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An optothermally generated surface bubble and its

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applications
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a
Yuliang Xie and Chenglong Zhao *b,c

Received 23rd February 2017,
Accepted 14th April 2017
DOI: 10.1039/c7nr01360d
rsc.li/nanoscale
Under laser illumination, a solid-state surface or nanostructure can turn into a micro/nano heating source
with the so-called optothermal effect. This effect allows for non-invasive control of heat at the micro/
nanoscale. In the presence of a liquid, a surface bubble can be generated on top of the solid surface or
nanostructure at a temperature much higher than the boiling point of the liquid. The high temperature
and the fluid flow associated with the optothermally generated surface bubble enable many intriguing
applications, ranging from the micro/nano-manipulation of fluids, particles, cells, and light to the
synthesis of micro/nano-structures under ambient conditions. In this review article, we present the funda-
mentals, recent developments, and future perspectives in this emerging field.

1. Introduction selectively. Above a certain minimum power of the laser, a gas

An “optothermally generated surface bubble (OGSB)” describes
a micro/nano-sized bubble that is formed at a liquid–solid
interface through a laser-induced thermal effect (i.e. an
optothermal effect). In this process, a laser beam is focused on
an absorbing surface or nanostructure to heat up that area
a
bubble can be generated on the surface where the laser is
focused. The bubble stays in contact with the surface in a trun-
cated spherical shape; therefore, we call it a “surface bubble”
to distinguish it from a “floating bubble” that suspends in the
liquid.
The OGSB can be generated effectively with a wide variety of
lasers, such as continuous-wave (cw) lasers1,2 and pulsed
lasers with pulse width in microseconds,3,4 nanoseconds,5 and

b
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA even femtoseconds6 without changing the contents of the
Department of Physics, University of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469,
liquid solution, thanks to the enhanced absorption on the
USA. E-mail: czhao1@udayton.edu
c
Department of Electro-Optics and Photonics, University of Dayton, 300 College Park, surface or nanostructures. Once the OGSB is formed on the
Dayton, OH 45469, USA surface, its position and size on the surface can be remotely

Dr Yuliang Xie is a postdoctoral Dr Chenglong Zhao is an assist-

research associate at the Howard ant professor at the University of
Hughes Medical Institute and the Dayton with a joint appointment
college of medicine at the in the Department of Physics and
University of Iowa. In 2016, he the Department of Electro-Optics
received his PhD degree from the and Photonics. In 2011, he
Department of Chemical received his PhD from Peking
Engineering at the Pennsylvania University (Beijing, China).
State University. His research Then, he carried out post-
interests include the development doctoral research at the
of innovative microfluidic and Pennsylvania State University
micro-electro-mechanical systems (PSU) and the National Institute
Yuliang Xie for applications in cell biology, Chenglong Zhao of Standards and Technology
diagnosis, and medicine. (NIST). He leads the Nano-
photonic & Nano-manipulation Lab, which is dedicated to the
development of cutting-edge nanotechnologies for applications in
additive nanomanufacturing, single-molecule detection, and ultra-
sensitive bio-sensing.

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controlled by changing the laser focal position and power.
This non-invasive and maneuverable OGSB also induces a
temperature gradient and a long-range hydrodynamic force
that can be used for a wide variety of applications. For
example, the long-range hydrodynamic force has been used to
manipulate particles or fluids;2 and the localized temperature
gradient has been applied for hydrothermal chemical
synthesis.7 Therefore, the OGSB enables a wide range of appli-
cations in micro/nano-manipulations, microfluidics, acousto-
fluidics, and biology.
In this review, we will discuss the mechanism, experimental
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realization, and applications of the OGSB. There are a few
review articles on the applications of floating bubbles;8–13
however, to the best of our knowledge, there are no review
articles that focus primarily on the discussion of a surface
bubble and its applications. Therefore, this review article tries
to fill this gap and provides the readers a review and outlook
of the OGSB and its applications. A detailed experimental
setup for the surface-bubble generation is also included for
the reader’s reference. This review article is organized as
follows: in section 2, we discuss the generation and unique
features of the OGSB; in section 3, we introduce the various
applications of the OGSB; finally, we conclude with perspec-
tives for the future development of this promising field in
section 4.
2. Optothermal generation of a
surface bubble
2.1 OGSB on a solid surface
When a laser beam is focused on a thin layer of material, part of
the laser energy is absorbed by the material and converted into
heat. Several types of materials have been used for this purpose,
which includes metal (e.g. gold or silver),2 silicon,14 Indium Tin
Oxide (ITO),15 or their combinations.16 Due to their
different material properties, they show varied laser absorbing
behaviour. For example, Fan et al.3 reported 70% absorbance of
a 200 nm-thick ITO and 1 µm-thick α-silicon for a 980 nm diode
laser. Mekala Krishnan et al.17 compared the absorbance of
glass substrates coated with the following materials for a
405 nm-laser: 10–20 nm thick gold films, 120–160 nm ITO, and
no coating. The absorbance depends on the thickness of the
material and the laser wavelength, and is 25%, 34%, and 13%,
respectively, for the three cases.
Fig. 1(a) schematically shows a sample chamber prepared
by sandwiching a water solution between two glass coverslips
with a 50 nm thick gold film deposited on the top coverslip. The
water in contact with the gold film can be heated up with a
focused laser beam. Beyond a certain minimum power of the
laser, a gas bubble can be generated on the gold film. Unlike a
floating bubble that is suspended in a solution, the OGSB gener-
ated in this way stays in contact with the surface in a truncated
spherical shape. The size of the OGSB increases till the heat dissi-
pation balances the laser-energy absorption on the surface under
cw illumination. In a sealed chamber, the OGSB may touch the
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Fig. 1 (a) An OGSB formed on a gold coated glass coverslip inside a
microfluidic chamber; (b) the change of bubble size as a function of
time at different laser powers. Reprinted from ref. 1 with permission.
Copyright (2013) Royal Society of Chemistry.
bottom surface of the chamber depending on the size and the
depth of the chamber as schematically shown in Fig. 1(a).
We have studied the formation of an OGSB in a sealed
chamber.1 Fig. 1(b) shows the OGSB diameter change as a
function of time at different laser powers. A micro-sized OGSB
is generated if the laser power exceeds 35 mW measured at the
heating area. The diameter of the OGSB increases rapidly to
40 μm in the first 0.1 s of laser illumination. The higher the
laser power, the larger the OGSB size. The diameter of the
OGSB can reach up to 100 μm in 10 s with a laser power of
46 mW. The OGSB stays in contact with the gold film and this
allows for stable control of its size and position, which is
critically important for many applications as will be discussed
below. Without laser illumination, the OGSB can either
disappear or stay stable on a surface, which depends on the
final size of the OGSB. In our experiment, this critical size is
around 70 μm. If the OGSB size is smaller than this value, it
shrinks quickly and disappears eventually after the laser is off.
In contrast, it is observed that it first shrinks in size due to the
sudden change of the temperature, and then remains stable
for hours if its size is larger than the critical value. To explain
this phenomenon, a certain minimum amount of gas is
needed to keep the bubble size stable in an equilibrium state
if a bubble is present in a confined volume of a liquid–gas
solution at a constant temperature and pressure.18 We refer
the reader to ref. 18 for a more detailed discussion of the
stability of a bubble.
2.2 OGSB around plasmonic nanostructures
An OGSB can also be formed on plasmonic nanostructures.
Unlike the heating of an absorbing surface with a focused laser
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beam where the heating area is diffraction-limited, illuminating
a plasmonic nanostructure with a laser beam can confine the
heat at the nanoscale. Baffou et al. have studied the heating and
OGSB formation on plasmonic nanoparticles such as gold
nanoparticles (GNPs).19 The benefits of using GNPs for the for-
mation of OGSB are as follows: (1) the size and shape of the
GNPs can be precisely designed to optimize the heat generation,
especially under the resonant conditions; (2) the GNPs are
chemically stable and well-known catalysts for many chemical
reactions; (3) GNPs serve as ideal nano-heating sources.
Fig. 2(a) schematically shows an OGSB on GNPs with cw
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illumination. The temperature distribution around a single
GNP measured with quadriwave shearing interferometry
(TIQSI) is shown in Fig. 2(b). Note that heat is mainly confined
to the GNP and the temperature drops quickly away from the
GNP. Fig. 2(c) shows the maximum temperature as a function
of the ratio of Pl/D, where Pl is the laser power at the sample
and D is the beam diameter. Interestingly, Baffou et al.19
pointed out that the temperature required to generate an
OGSB from the GNPs is independent of the size of the heating
area. The formation of the OGSB is not a function of solely the
laser intensity as one may intuitively suppose, rather it is deter-
mined solely by the quantity Pl/D. The lifetime of the OGSB,
i.e. the time taken for the OGSB to disappear from the start, is
also investigated. Fig. 2(d) shows the OGSB lifetime as a func-
tion of its initial diameter. Its lifetime is proportional to its
initial volume. More recently, Setoura et al. studied the OGSB
on a single GNP.20
It should be noted that the temperature of the GNP
changes dramatically after the formation of the OGSB due to
the isolation of the GNP from the surrounding medium, such
Fig. 2 (a) Schematic of a micro-sized OGSB on plasmonic nano-
particles. (b) The measured temperature distribution around the laser
illuminated area. (c) Maximum temperature Tmax as a function of the
ratio Pl/D. (d) Lifetime of an OGSB as a function of the initial bubble
radius (fit from experimental data). Reprinted from ref. 19 with per-
mission. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society.
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as water, by the OGSB. The temperature can be high enough to
evaporate the GNP as has been observed by Setoura et al.21
Actually, the heating on the GNPs and the precise measure-
ment of the temperature is another important and interesting
topic. For example, nano-heating around GNPs has been used
for ultrasensitive molecular detection22 and heat-up synthesis
under ambient conditions.23 We refer the readers to ref. 24–28
for more detailed discussions on this topic.
The plasmonic nanostructures can also be formed into
arrays for the generation of OGSB. Two distinct heating
regimes have been evidenced6 in the case of cw illumination.
In the first regime, the temperature is still well confined near
the nanostructures. In the second regime, the temperature
stays uniform across the nanostructure arrays despite the
small size of the nanostructures. A dimensionless parameter
ζ2 = p2/3LR has been proposed to distinguish these two
regimes, where p is the nanostructure distance, L is the charac-
teristic size of the illuminated area, and R is the radius of the
nanostructure. The temperature on a single nanostructure is
not affected by the nearby particles if ζ2 ≫ 1. In contrast, the
temperature on each nanostructure is extended and smoothed
all over the arrays in the case of ζ2 ≪ 1.
2.3 Temperature and flow distribution around the OGSB
A temperature gradient and convective flow can be formed
around the OGSB. Fig. 3(a) shows the simulation of the temp-
erature distribution around an OGSB. The temperature
decreases along the radial direction because of convective
cooling along the top and bottom surfaces. The corresponding
Fig. 3 A simulated temperature distribution (a) and convective flow (b)
around an OGSB. The surface bubble stays in contact with both the
bottom and top surfaces of the chamber. Reprinted from ref. 2 with per-
mission. Copyright (2014) Royal Society of Chemistry.
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convective flow caused by this temperature gradient is shown
in Fig. 3(b). Water first flows toward the bubble along the
bottom surface of the chamber, then moves upward to the top
surface, and finally flows away along the top surface of the
chamber. This convective flow can be used to exert forces on
particles suspended in the solution, which is important for
particle manipulation, cell deforming, cell poration and lysis
as will be discussed in section 3.
2.4 Optical configuration for the generation of OGSB
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Fig. 4 schematically shows an experimental setup that can be
used for the generation of an OGSB. It includes two major
parts: (1) laser heating; and (2) imaging and detection of the
OGSB. It is convenient to build the system directly on a com-
mercial microscope (either upright or inverted) and utilizes its
build-in imaging module for the OGSB detection. The heating
laser needs to be coupled into the microscope. The system
shown in Fig. 4 is built on an upright microscope (Nikon
Eclipse LV-100). The microscope has two white-light illumina-
tion ports: one for transmission (located at the bottom port)
and the other for reflection (located at the top port). A cw
diode laser with a wavelength of 405 nm and a maximum
power of 200 mW is coupled into the microscope from the
top port. The laser beam first passes an optical isolator (OI)
to reject any back-reflected light that may cause laser-power
fluctuations. Then it is expanded to the right beam size by
two lenses (L1 and L2). The larger the beam size at the back
aperture of the objective lens, the smaller the laser spot at
the sample, therefore the smaller the heating area. L1 and
L2 are configured in the form of a telescope with the distance
d ≈ f1 + f2, where f1 and f2 are the focal lengths of L1 and L2,
respectively. This configuration of L1 and L2 also allows for
the proper alignment of the laser spot to the sample surface.
For example, L1 needs to be moved along the optical axis so
that the laser spot is exactly focused on the sample surface in
Fig. 4 The layout of an experimental setup to generate the OGSB. OI:
optical isolator; L1, L2: lenses; HWP: half wave plate; PBS: polarizing
beamsplitter; PM: power meter; BS: beamsplitter; CCD: charge-coupled
device.
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the experiment. The laser then passes through a half wave
plate (HWP) and a polarizing beamsplitter (PBS) for continu-
ous attenuation of the laser power. Finally, the heating laser is
coupled into the microscope from the beamsplitter inside the
microscope. A power meter (PM) can be placed at the other
end of the PBS to monitor the real-time power without disturb-
ing the optical path. The laser power at the heating area
(sample surface) can be calibrated and calculated by knowing
the rotating angle of the HWP and the power measured by the
PM.
Modifications can be readily made on this configuration
according to the objective of the experiment. A cw laser is used
in our experiments to manipulate the OGSB in a continuous
manner.2,29 The low-cost cw laser is one advantage in this
system, but it can be readily replaced by other pulsed lasers.
For example, Quinto-Su et al. have used a nanosecond pulsed
laser with 532 nm wavelength to generate a transient bubble
that can be used to deform red blood cells.5 The short dur-
ation of pulsed laser allows for more confined heating, which
may increase the biocompatibility of the system.
2.5 Advantages of an OGSB
An OGSB has the following unique features: first, the size,
location, and motion of the OGSB can be controlled remotely
by a laser beam, which allows for the non-invasive manipu-
lation of particles and fluids. Second, compared with a floating
bubble that is formed in a bulk liquid and free to move, the
OGSB stays in contact with the surface and its motion can be
precisely controlled on the surface; therefore, it increases the
stability of the bubble for practical applications. Third, the
OGSB can induce a long-range hydrodynamic force and a loca-
lized high-temperature gradient for either particle manipu-
lation or chemical synthesis. Fourth, a variety of laser sources
can be used directly for the generation of the OGSB. Solid
surface or plasmonic nanostructures can be designed for
maximal heat generation without changing the contents of the
fluid. In contrast, the generation of a floating bubble in a bulk
liquid either requires expensive pulsed lasers to heat the
liquid, or special absorbing agents must be added to the
liquid for maximal heat generation, which may change the
native environment of the sample solution and must be
avoided for bio-related applications. With these unique fea-
tures, the OGSB paves the way for many intriguing applications
in bioengineering, chemistry, and physics.
3. Application of the OGSB
3.1 Particle and cell manipulations
The convective flow associated with the OGSB can be used to
trap and manipulate particles. The particles are first dragged
to the OGSB with a long-range hydrodynamic force. Once the
particle touches the OGSB, it can be trapped on the OGSB
because of the force balance between surface tension and
pressure as schematically shown in Fig. 5(a) and (b).
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strands34 on a gold surface with the OGSB. Interestingly, the

OGSB has also been used for latching micorcomponents.16

3.2 Manipulations of fluids

The OGSB can also be used to manipulate fluids in a micro-
fluidic device, which allows for the development of micro-
fluidic valves or pumps. Krishnan et al.17 demonstrated that
the fluid flow in a T-junction channel can be switched at high
flow rates of 1 mm s−1. Zhang et al.35 demonstrated a more
straightforward method to stop flow in a microchannel, where
an OGSB was formed in a microfluidic channel to increase the
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resistance of the fluid as schematically shown in Fig. 6(a).

Fig. 5 Schematic of the pressure force (a) and surface tension force (b)
in the radial direction of the bubble, which stabilizes the particle on the
bubble surface. (c)–(e) Pick up randomly distributed polystyrene beads
by moving the surface bubble with a laser beam. Reprinted from ref. 2
with permission. Copyright (2014) The Royal Society of Chemistry. (f )
540 nm polystyrene particles accumulate around an OGSB that is
formed at different power densities (scale bar 5 μm); (g) scanning elec-
tron microscopy (SEM) image of the 3D hollow structure (scale bar 1 μm)
fabricated with the OGSB. Reprinted from ref. 32 with permission.
Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.
A metal pad is fabricated inside the microchannel for the
formation of an OGSB as shown in 6(b). Fig. 6(c) shows the
open-state of the micro valve in the absence of an OGSB in the
channel. Both the red ink and water can flow into the main
channel. Fig. 6(d) shows the close-state of the micro valve
when an OGSB is formed in the channel. The water inlet is
blocked by the OGSB so that only the red ink enters the main
channel.
Microfluidic pumps based on the OGSB have also been
reported. The pump can be realized by designing the shape of
the OGSB. Fig. 6(e) schematically shows such a design with a
tear shaped pad in a microchannel where an asymmetric

Interestingly, the OGSB together with the particles can be

moved with the laser beam.
Zhao et al.2 showed that an OGSB can be used to collect
and deliver polystyrene beads as shown in Fig. 5(c)–(e). The
OGSB can be moved on a surface following arbitrary trajec-
tories with a maximum speed of ∼500 μm s−1. Zheng et al.30
demonstrated that nanoparticles can be deposited on a
silver film with an OGSB. Single-particle patterns and particle
assemblies with different resolutions and architectures have
been demonstrated using this method. Ohta’s group has deve-
loped several microrobots based on the OGSB.14,15,31 The
OGSB is formed either on ITO or a silicon substrate. Recently,
Zheng’s group has developed a lithography method based on
the OGSB, so-called “Bubble-Pen Lithography”32 that allows
for the patterning of colloidal particles on a substrate as
shown in Fig. 5(f ) and (g). In these experiments, larger par- Fig. 6 (a) A micro valve based on the OGSB in a Y-shaped microchan-
ticles are trapped and moved with the OGSB, while smaller nel. (b) Top view of the microchannel where the OGSB is formed. (c) The
particles are typically deposited on the substrate. The mechan- micro valve works under the open state where the laminar flow of the
ism behind this size-dependent phenomenon is still not well red ink and water are both visible in the channel. (d) The micro valve
works under the close state where the water inlet is blocked. (e) A micro
understood and is worth studying in future research.
pump based on an OGSB that is formed on an asymmetric tear shaped
It should be noted that the OGSB can also be used to pad. (f ) Images of the OGSB at different times. Scale bar 200 μm.
manipulate bio-materials. Fujii et al. have demonstrated the Reprinted from ref. 35 with permission. Copyright (2011) The Royal
fabrication of nanoparticles33 and manipulation of single DNA Society of Chemistry.

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OGSB can be formed.35 For an asymmetric OGSB, the fluid
flow pushed by the large head side is faster than that pushed
by the small tail side. As a result, the net fluid flow is in the
large head side, which makes it function effectively as a micro-
pump inside a microchannel as shown in Fig. 6(f ). The
pumping rate ranging from 100 to 400 mm s−1 can be con-
trolled effectively by adjusting the laser power.
3.3 Deformation of nanowires and cells
The OGSB experiences rapid expansion, shrinking, or collap-
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sing that depends on the laser power. During this process, the
OGSB creates a short-lived radial flow within a microfluidic
chamber that moves first outward during the bubble expan-
sion and then inward during the bubble collapsing. This tran-
sient flow provides a strong shear force that can be used to
deform materials such as nanowires and cells that are adjacent
to the bubble. The deformation of materials with the OGSB
has the following advantages: (1) high throughput: tens or
even hundreds of objects, such as cells or nanowires, can be
targeted and measured by the OGSB simultaneously; (2) in situ
measurement: this method does not require a bulk phase flow
to apply a shear force, the flow induced by the OGSB expansion
and collapsing is localized.
Quinto-Su et al.5 have used this method to characterize red
blood cell (RBC) rheology, where the recovery of cell shape
after OGSB collapsing was recorded as shown in Fig. 7(a).
The fast shape recovery indicated a high stiffness of the cell.
This method was also tested by comparing the strain decay
exponents of normal RBCs with those of RBCs treated with
neuraminidase (NM) and wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) as
shown in Fig. 7(b). The WGA increases the RBCs’ stiffness,
while NM impacts the overall surface charge on the RBSs and
decreases the deformability. In another application,36 the
Young’s modulus of a single Co nanowire was analyzed using
an OGSB. The restoring dynamics of a bent Co nanowire was
captured with a high-speed camera. The Young’s modulus of
the Co nanowire was found to be between 9.6 and 13.0 GPa,
which reveals a remarkable difference compared to its bulk
counterpart (∼160 GPa).
Fig. 7 (a) Red blood cells (RBCs) imaged before, during and after the
bubble generation. (b) Extracted exponents n for the power law decay
model of untreated RBCs and RBCs treated with NM and WGA, which
depicts the differences in mechanical properties of each cell group.
Reprinted from ref. 5 with permission. Copyright (2011) The Royal
Society of Chemistry.
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3.4 Cell poration and lysis
The expansion and collapsing of the OGSB also induces a
strong micro-jetting flow, which can temporarily rupture the
membrane of cells and facilitate external drugs or genes to
transfer across the cell membrane. This process was named
cell poration. Compared to virus or chemical based cell pora-
tion, OGSB based cell poration enhances biosafety without the
use of external chemicals or microbes. More importantly, this
method allows for single-cell poration.
Fan et al.3,4 have demonstrated the poration of cell mem-
branes of localized single NIH/3T3 fibroblasts with an oscillat-
ing OGSB as shown in Fig. 8(a). A focused laser beam creates
an OGSB that oscillates on an absorbing substrate in a fluidic
chamber. The shear stress induced by the OGSB oscillation
allows for the poration of nearby cells. Cell poration is demon-
strated with the delivery of FITC–dextran dye of various mole-
cular weights (Fig. 8(b)). Under optimal poration conditions,
the cell poration efficiency was up to 95.2 ± 4.8%, while main-
taining 97.6 ± 2.4% cell viability as shown in Fig. 8(c).
A unique feature of this system is the capability of single-cell
poration without disturbing surrounding cells, which makes
this a promising technique for single-cell therapy. In addition,
sufficient strong shear stress can cause cell lysis,37 which is
important for analysis of intracellular contents.3,4
Lukianova-Hleb et al.38 have used OGSBs on nanoparticles
to perform chemotherapy on cancer cells. With a co-cultured
normal (NOM9) and squamous cell carcinoma (HN31), they
demonstrated that the OGSB can discriminate effectively
between cancer and normal cells under identical treatment
with nanoparticles and optical radiation. They found that
there is a higher threshold for the delivery of nanoparticles to
normal cells. The poration with OGSBs has shown high pora-
tion ratio and transfer efficiency on a wide variety of cells.
3.5 Light manipulation at the micro/nanoscale
Plasmonics, which studies the interactions between light and
metallic nanostructures, has been a hot research topic for
decades. The surface plasmon (SP) or localized surface
plasmon (LSP) on metallic nanostructures allows for the
control of light beyond the diffraction limit. Recently, there
Fig. 8 Single-cell poration with the OGSB. (a) DIC image of cells after
the targeted single-cell poration. The dashed circle indicates the
location of the OGSB. (b) The fluorescence image shows the success-
fully porated target cell with no poration of the neighboring cells. (c)
Cell poration efficiency and the resulting cell viability of FITC–dextran
molecules of various sizes. Reprinted from ref. 3 with permission.
Copyright (2014) The Royal Society of Chemistry.
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has been increasing interest in the modulation of the plasmo-
nic field with the OGSB.
Zhao et al. presented the first demonstration of the
application of a micro-sized OGSB as an effective lens for SP
modulation in a microfluidic environment, a so-called reconfi-
gurable plasmofluidic lens.29 Fig. 9(a) schematically shows the
working principle of the reconfigurable plasmofluidic lens.
SPs on the gold film are launched from a curved grating and
focused at the focal position shown as a white dashed line in
Fig. 9(b). A micro-sized OGSB is formed between the curved
grating and the focal position on the water–gold interface,
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which changes the effective refractive index of the SPs.
In addition, the size of the OGSB can be precisely controlled
by modulating the laser power. Therefore, it behaves as a
tuneable lens for the SPs as shown in Fig. 9(c)–(e), where SPs
are collimated gradually as the bubble size decreases.
Recently, Gan et al. demonstrated a wide-range tunable
plasmonic device based on an OGSB.39 Fig. 9(f ) schematically
shows the working principle of such a device. The plasmonic
device, which consists of an array of holes fabricated on a gold
film, is illuminated with a linearly polarized light. The size
and period of the holes determine the transmission spectrum
of the plasmonic device due to SP excitation from the holes.
The transmission spectrum also depends on the refractive
index of the material on top of the gold film. Therefore, the
generation of an OGSB on the plasmonic device changes the
effective refractive index of SPs, which results in a large wave-
length shift in the transmission spectrum. The top panel in
Fig. 9(g) shows the measured transmission spectrum of the
plasmonic device with (red curve) and without (black curve)
the OGSB. The bottom panel in Fig. 9(g) shows the corres-
Fig. 9 (a) Schematic of SP manipulation based on an OGSB. (b) SP
propagation in the absence of an OGSB. (c)–(e) SP propagation in the
presence of an OGSB. Reprinted from ref. 29 with permission. Copyright
(2013) Nature Publishing Group. (f ) Schematic of the wide-range
tunable plasmonic device. (g) The top panel shows the measured zero-
order transmission spectra with (red line) and without (black line) the
OGSB, and the bottom panel shows the corresponding simulation
results. Reprinted from ref. 39 with permission. Copyright (2016) John
Wiley and Sons.
6628 | Nanoscale, 2017, 9, 6622–6631
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Nanoscale
ponding simulation results. The authors claimed a modulation
depth of 18 dB using this method.
Compared to the modulation of SPs with micro-sized
OGSBs, the generation of nano-sized OGSB on plasmonic
nanostructures allows for the control of light and heat at the
nanoscale. Fang et al. have shown the LSP resonance change
of a GNP due to the formation of an OGSB.40 A cw laser is
focused on a GNP that is immobilized on a glass substrate in a
liquid chamber as schematically shown in Fig. 10(a). The for-
mation of an OGSB changes the refractive index of the
materials surrounding the GNP, which results in the shift of
its LSP resonance. Fig. 10(b) shows the LSP resonance of the
GNP that is immersed in air (black), water (blue) and the
OGSB (red), respectively. The LSP resonance of the GNP capsu-
lated in the OGSB is redshifted compared to that in air and
blueshifted compared that in water. The authors interpret this
observation as “resulting from a water vapor envelop surround-
ing the nanoparticle”, which results in a decreased refractive
index of the medium compared to that in water. As Baffou
et al. later pointed out, the underlying physics of the OGSB on
plasmonic nanostructures is more complex than this intuitive
assumption.19
Li et al.41 demonstrated another interesting application of
the OGSB for photoresistance switching of plasmonic nano-
pores as schematically shown in Fig. 10(c). A near infrared
laser with a wavelength of 785 nm is used to excite the LSP
resonance of a plasmonic nanocavity that is integrated with a
solid-state nanopore. A voltage is applied on the nanopore to
measure the ionic current flowing through the nanopore. The
Fig. 10 (a) Schematic of the generation of a nanobubble around a gold
nanoparticle. (b) Spectra of a gold nanoparticle with a diameter of
100 nm in air (black), water (blue), and surface bubble (red). Reprinted
from ref. 40 with permission. Copyright (2013) American Chemical
Society. (c) Schematic of photoresistance switching of plasmonic nano-
pores. (d) Hysteretic behavior of the current change versus the laser
power as a result of nanobubble generation. Reprinted from ref. 41 with
permission. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society.
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2017

Nanoscale
presence of a nano-sized OGSB in the nanocavity allows for the
fast and reversible modulation of the ion flow through the
nanopore. Fig. 10(d) shows the hysteretic behaviour of the
current change versus the laser power, which is attributed to
the formation of an OGSB near the nanopore.
3.6 Acoustic manipulation
Besides the aforementioned applications based on either the
OGSB itself or its associated physical effects, the OGSB also
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provides a foundation for integration with other technologies.
For example, the OGSB is an ideal building block for acoustic
devices and applications. The OGSB with its size and position
tunable on a surface allows for the trapping and optimization
of acoustic waves. The acoustic oscillation on a surface bubble
can be optimized by either changing the bubble size or the
applied acoustic frequency. Most importantly, it separates the
heat generation of the OGSB and its application, which avoids
the heat-associated damage in bio-related applications.
Therefore, the OGSB based acoustic manipulation renders
great biocompatibilities.
Xie et al.1 first demonstrated that an OGSB actuated by an
acoustic wave, named “optoacoustic tweezers”, is able to con-
centrate cells and particles at arbitrary positions in a microflui-
dic chamber. In this work, particles and HeLa cells are distri-
buted randomly in the chamber. OGSBs are formed in the
chamber and actuated with acoustic waves as schematically
shown in Fig. 11(a). Once the acoustic waves are applied on
the OGSB, the laser is turned off to avoid heat damage to the
HeLa cells. The OGSB oscillates with the acoustic waves.
Fig. 11(b) shows a snapshot of the bubble shape taken using a
high-speed camera, which reveals the 5th harmonious mode
oscillation of the OGSB. Cells can be concentrated around the
OGSB due to acoustic forces, which is a size-dependent
phenomenon. Larger particles, such as HeLa cells with a
radius of 10 μm, are trapped on the OGSB, while smaller cells,
such as yeast cells with a radius of 4 μm, tend to follow the
streaming lines around the OGSB. The authors also demon-
strated the generation of OGSB arrays that could be simul-
taneously actuated with acoustic waves for parallel cell
manipulation.
Xie et al.42 also demonstrated that the acoustic-driven OGSB
can be used to stretch cells as schematically shown in
Fig. 11(c). The deformability of the cells, which includes infor-
mation about the cellular mechanical properties, can be used
to characterize the cell status and diseases. Fig. 11(d) shows
that a cell is stretched near an OGSB. The mean deformability
of HeLa, HEK, and HUVEC cells is measured in this work to
distinguish their mechanical properties. The authors also
revealed the deformability variations of each sub-population in
a mixed, heterogeneous cell sample by using both fluorescent
markers and mechanical biomarkers. This method allows for
the measurement of mechanical biomarkers from multiple
cells in a single experiment and can be conveniently integrated
with other bioanalysis and drug-screening platforms.
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Fig. 11 (a) Schematic of the optoacoustic tweezer where OGSBs are
actuated with acoustic waves. (b) A snapshot of an oscillating surface
bubble that oscillates at the 5th harmonious mode. Reprinted from ref. 1
with permission. Copyright (2013) The Royal Society of Chemistry. (c)
Schematic of cell stretching around an acoustic-driven OGSB. (d) A
spherical-shaped cell is stretched near an oscillating OGSB. The aspect
ratio a/b is used to characterize the deformability of cells. Reprinted
from ref. 42 with permission. Copyright (2016) The Wiley Online Library.
4. Conclusions and perspectives
In the last few decades, we have witnessed the rapid develop-
ments and broad applications of the OGSB. The OGSB can be
remotely controlled at any desired location with a cw laser.
This non-invasive and highly maneuverable bubble paves the
way for a wide variety of applications including: the manipu-
lation of particles, cells, proteins, and DNA molecules; micro-
fluidic manipulation for fluid pumping and switching; defor-
mation of soft materials; light manipulation; as well as the
integration with other physical effects. Here, we give insight
into some new possibilities for the future development of this
promising field as follows:
4.1 Selective heat-up synthesis at the nanoscale
The OGSB together with the associated super heating of the
liquid can be used to trigger the heat-up synthesis (or hydro-
thermal synthesis) of nanostructures. Unlike the conventional
heat-up synthesis that typically happens in a sealed autoclave
under high pressure to prevent solvent from evaporation,43,44
the super heating of liquid with the OGSB happens under
ambient conditions. Therefore, it opens a new avenue for the
selective synthesis of new materials at the nanoscale.
For example, Robert et al. have recently demonstrated the
formation of indium hydroxide microcrystals in a micro-
chamber with laser-illuminated plasmonic nanoparticles.23
4.2 Improving the biocompatibility of the OGSB
The high temperature associated with the OGSB can be used
for bio-related applications, but at the same time, it may also
Nanoscale, 2017, 9, 6622–6631 | 6629

Review
place a real challenge in these applications. On the one hand,
the high temperature around the OGSB may be used for cell
ablation or surgery. But on the other hand, it may also cause
severe damage to other cells. New technologies have to be
developed to make the OGSB biocompatible. One possible
solution is separating the process of OGSB generation and
its application. For example, Xie et al. have shown that the
actuation of the OGSBs with acoustic waves is a good way to
maintain high biocompatibility of the OGSB.1
4.3 Multiple OGSBs and their interactions
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The current research focuses mostly on the study and appli-
cations of a single OGSB. Another interesting topic that is
worth studying is the mechanism of OGSB interactions. For
example, multiple OGSBs can be generated simultaneously by
modulating the heating laser with a spatial light modulator or
a diffractive optical element. The interactions between these
OGSBs may pave the way for manipulating fluid dynamics for
applications in microfluidics and micro/nano-manipulation.
4.4 Engineering the shape of the OGSB
The OGSB is typically in a truncated spherical shape. The flex-
ible control of the OGSB shape is desperately needed for the
exploration of new applications of the OGSB. There are few
research studies on this topic. Zhao et al.29 have shown that
the OGSB can be engineered in an elliptical or parabolic shape
by dragging the OGSB with a laser beam. Engineering the wett-
ability of the liquid–solid surface by either chemical treatment
or nanostructure fabrication is another possible solution to
design the OGSB shape on a surface.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support from the Hanley
Sustainability Institute (HSI) and the summer research fellow-
ship at the University of Dayton.
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