed in degrees, shows that the presence of real
joints, with static and dynamic friction increases in the model, the error given by
ideal bearings. Nevertheless, the compensation feedback loop for the dry friction
effect, described in paragraph 6.2, gives acceptable performance to the system,
maintaining the error in the ±0.7 degrees band.
The results of the simulations prove that the orienting device can effectively
fulfil the designed duties and could equip the submersible in order to fulfil both
the propulsion and guidance tasks. Figure 16 shows a virtual reality image of
how the vectored thruster AUV will appear. The body is divided into three dif-
ferent sections, according to the peculiar use and instrumentation that each section
has to contain. The front cone is used mainly to hold inspection devices, video
cameras and lights. The central portion of the vehicle is assigned as the pressure
hull, in which the electronic packages, boards, instrumentation and battery are
placed, suitably protected from the devastating effects of seawater and pressure.
The tail section contains the prospective orienting device, provided by the 3 dof
parallel spherical wrist. A full simulation package, able to duplicate the behaviour
of the AUV accomplishing a test mission, is expected to be presented in future
publications about the vectored thruster submersible.

7. Conclusions and Future Work

The paper aims at describing the early design stages of a vectored thruster au-
tonomous underwater vehicle, developed for survey and recognition tasks. Prelim-
inary state-of-the-art investigations clearly show that this research field needs new
efforts to understand the benefits brought in by the prospective solution with com-
390 E. CAVALLO ET AL.

bined propulsion-and-guidance capabilities, and to establish the actual dynamic

performance for different missions and operational conditions.
At the present development stage, the AUV assembly is directly connected with
an innovative three degrees of freedom, full parallel, spherical mechanism, already
properly investigated and optimised. The contribution of the three mobilities in
the control of the submersible trim and guidance is a basic opportunity, directly
required to compensate for the propeller’s twisting effects; on these bases, a proper
arrangement is discussed to explain the operational performance and the effective
trimming action directly accomplished by the ducted propeller.
The system has been simulated making extensive use of digital mock-ups and
multi-body codes, in order to verify the capabilities and to measure both the advan-
tages and drawbacks that this arrangement provides.
To complete the feasibility study, a properly tailored simulation environment,
developed in Matlab®, is being considered, to anticipate the submersible’s real-
world behaviour and to evaluate costs and benefits of the new concept, three de-
grees of freedom and a self-balanced propulsion-and-guidance system.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the financial support
of the fellowship granted to Prof. Filaretov to co-operate with PMARlab of Uni-
versity of Genoa. They also desire to thank people in Centro di Cultura Scientifica
“A. Volta”, Como (I), for all the administrative and bureaucratic support.

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