Disciplines of Inquiry in Education: An Overview

Author(s): Lee S. Shulman

Source: Educational Researcher , Jun. - Jul., 1981, Vol. 10, No. 6 (Jun. - Jul., 1981), pp.
5-12+23
Published by: American Educational Research Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1175075

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

American Educational Research Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and
extend access to Educational Researcher

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Disciplines of inquiry
in Education: An Overview
LEE S. SHULMAN
Michigan State University

Few works in the English lan- pursue research questions in a education, one that has fed mer-
guage are as rich as Shakespeare'sparallel fashion and then argue cilessly on the fears of anxious par-
Hamlet. One phrase is of particu- over the results of their respective ents and the hostilities of suspi-
cious conservatives. In it John
lar interest. Hamlet is in deep investigations. However, if they
Dewey, somewhat in the fashion of
grief and despair over the recent do not agree even on some matters
Abou Ben Adhem, awakes one
death of his father, King of Den- of research method, then their
night with a new vision of the
mark. In his melancholy he has findings are likely to be incom- American school: the vision is pro-
been acting rather strangely and mensurable. There will be no way gressive education. Over the years,
many have called him mad. Yet, to properly compare one inquiry with the help of a dedicated group
Polonius observes of Hamlet, with the other. It is for this reason of crafty professional lieutenants at
"Though this be madness, yet that major controversies in educa- Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
there is method in it." tional research so frequently focus versity, he is able to foist the vision
What does Shakespeare wish toon problems of research method. on an unsuspecting American peo-
convey with this phrase? How can What is the role of research ple. The story usually ends with a
plea for the exorcising of this devil
the apparent lack of coherence or methodology in educational re-
from our midst and a return to the
sanity of Hamlet's behavior be search? How can we tell proper
ways of the fathers. This kind of
characterized by method? To from improper uses of research
morality play has always been an
assert that something has method methods? To answer these influential
ques- brand of American po-
is to claim that there is an order, a tions, we must turn to a central litical rhetoric, used by reformers
regularity, obscure though it may concept in educational research and conservatives alike. But it
be, which underlies an apparent methodology-disciplined in- should never be confused with his-
disorder, thus rendering it quiry. tory! (p. vii)
meaningful. Method is the attri-
bute which distinguishes research Cremin forcefully draws the
activity from mere observation Method and Disciplined distinction between doing history
and speculation. Inquiry and engaging in political rhetoric.
When adversaries argue about Educational researchers are Clearly, he claims, the results of
the nature of the world or the best typically eager to distinguish the two forms of discourse must be
approach to some particular hu- their work from other forms of dis- treated with different degrees of
man endeavor, we typically find course which, for them, cannot lay respect and credibility. "Real his-
ourselves evaluating their respec- claim to being research. Take for tory" should be given far greater
tive claims through examining example the following statement credence than mere political rhet-
the methods they used to reach from the preface of Cremin's oric. How is one to distinguish be-
their conclusions. There are few (1961) prize-winning history of tween the two? I would suggest
subjects that generate as much American progressive education, that, while not entirely a matter of
passion among scientists as argu-The Transformation of the School. method, the historian would dis-
ments over method. This is not tinguish his work from that of the
surprising, since scholars who There is currently afoot a simple rhetorician by the ways observa-
agree on matters of method can story of the rise of progressive tions are collected, evidence is
marshalled, arguments are
drawn, and opportunities are
This material was prepared while afforded for replication, verifica-
This paper is a version of an au- the author was a Fellow at the Center
tion, and refutation.
diotape prepared as part of the series, for Advanced Study in the Behavioral
Sciences. I am grateful for financial
When we speak of research, we
"Alternative Methodologies for Re-
search in Education" for the new Re- support provided by the National In- speak of a family of methods which
share the characteristics of disci-
search Training Tape Series 8; stitute of Mental Health (National Re-
Richard M. Jaeger, Chair. The Re- search Service Award 2 T32 MH plined inquiry. Cronbach and
search Training Tape Series can be 14581-04) and the Spencer Founda- Suppes (1969) attempted to define
ordered through AERA. tion. disciplined inquiry a number of

June/July 1981 5

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
years ago in a monograph pre- arguments and reasoning be capa- on the questions arising from and
pared with the collaboration of ble of withstanding careful scru- inherent in education as a field of
their colleagues in the National tiny by another member of the sci- study. As each of these disciplin-
Academy of Education. Here are entific community. ary perspectives is brought to bear
some of the definitions of disci- If it is clear what constitutes dis- on the field of education, it brings
plined inquiry they suggest: ciplined inquiry and there is little with it its own set of concepts,
disagreement regarding the need methods, and procedures, often
Disciplined inquiry has a quality for research methods to be consis- modifying them to fit the phe-
that distinguishes it from other tent with the standards of disci- nomena or problems of education.
sources of opinion and belief. The Such modifications, however, can
plined inquiries, why should this
disciplined inquiry is conducted
rarely violate the principles defin-
field be so filled with controversy?
and reported in such a way that the
argument can be painstakingly ex-
There are several reasons. ing those disciplines from which
First, scientific inquiries the methods were drawn.
cannot
amined. The report does not depend
for its appeal on the eloquence of involve mere recitation of the
Applications of Research
the writer or on any surface plausi- "facts of the case." Indeed, inquiry
Methods: Some Examples
bility. (p. 15) demands the selection of a particu-
lar set of observations or facts It is important to recognize that
Hence, perhaps, a major difference from among the nearly infinite differences in method are not
between disciplined inquiry and universe of conceivable observa- merely alternative ways of
political rhetoric is that disci- reaching the same end or answer-
tions. Just as in a court of law the
plined inquiry does not depend on legal adversaries may disagree ing the same questions. What dis-
eloquence or surface plausibility profoundly about the relevance oftinguishes methods from one
alone. Cronbach and Suppes con- a piece of evidence or the warrantanother, usually by virtue of their
tinue: to be given to the conclusions contrasting disciplinary roots, is
drawn from each other's reason- not only the procedures they em-
Whatever the character of a study, ing, so in disciplined inquiry in ploy, but the very types of ques-
if it is disciplined the investigator education there is often lack of tions they tend to raise. This point
has anticipated the traditional consensus about the grounds, the might be best understood if I take
questions that are pertinent. He in- starting points, for chains of an area of educational inquiry and
stitutes control at each step of reasoning. describe how questions would be
information collection and reason-
There is another, even more se- asked and studies conducted from
ing to avoid the sources of error to
which these questions refer. If the
rious source of disagreements the perspectives of different forms
errors cannot be eliminated he about method. Disciplined inquiry of disciplined inquiry in that field
takes them into account by discuss- not only refers to the ordered, reg- of study. Each of the examples I
ing the margin for error in his con- ular, or principled nature of draw will be credible pieces of re-
clusions. Thus, the report of a disci-investigation, it also refers to the search; that is, forms of disciplined
plined inquiry has a texture that disciplines themselves which inquiry. This exercise will illus-
displays the raw materials enter- serve as the sources for the princi- trate the variety of forms of re-
ing the argument and the logical ples of regularity or canons of evi- search method that can be em-
processes by which they were com- dence employed by the investiga- ployed in a disciplined manner in
pressed and rearranged to make tor. What distinguishes disci- the same domain of inquiry.
the conclusion credible. (pp. 15-16)
plines from one another is the One of the most important areas
manner in which they formulate of educational research is the
That definition of disciplinedtheir in- questions, how they define study of reading. In these days of
quiry could be misconstrued tothe im-content of their domains and "back to basics" in education,
ply that the appropriate applica-
organize that content conceptual- there is no basic more basic than
tion of research methods in educa-
ly, and the principles of discoveryreading. Millions of dollars and
tion always leads to a sterile, and verification that constitute the time of thousands of indi-
ritualized and narrowly conceived
the ground rules for creating andvidual investigators are invested
form of investigation. This is not
testing knowledge in their fields.in research to help us understand
the case. As Cronbach and Suppes more about the teaching and
These principles are different in
observe subsequently, the different disciplines. learning of reading. Research is
A major reason why research conducted in order to become
Disciplined inquiry does not neces-
methodology in education is such smarter about certain matters, in
sarily follow well established, for-
an exciting area is that education this case, the teaching and learn-
mal procedures. Some of the most
excellent inquiry is free-ranging is not itself a discipline. Indeed, ing of reading. What do we wish to
know? What kinds of questions
and speculative in its initial stages, education is a field ofstudy, a locus
trying what might seem to be bi- containing phenomena, events, ought we to ask about language,
zarre combinations of ideas and institutions, problems, persons, reading, and learning? What
procedures, or restlessly casting and processes, which themselveskinds of reading research are
about for ideas. (p. 16) constitute the raw material for in- possible and what can we learn
quiries of many kinds. The per- from each?
What is important about disci- spectives and procedures of many One reasonable question is,
plined inquiry is that its data, disciplines can be brought to bear "What makes some people suc-
6 Educational Researcher

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
cessful readers and others unsuc- when the degree of control over tions of teachers and students as
cessful?" How can you predict the assignment of individuals or engage in the teaching and
they
which sorts of people are going to groups to treatments is not as learning of reading? What is the
have difficulty learning to read, in great as may be theoretically de- underlying or explicit system of
order, perhaps to institute pre- sirable. We may, for example, rules by which this complex activi-
ventive measures before serious wish to contrast two schools which ty is accomplished?
are using very different reading
damage has been done? In this sort
of research, one would collect a Although at first blush this
programs. Since pupils were not
variety of measures on indi- might seem a much less powerful
originally assigned to those
viduals, including measures of schools at random, this cannot be
form of question than the quan-
their performance on a number of considered a "true" experiment. In
titative questions which preceded
it, this is not necessarily the case.
tasks, their demographic or per- such cases we see researchers use
Some of the most important and
sonal characteristics, aspects of other methods which attempt to
influential investigations in the
their backgrounds and anything identify which treatment was best
history of social science have been
else that could conceivably assist without the benefits of random
of that form. Perhaps an example
in accurate prediction of the likeli- assignnment. These are often called
can illustrate that point.
hood of reading difficulty or fail- "quasi-experimental" procedures.
ure. An investigator would then Like "near beer," they are not theWhen Binet and Simon were
employ the techniques of correla- real thing, but they can come asked to develop a better method
tion and regression to investigate close. for identifying the children in the
the relationships between those Yet another investigator may public schools of Paris who could
predictors and sets of useful out- say that neither predicting read- profit from special education pro-
come measures of reading per- ing failure nor identifying the best grams, they responded by creating
formance for students of various methods of teaching reading con- the individual intelligence test.
ages. Correlation as a statistical stitute the questions of interest for The goal of their research and de-
procedure used to determine him. Instead his questions may be, velopment was to improve the pre-
whether two variables are related, "What is the general level of read- cision with which one could mea-
or how much they are related. The ing performance across different sure the differences in intellectual
approach would be quantitative age, sex, social or ethnic groups in ability among persons.
and would involve no intervention the population?" "Where do the Nearly 20 years later, a young
or manipulation other than that most significant areas of reading Swiss associate of Simon, Jean
required to administer the instru- success and failure occur?" "What Piaget, became intrigued with a
ments needed to collect the neces- are the reading habits of particu-very different sort of question
sary data. In general, correla- lar groups in the general popula- about human intelligence. He
tional research attempts to de- tion?" This investigation will bestasked, "What does intelligence
scribe the relationships among be conducted through a variety of look like and how does it develop?"
naturally occurring variables or survey techniques measuring He was most concerned with the
phenomena, without attempting reading performance or ques- common elements characterizing
to change them. tioning reading practices. The the intellectual performance of all
Another investigator might work of the National Assessment individuals at a given stage of de-
now say, "I'm not really interested of Educational Progress or of the velopment, rather than the levels
in predicting reading failure. I International Education Associa- of performance that distinguished
want to identify the best possible tion studies of cross-national among them. He was attempting
methods for teaching reading to achievement exemplify this to answer questions about shared
all youngsters, irrespective of approach. Once again, differentregularities rather than measur-
their backgrounds or aptitudes." procedures are employed to asking systematic differences.
Such an individual is unlikely to different questions and to solve Similarly, an individual in-
be satisfied with research methods different problems. terested in investigating the game
that correlate attributes of indi- In the cases I have described
of golf may decide to focus on dif-
viduals with concurrent or subse- ferences in performance among
thus far, the significant questions
quent reading performance. Thisconcern how well or how much golfers. What distinguishes good
individual will be inclined to de- reading ability has been gained golfers
or from poor golfers? The
sign experimental studies. Indi- developed. Thus there are com- study can be conducted ex-
viduals or groups are systemati- parisons between alternative perimentally, through contrast-
cally assigned to contrasting methods of teaching reading or ing alternative methods of train-
methods of reading instruction. among different individuals or ing golfers. It can be accomplished
The effects of these contrasting cohorts of students learning to correlationally by examining the
methods are then compared by read. Quite another sort of ques- attributes of poorly and well-scor-
testing the reading performance of tion can be asked about reading. ing golfers through use of every-
those who have been taught. This There are many times when we thing from videotape analyses to
approach involves experimental wish to know not how many or how measures of age, experience, and
methods which contrast strikingly well, but simply how. How is read- social characteristics. But a very
with those of correlational re- ing instruction carried on? What different question would be, "How
search. Naturally, there are times are the experiences and percep- does one play the game of golf?"

June/July 1981 7

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
What are the functional rules of linguistics, or particular subfields prescriptions, or social-class
of sociology, such as symbolic
the game? In this case the investi- hierarchies? A careful historical
gator is interested in understand-
interaction. These contrast sharp- analysis can help account for both
ing the common elements or reg- ly with the disciplinary roots of the conditions that foster in-
ularities shared by all golfers, the more quantitative approaches, creased literacy among members
whether they are national cham- predominantly psychology, agri- of a society, and the possible con-
pions or weekend duffers. culture, genetics, and quantita- sequences of illiteracy for those
To continue these examples tive sociology, such as demogra- members.
about reading, there are investi- phy. I have attempted in the exam-
gators attempting to understand A philosopher approaching the ples just presented to illustrate
how reading instruction is accom- problem of research in reading the variety of ways in which types
plished in the classroom in gener- might raise yet another set of of research method can be applied
al. They tend to use the methods of questions. He or she might ex- to a topic of inquiry in educa-
case study as they document or amine the kinds of inquiry just de- tion-reading instruction.
portray the everyday experiences scribed and observe that the con- Moreover, I have tried to indicate
of teachers and students in the cept of reading has not been ade- that the alternative methods not
teaching and learning of reading.quately defined. What does it only approach the doing of re-
In much case-study work, theremean is to be able to read? Do we de- search differently, but, by and
note by the term "reading" the large, ask different questions,
a general assumption that Amer-
ability to recognize the correspon- and, hence, generate quite differ-
ican public schools are very simi-
dence between visible symbols
lar to one another as institutions. ent answers. This is hardly sur-
Therefore, individual experiences and sounds in isolation, mere word prising and surely not disturbing.
of learning to read will not be identification? Do we imply the The need for a multiplicity of
enormously different from one set-ability to comprehend written methods was recognized centuries
ting to another. In other case- prose, and, if so, at what level of ago, perhaps most eloquently by
study work, the assumption may sophistication or subtlety? For ex- Aristotle, who, in the introduction
be that "average" reading de- ample, does someone who knows to his treatise De Anima (On the
velopment does not exist. These how to read have the ability to de- Soul), observes,
researchers wish to document the tect the difference between asser-
dramatic diversity among indi- tion and irony in a prose passage? It might be supposed that there was
viduals in the rate, sequence, andAnalysis of the meaning of the some single method of inquiry ap-
character of their development of reading process affects the kinds plicable to all objects whose essen-
reading competence. of tests and measurements of read- tial nature we are endeavoring to
ascertain ... in that case what we
These studies are likely to focus ing achievement that are con- should seek for would be this
on only one classroom or school, a structed. What we choose to define
unique method. But if there is no
small number of them at most. De- as reading will be important single and general method for solv-
pending on the orientation of the whether pursuing predictive stud- ing the question of essence, our
researcher, the portrayals could ies of reading failure, ex- task becomes still more difficult; in
emphasize the social character ofperimental studies of reading the case of each different subject we
learning to read in a classroom instructional methods, or general shall have to determine the
group, the intellectual and emo- surveys of reading performance. A appropriate process of investiga-
tional experiences of individual philosopher would conduct in- tion. (Ethics, I:1) (McKeon pp. 145-
146)
children struggling to master the quiries into the nature of the read-
intricacies of reading, or even the ing process that would entail quite
manner in which individual chil- different research procedures
dren acquire the implicit rules for
from those of the other investiga- Generalizability of Research
turn taking and status attainmenttors. These analytic procedures However different the objects o
in the classroom. Data gathering
would be disciplined by the rules investigation and the goals of i
can include detailed prose descrip-
of evidence proper to philosophy. quiry, there are certain problem
tions written longhand on yellow shared by all research methods
pads, videotaping classroom epi-Similarly, questions ofwhat dis- These problems include the
sodes and analyzing their contents
tinguishes readers from nonread- generalizability of findings; that
exhaustively, interviewing ers can be approached historically. is, the degree to which findings de-
teachers and students to discover As soon as someone attempts to rived from one context, or under
their reactions, perceptions, or answer the question "What one set of conditions may be
expectations in classrooms and proportion of the U.S. populationassumed to apply in other settings
collecting examples of work pro- is illiterate?" the ambiguity of the
or under other conditions.
duced by teachers and students for definition of "literacy" becomes Although there may be disclaim
careful review and interpretation. apparent. How well must a personers from some research pract
read and write to be considered tioners, all researchers strive fo
The disciplines from which literate? How has that definition some degree of generalizability f
these methods draw their rules of changed for societies with con- their results. They are rarely co
discovery and verification are trasting economic systems, reli- tent to have the research they
typically anthropology, ethology, gious orientations, sex-role have conducted generate unde
8 Educational Researcher

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
standing that is relevant only to never the case. Indeed, we sample ential bridge can be built between
the particular cases that were as best we can and then make a this case and other cases of inter-
case for the subsequent claimsestof
observed. There are several forms to the reader.
of generalization. The most fre-generalizability. To use their
quently discussed is generaliza-metaphor, we must then build an Controversy over Method:
inferential bridge between the
tion from the particular sample of Experimental Versus
Correlational
individuals who are tested, taught
particular groups of people whom
or observed in a given study towe studied directly in our research One of the best known examples
some larger population of indi-and those other groups concerningof a controversy over method was
viduals or groups of which they whom we wish to generalize. Weexplicated by Cronbach (1957) in
are said to be representative. For
do so by documenting as compre- his now classic paper, "The Two
hensively as necessary the charac- Disciplines of Scientific Psycholo-
example, if we conduct a study of
reading comprehension with thirdteristics of the individuals whom gy." Cronbach observed that the
graders in Philadelphia, can we we have studied and the proce- field of psychology had divided
generalize our results to third dures we have used. Then, the early into two major streams-the
graders all over the country? Or reader can examine our docu- correlational and the experi-
must we limit our generalizations mentation and critically evaluate
mental. Both these streams share
to children of certain social and whether our claims of what Cronbach calls the 'job of sci-
economic backgrounds, ability generalizability are warranted.
ence," which is to ask questions of
levels, and the like? More specifically, thenature.
reader must he observes is
A discipline,
The second form of generaliza- judge whether the findings
a method ofwe re- questions and
asking
tion is from the particular tasks or port for the individuals whom
testing answers we
to determine
settings in which a piece of work is have studied should be considered whether those answers are sound.
conducted to that population of applicable to any other group of in-
Correlational psychology is not a
tasks or settings that the research dividuals regarding whom our form of research that uses only one
situation is claimed to represent. reader might be interested. statistical technique-namely,
For example, we may contrast Cornfield and Tukey's concept correlation. Those researchers
phonics and whole-word of bridge building extends fruit- who are deemed correlationists
approaches to reading instruction fully to other aspects of generali- are interested in studying nature
using two particular sets of books zation as well. When we report on as it is, in studying the natural
or methods. If we find one a setting or a task we must be correlations occuring in nature.
approach consistently superior, equally careful to document in de- They are committed to under-
can we generalize these findings tail its characteristics so that standing the functional rela-
to all phonics and whole-word readers who are as concerned tionships between variations in
methods? Or must we limit our about the generalizability of our
one set of events or characteristics
generalizations to those particu- task characteristics as theyand arevariations in another. Thus,
lar teaching materials alone? the generalizability of our sample they may ask about the rela-
While both types of can make the appropriate infer- tionship between income and
generalizability are important, ences. achievement, or between the num-
much more has been written about Finally, we can now see that ber of physicians per thousand
the first kind, generalizability those who perform case studies are population and infant mortality,
across people, than about the confronted with a problem of gen- or between phases of the moon and
second, generalizability across eralizability that is not different the behavior of tides on earth.
situations. We shall see that the in kind from that confronted by They see nature presenting itself
two have certain elements in com- their quantitative colleagues. To for inspection and the role of the
mon. In classical statistics, the claim that one is conducting a case scientist that of identifying which
argument was made that if one study requires that an answer be of the variations that nature pre-
samples randomly from a popula- provided to the question, "What is sents are associated with other
tion in making certain measure- this a case of?" Not every descrip- processes or outcomes.
ments or conducting certain ex- tion is a case study. It may be a In contrast, experimentalists
periments, inferences can then description of a singular indi- are interested, as Cronbach
properly be drawn to the entire vidual or event. To claim that observes, only in the variation
population from which the ran- something is a case study isthey to themselves create. The ex-
dom sample was taken. Unfortu- assert that it is a member of a perimental method is one where
nately, it is rarely the case that in- family of individuals or events scientists
of change conditions in
vestigators truly sample random- which it is in some sense repre- order to observe the consequences
ly from a total population to which sentative. In much the same way of those changes. They are in-
they might ultimately wish to that the reader of a quantitative terested in understanding how na-
generalize. A truly random sam- study must build his Cornfield- ture is put together, not through
ple is one in which each individual Tukey bridge to evaluate whether inspecting nature as it is, but
in the population has an equal through introducing modifica-
the results of that study are rele-
chance of appearing. In a now clas- vant to certain other situations,tions
so or changes in nature in order
sic paper, Cornfield and Tukey to better understand the conse-
the critical reader of a case study
(1956) have argued that this is must examine whether an infer- quences of those changes for sub-

June/July 1981 9

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
sequent states. They argue that talents or merits. ferences were typically historical
only through the systematic study Francis Galton, a cousin of Dar- or social artifacts created by politi-
of planned modifications can we win, observed that it was impor- cal inequalities. The role of the
distinguish causal relationships tant to study those variations ineducator, they asserted, was not
between events or characteristics human abilities and performancemerely to develop better ways of
from mere chance co-occurences. contributing most significantly toidentifying the variations already
Thus, for example, foot size and successful adaptation. He thus be- occurring in nature in order to
vocabulary are correlated in thegan systematically studying thoseselect individuals who are most
general population, but that does human attributes contributing competent. Indeed, the responsi-
not mean that large feet cause most to social effectiveness. He bility of the educator was to iden-
larger word knowledge (or vice assumed those characteristics tify those interventions in nature
were enduring traits, unlikely
versa). It merely reflects the larg- that would
to lead to more successful
er vocabulary size of older (hence,undergo change. His research adaptation
was and survival for the
bigger) people relative to children.
broad indeed, ranging from stud- largest number of human beings.
All too frequently ignored is theies of what he viewed as heredi- Thus, while survival of the fittest
intersection of research methods remained the watchword, the re-
tary genius to investigation of the
with the underlying theoretical, efficacy of prayer. His research sponsibility of the educator was to
was characteristic of what we now
political or social purposes of the increase the proportion of indi-
call correlational studies. He de-
research being conducted. As I in- viduals in the world who are fit,
dicated earlier in this paper, re-
veloped early forms of the statis- and the responsibility of the
search methods are not merelytical methods which currently educational researcher was to ex-
underlie correlational research.
different ways of achieving the periment with alternative
same end. They carry with themGalton's work is historically methods of rendering individuals
different ways of asking questions linked to the brand of social theory more fit, more adaptable, than
and often different commitments that came to be known as Con- they might otherwise have be-
to educational and social ideolo- servative Darwinism (Cremin, come. This group was known his-
gies. We can observe this intersec-1961). Conservative Darwinists torically as Reform Darwinists,
tion of ideology and method in attempted
con- to develop better means and their political philosophy is
sidering the historical roots for of identifying those members of implicit in many applications of
correlational and experimental the society who were most likely to experimental methods to educa-
approaches. adapt successfully and to provide tional research.
In the scientific world of later opportunities to those individuals, The goal of the correlationist
whatever their social class or
19th century England, the work of thus became to understand and
Charles Darwin on the origin of
family background, to receive
exploit the natural and, presum-
the species commanded special education and other perquisites
ably, enduring variations among
attention. Central to his evolu- individuals, while that of the ex-
from the society. They constituted
tionary theory was the principlethe
offorerunners of the modern perimentalist was to create condi-
natural selection-nature selects testing movement, which can be to
tions reduce those variations.
This example of how the two
seen as a way of applying correla-
those species or subspecies for ulti-
mate survival that are best tional psychology to the problem
major streams in scientific
adapted to the conditions con- of identifying the fittest in psychology
the are ultimately rooted
fronting them. "Survival of the fit- society and thereby providing in distinctive political or social
test" is a phrase used to describe them opportunities for social commitments is not meant to
the process by which individuals mobility and leadership. leave you with the impression that
and species adapt to variations in The testing movement thus be- these two alternatives must al-
environmental conditions in order gan as an attempt to divorce the ways remain sharply contrasted
to survive. The "struggle for life" ability of individuals from their and never integrated. Indeed,
favors those whose structure and social backgrounds through bas- many researchers have devoted
behavior are adaptive to the chal- ing economic and social mobility their careers to identifying re-
lenges of their environment andon performance rather than on search methods capable of tran-
are thus more likely to producepatrimony. Ironically, those who scending the contrast between ex-
offspring who flourish. now oppose the testing movement perimental and correlational
This view of human evolution as base their opposition on the argu- methods. That is a topic, however,
a struggle for survival had a ment that tests merely support that goes far beyond the proper
substantial impact on prevailing and amplify existing social class subject of this discussion.
views of society. Buttressed by the and ethnic differences. Thus, although Hippocrates
centrality of competition and the Opposition to this application of was correlating and Galileo ex-
free market to the economic think- Darwinism to social research de- perimenting centuries before Dar-
ing of 19th century England, a veloped quickly. Scientists and so-win, these two strategies of re-
movement called "Social Darwin-cial reformers questioned the search took on distinctly new
ism" developed. Social Darwinists
assumption that existing indi- ideological implications in the
viewed members of a society as vidual or group differences were hands of competing Darwinists. In
struggling for rewards and under-
durable or necessary by nature. In- our day, the values commitment
going "selection" based on their
deed, they claimed that such dif- implicit in the choice of method is

10 Educational Researcher

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
often unrecognized, even by the typically presents itself in thecorrelational, quasi-experimen-
investigators themselves. This "natural" functioning of our socie-tal, and survey research. Their
makes it even more dangerous to ty and our educational systems. It disciplinary roots are in agricul-
treat methodological issues with- is as if the researcher is attempt-ture, genetics and other studies of
out an understanding or concern ing to document with vivid heredity, and actuarial studies of
for the specific substantive ques- characterizations that nature life expectancies conducted two
tions being asked. One of the en- need not be the way it typically is.
centuries ago in the service of in-
during problems in research The researcher is attempting to companies. They not only
surance
methodology has been the tenden- communicate that we can create share fairly long traditions in
cy to treat selection of method as settings far different from thoseeducation, but also carry with
primarily a technical question not we may discover through randomthem the prestige of quantifiable
associated with the underlying sampling. Moreover, those set- precision. Through the applica-
theoretical or substantive ra- tings can be both sensible and rule
tion of modern statistical
tionale of the research to be con- governed. methods, researchers can more
ducted. Often, qualitative researchers precisely estimate the likelihood
Selecting the method most studying unusual educational set- and size of errors in estimates of
appropriate for a particular disci- tings accuse quantitative re- the state of nature, than is usually
plined inquiry is one of the most searchers attempting to charac-possible in approaches deriving
important, and difficult, responsi- terize education, more generally, from anthropology, history, or phi-
bilities of a researcher. The choice as committed to maintaining thelosophy. Should we tend to use the
requires an act of judgment, educational status quo. Qualita- more traditional methods because
grounded both in knowledge of tive researchers, in contrast, arewe understand them better and
methodology and the substantive often committed to demonstratingthey have a longer track record?
area of the investigation. the viability of truly alternativeJohn Stuart Mill argued:
educational approaches.
I do not want to create these con-
If there are some subjects on which
trasts too starkly. Obviously, the results obtained have finally
many studies of broader educa- received the unanimous assent of
Quantitative and Qualitative tional questions are conducted us- all who have attended to the proof,
Methods and others which . . . have never
ing qualitative methods, such as
some of the more striking investi-
In looking at the differences be- succeeded in establishing any con-
tween quantitative research gations of school desegregation, or siderable body of truths, so as to be
methods and those typically evaluations of special programs. beyond denial or doubt; it is by
generalizing the methods success-
dubbed qualitative, such as case Conversely, many experimental fully followed by the former en-
study or ethnography, we find studies of educational change, quiries and adapting them to the
another type of political or social such as those conducted in the Na- latter, that we may hope to remove
contrast that is of interest. Quan- tional Follow-Through experi- this blot on the face of science.
titative methods, whether correla- ment, are attempts to introduce
tional or experimental, require significant new approaches to the Yet, an equally brilliant British
large and approximately random practices of contemporary educa- philosopher of the next century,
samples of individuals. Quantita- tion. Here again, however, I have Alfred North Whitehead, was far
tive approaches require that sam- been trying to draw attention to
less certain that well-developed
pling of both individuals and the intricate ways in which the and understood methods were al-
situations be conducted in order to multiplicity of methods we have
ways likely to be superior. He
maximize the generalizability of available in educational research observed:
the findings to the widest possible present us, not merely with an
population. In so doing they tend enormous technical challenge, but Some of the major disasters of man-
to sample from individuals and rather with the opportunity to in-kind have been produced by the
settings as they are, rather than as vestigate an impressive variety of narrowness of men with a good
they might be, though this may be questions from a rich set of methodology . . to set limits to
an overstatement for the ex- alternative social and political speculation is treason to the future.
perimental approach. perspectives.
In contrast, it is intriguing to If we are not always well
examine the types of setting fre- advised to choose the methods that
quently studied by qualitative re- have been used the longest and
searchers. For example, studies of that we understand best, what of
open classrooms, free schools, or choosing methods on the grounds
Choosing Among Methods
other radical, educational innova- of precision, on the grounds that
tions are often conducted using It is interesting that the most some methods provide us a much
case studies or ethnographic frequently employed educational better base for knowing exactly
methods. In these studies the re-research methods, and therefore how much we know and how much
searcher is attempting to portraythose with the greatest current is likely to be error? Here again,
the workings of circumstances respectability, are the quantita- we are advised to focus first on our
tive methods of experimental,
that differ dramatically from what problem and its characteristics be-

June/July 1981 11

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
fore we rush to select the appropri- search methodology. What dis- this imposing array of alternative
ate method. We can again hark tinguishes research from other research methodologies, may be
back to Aristotle, who made this forms of human discourse is the tempted to throw up his or her
famous point about precision in application of research methods.hands in despair and say, "What
the Ethics: When we conduct educational re- can I possibly do to become compe-
Our discussion will be adequate if it search we make the claim that tent in this field?" I can suggest
has as much clearness as the sub- there is method to our madness. several answers. First, attempt to
ject matter admits of, for precisionEducational research methods are become skilled and experienced in
is not to be sought for alike in all forms of disciplined inquiry. They at least two forms of research
discussion, any more than in all theare disciplined in that they follow methodology. Facility in only one
products of crafts. . . For it is thesets of rules and principles for pur-
strikes me as somewhat danger-
mark of an educated man to look for
suing investigations. They are ous, the equivalent of a methodo-
precision in each class of things just
also disciplined in another sense. logical "Johnny One-Note."
so far as the nature of the subject
admits; it is evidently equally fool-
They have emerged from under- Second, be fully aware of the full,
ish to accept probable reasoning lying social or natural science dis- rich variety of methods that com-
from a mathematician and to de- ciplines which have well-devel- prise the family of disciplined in-
mand from a rhetorician scientific oped canons of discovery and veri- quiry in educational research.
proofs. (Ethics, I: 3) (McKeon, pp. fication for making and testing Recognize that the most effective
309-310) truth claims in their fields. Educa-
programs of educational research
tion itself is not a discipline, butare likely to be characterized by
We must avoid becoming educa- rather a field of study on which we what Merton (1975), the distin-
tional researchers slavishly com- bring to bear the various forms of guished sociologist, or Schwab
mitted to some particular method. disciplined inquiry which we have(1969), the eminent philosopher of
The image of the little boy who has been discussing. education, have called applica-
just received a hammer for a birth- Each of these forms of inquiry tions of "disciplined eclectic." The
day present and suddenly finds asks different questions or has best research programs will re-
that the entire world looks to him
different ways of asking educa-flect intelligent deployment of a
like a variety of nails, is too pain-tional research questions. I have diversity of research methods ap-
fully familiar to be tolerated. We tried to illustrate some of the ques-plied to their appropriate research
must first understand our prob-tions characteristic of major formsquestions. Finally, do not limit
lem, and decide what questions weof educational research methodol- your education to methodology
are asking, then select the mode ofogy. I have also tried to indicatealone, for only in combining sub-
disciplined inquiry most appropri-the ways in which the selection ofstantive knowledge and methodo-
ate to those questions. If the prop-research method is frequently re-logical competence will you be-
er methods are highly quantita-lated to theoretical or ideologicalcome a well-rounded, effective
tive and objective, fine. If they arecommitments of the investigator.'educational researcher. Here,
more subjective or qualitative, we (Parenthetically, the possibilitiesonce again, an insight of Aristot-
can use them responsibly as well. of doing certain kinds of social re-le's is relevant.
The anthropologist Geertz search change as the political and
(1973) probably put it best whensocial mood of a society evolves. Now each man judges well the
he said, For example, the notion of ran- things he knows, and of these he is
domly assigning individuals to a good judge. And so the man who
I have never been impressed by the contrasting experimental treat- has been educated in a subject is a
argument that, as complete objec- ment groups may seem far less good judge of that subject, and the
tivity is impossible in these mat- man who has received an all-round
acceptable a research strategy in
ters (as, of course, it is) one might as education is a good judge in gener-
well let one's sentiments run loose. these days of legislation requiring
al. (Ethics, 1:3) (McKeon, p. 310)
As Robert Solow has remarked, informed consent and protection of
that is like saying that as a perfect- human subjects. Can we continue
Remember, selection of appropri-
ly aseptic environment is impossi- to practice experimental social
ate methods is an act of judgment.
and educational research and still
ble, one might as well conduct
A variety of methods comprise
surgery in a sewer. (p. 30) abide by the law of the land that
educational research:historical,
requires informed consent of all
philosophical, case studies,
Geertz also observed, as cited in participants in research?)
Wolcott's (1979) discussion of eth- ethnographic field studies, experi-
ments, quasi-experiments, sur-
nographic research method, "You Finally, each of the examples of
veys. Each is demanding and
don't have to know everything to research methodology discussed
rigorous and follows disciplined
understand something" (Alterna- must in some fashion deal with
rules or procedures. Taken
tive Methodologies in Educational questions of precision and
together these approaches build a
Research Tape Series, L2). generalizability, although the methodological mosaic that is the
standards and criteria for these
Summary most exciting current field of ap-
will vary from one form of disci-
plied social research-the study of
Let me summarize the impor- plined inquiry to another. education.
tant points I have tried to make in The neophyte educational re-
this introductory discussion of re- searcher, when confronted with (Continued on page 23)

12 Educational Researcher

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
ence, University of California, Berkeley, CA 38677. Dues: $25.00 per organization. SIG: Training in Business and Industry
94720. Dues: $5.00. SIG: State Education Agencies Purpose: To foster communication among
educational researchers, evaluators, instructors.
SIG: Research Utilization Purpose: To focus on research within state
Purpose: To provide a focus within AERA for education agencies, as well as research involving technologists, course developers, and performance
activities intended to foster more effective and state and local agencies; to provide an opportunity analysts in business and industry concerned with
appropriate application of research results in for members to communicate with each other. the adult learner in training environments.
educational practice. Contact: Nancy Scott, Wisconsin Department of Contact: David Kerr. Sterling Institute. 700
Contact: Diane McIntyre. 631 Handley Trail. Public Instruction, 125 South Webster, Madison. Dodge Center. Georgetown. 1010 Wisconsin Ave-
Redwood City, CA 94062. Dues: $3.00. WI 53702: Dues: $3.00. nue, NW, Washington. D.C. 20007. Dues: $7.00.
SIG: Rural Education SIG: Urban Education
SIG: Structural Learning and Instructional Design*
Purpose: To encourage educational research rel-Purpose: To improve understanding of learningPurpose: To provide structure within AERA for
research and evaluation that is concerned with, and
ative to rural schools and people in rural America;
and instructional systems and their application in
focuses on, education in the urban environment.
designing effective instruction.
to provide a forum for the dissemination of findings
of such research. Contact: Joseph M. Scandura, Director. Inter- Contact: David E. Kapel. School of Education.
Contact: Everett Edington, ERIC/CRESS, Box disciplinary Studies in Structural Learning andUniversity of Louisville, Louisville. KY 40292.
Dues: $3.00.
3AP, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces. Instructional Science. 3700 Walnut Street, Uni-
NM 88003. Dues: S3.00. SIG: Vocational Education
versity of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, PA 19104.
SIG: Social Indicators Research* Dues: $5.00. Purpose: To foster interchange of ideas and
Purpose:. To promote research into the develop-SIG: Survey Research in Education methods between the general and vocational educa-
ment and use of social indicators in education. in- Purpose: To provide a forum for researchers in- tional researcher, and aid in design and conduct of
research related to vocational-technical education
cluding development of theoretical frameworks for terested in improving survey research as a data
social indicators and accessing and evaluating colleciion method in educational research. programs.
available time-series data. Contact: Marsha A. Niebuhr. Anderson & Ber- Contact: John D. Skinkle, Interdisciplinary
Contacts: Robert Rossi/Kevin Gilmartin. Amer- die Associates, Inc., Griggs-Midway Building, 1821Education, College of Education. Texas A&M Uni-
ican Institutes for Research. P.O. Box 1113, Palo University Avenue, St. Paul. MN 55104. Dues: versity, College Station. TX 77843. Dues: S15.00.
Alto, CA 94302. Dues: S5.00. $4.00 SIGs In Formation-
SIG: Socialization to Adulthood SIG: Systems Research Families as Educators

Purpose:. To bring together researchers con-Purpose.: To promote the concept, understand- Purpose:. To promote the study and dissemina-
cerned with the forces that shape healthy socializa-ing, development, and application of systems re- tion of information on family social processes and
tion to adulthood. Members are also invited to sub- search for planning, problem solving, and evalua-
home-school relationships that support children's
scribe to Character, a periodical about these mat- tion in education and related fields. education and development. Contact: Diane Scott-
ters. Contact: T. A. Ryan, College of Criminal Jus-Jones, LRDC, University of Pittsburgh, Pitt-
Contact: Edward A. Wynne. College of Educa-tice. University of South Carolina. Columbia. SCsburgh, PA 15260. Dues: $2.00--AERA members:
tion, University of Illinois, Box 4348, Chicago, 29208.
IL Dues: $3.00 AERA Members: $4.00 Non- S5.00--Nonmembers.
60680. Dues: S3.00. members. Research on the Teaching and Learning of Economic
SIG: Special Education Research SIG: Teacher Preparation Curriculum Education

Purpose: To explore areas of educational re- Purpose.: To facilitate the exchange of informa- Purpose: To disseminate research finds on the
search of interest to special and general educators.tion and to encourage research into teacher teaching and learning of economics, K-adult and to
Research areas may include: individual differ- preparation curricula, including the study of strengthen the disciplinary ties between education
ences, alternative teaching strategies and learning teacher behavior, training techniques, and research research and research on economics education,
styles. methodologies. Contact: John Sumansky, Joint Council on Eco-
Contact: Susan J. Schenck. 9 College Way, Contact: Katherine O'Donnell, Bank Street Col- nomic Education, 1212 Avenue of the Americas,
Education Department, College of Charleston, lege. 610 W. 112th Street, New York. NY 10025. New York, NY 10036. Dues: $2.00.
Charleston, SC 29401. Dues: S5.00. Dues: $2.00. Early Adolescence
SIG: State and Regional Educational Research SIG: Text Design and Learner Strategies Purpose: To provide a forum for research on the
Associations Purpose: To facilitate communication among re-education of youngsters aged 10-15 and also to en-
Purpose: To strengthen state and regional educa- searchers, publishers, writers, and teachers whocourage an interdisciplinary perspective in re-
tional research associations by providing a are interested in improving text design and examin- search and attempt to stimulate communication be-
communications network among them and a foruming learner strategies. tween researchers and practitioners. Contact:
for them. Contact: Shawn M. Glynn. Department of Bruce Mackenzie-Haslam. School Management &
Contact: Walter M. Mathews. School of Educa- Educational Psychology. University of Georgia. Organization Studies. Mail Stop 16, NIE. Washing-
tion. University of Mississippi. University, MS Athens. GA 30602. Dues: $2.00. ton, DC 20208. Dues: $5.00.

SHULMAN 1956, 27, 907-959. guage for curriculum. School Re-

(Continued from page 12) Cremin, L. A. The transformation of
view, 1969, 78, 1-23. (Reprinted in
the school. New York: Vintage Schwab, J. J. Science, curriculum
Note Books, 1961. and liberal education. Chicago: Uni-
1 For a particularly instructive ex- Cronbach, L. J. The two disciplines of versity of Chicago Press, 1978. [pp.
ample of this principle in the history of scientific psychology. American 287-321]).
education, see Tyack (1976). Psychologist, 1957, 12, 671-684. Tyack, D. Ways of seeing: An essay on
Cronbach, L. J., & Suppes, P. (Eds.). the history of compulsory schooling.
Research for tomorrow's schools: Harvard Educational Review, 1976,
References
Disciplined inquiry for education. 46, 355-389.
Aristotle, De anima (On the soul). In New York: MacMillan, 1969.
R. McKeon (Ed.), Introduction toGeertz, Ar- C. Thick description. In C. Lee S. Shulman is Professor of
istotle. New York: Modern Library, Geertz (Ed.), The interpretation of Educational Psychology and Medical
1947. cultures. New York: Basic Books, Education; Codirector, Institute for
Aristotle, Nicomachean ethics. In R. 1973. Research on Teaching. College of
McKeon (Ed.), Introduction to Ar- Merton, R. K. Structural analysis in Education, Michigan State Universi-
istotle. New York: Modern Library, sociology. In P. Blau (Ed.), ty, East Lansing, MI 48824.
1947. Approaches to the study of social Specializations: Research on
Cornfield, J., & Tukey, J. W. Average structure. New York: Free Press, Teaching; Psychology of Judgement,
values of mean squares in factorials. 1975. Decision Making and Problem Solv-
Annals of Mathematical Statistics,Schwab, J. J. The practical: A lan- ing.

June/July 1981 23

This content downloaded from

132.248.9.8 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 17:19:59 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms