Synthesis of SnO2 Nanoparticles

Nabeel Akhter 1, Agam Sharma 2, Shatakshi Srivastava 3, Tanushree Basak

4, Ashiraj Nayak 5

1,2,3,4,5 University Institute of Technology, Chandigarh University

Abstract: This review paper targets to help the readers to

achieve an understanding about the Nanoparticles and
their usage in the modern-day life. More specifically
this paper will discuss the SnO2 (tin dioxide)
nanoparticles synthesis techniques (Sol-Gel Method,
Microwave Method, Sono-Chemical, pulsed laser
ablation, micro-emulsion, chemical vapour deposition,
Template assisted synthesis and hydro thermal method).

1)Introduction
Nanometre refers to the 10-9 parts of a meter, it has been a recent yet
revolutionary advancement in modern sciences to work at such a small
scale and it has proven to be extremely beneficial to humankind to
achieve precision and accuracy at this scale. Most significant and
widespread example of the Nanotechnology can be observed in field of
electronics. Computers are the driving force of this society and their
development to the current scale of computational ability would have
been impossible had we not ventured into Nanotechnology. Everyday
new smart devices are enabling us a life better than yesterday and the
processors in these smart devices are manufactured at nanoscale. The
most recent and advanced Mobile Processor Snapdragon 8 Gen 2 uses
a 4nm Technology [2]. Nanoparticles are particles whose dimensions
lies in nanometre range, specifically at-least one dimension should lie
in nanometre range. These nanoparticles are observed to have
properties that varies from the same material at a larger scale.
Properties of the nanoparticles are related to the size, shape,
composition, surface area to volume ratio, stability and purity. These
properties can be controlled as per the necessity with the help of in-
depth understanding of the synthesis methods. Tin dioxide (SnO2) is a
n-type wide band gap (3.6 eV) semiconductor [1]. It has unit cell
parameter as a=4.738 angstrom, c=1.387 angstrom and space group P42
 mnm [8]. The unique properties of SnO2 emancipates from the fact that
it belongs to fourth group oxide element and generally it is a
semiconductor group but transition takes at Sn [16]. It is used in solar
batteries, catalytic material, electrodes and solid-state sensors. These
wide varieties of applications are possible owing to the electrical,
chemical and optical properties of SnO2[1]. These application holds
importance in this era of Product based Economy. It is immensely
important to study various methods, properties of the nanoparticles
produced. Various methods, including sol-gel[1,17], molten salt
synthesis[5], microwave technique[7,8,9], carbothermal reduction[10],
chemical precipitation[3,4], laser ablation method. Alcohol Sensors are
of immense importance to not just food or biomedical industry but to
avoid the fatalities caused on road by Drunk Driving. SnO2 treated
thermally shows good sensitivity to alcohols such as methanol, ethanol
and propanol [4]. The concentration limit for sensing through these
thermally treated SnO2 nanoparticles can be as low as 1.7 ppm which is
a great achievement considering the simplicity of the synthesis
method.

2)Synthesis Methods
a) Sol-Gel Method

Sol-Gel is one of the most common processes for the synthesis of

nanoparticles in general. It is preferred sue to the simplicity of the
process. SnO2 of tetragonal phase can be prepared by using SnCl2.2H2O
precursor and polyethylene glycol (PEG) at different Calcination
temperature [1]. Stabilizing Agent and the medium both are taken to
be polyethylene glycol (PEG, M.W 300 and 4000. “The PEG Chain can
facilitate penetration and retention effect” [1]. It also prevents non
selective accumulation into network system” [1]. There exists
relationship between the temperature, molecular weight of PEG and
particle size. Decreasing the temperature with an increase in molecular
weight of PEG caused the reduction in particle size. The result suggest
that the calcination temperatures and the molecular weight of PEG
play a significant role in determining the size of SnO2 nanoparticles
synthesized via this method [1]. These finding are result of extensive
study of the obtained product through different characterization
techniques since the inception of nanoparticles synthesis. Few of the
characterization techniques are X-Ray Diffraction, Field Emission
Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy and UV Visible Spectroscopy. X-Ray Diffraction is used
to determine the phase and the purity of the SnO2 Nanoparticles. This
 highlights the property that increase in calcination temperature caused
the particles to grow larger and improves the degree of crystallinity [1].
The average size for crystals calculated by Debye-Scherrer Formula is
approximately in range 6.5-9 nm [16]. Field Emission Scanning Electron
Microscopy (FESEM) is used for studying morphology and particles
size. “The average particle sizes of SnO2 calcined at lower temperature
with PEG 300 and PEG 4000 are 22-32nm and 14-17nm respectively”
[1]. Addition of PEG 4000 leads to a very small and homogenous
particles [1]. “SnO2 calcined at 600 ℃, the average particle was 29-36
nm (PEG 300) and 26-29 nm (PEG 4000)” [1]. There are numerous more
options available for formation of SnO2 such as NH4OH as
precipitation agent, Tin Chloride and hexathylenetetramine as
precursor and many more [6].

Fig.1 Ni doped SnO2 Synthesis using Sol-Gel Method [16].

Fig.2 Pure (Left) and Ni doped SnO2(Right) Nanoparticle Image using SEM [16].

b) Microwave Synthesis Method

Microwave method is important to be studied due to a number of

factors. It has become a standard procedure to be followed during the
Nanoparticle Synthesis. Unlike Hydro-Thermal Method, Heat is
generated inside the material by Microwave radiation which helps in
fast heating of the material from all directions, fast reaction rate i.e.,
low reaction time [6]. It also consumes less energy and thus is energy
efficient and considering the environmental factors, preferred choice of
synthesis in well-equipped laboratories. The precursor such as
hexathylenetetramine and SnCl4 are heated in microwave and then
cooled, passed through centrifuge and washed with deionized water,
dried and then crushed to obtain the desired particles. [6]. Microwave
heating method is most suited for refined products as it gives more
control over the particle size distribution and quality [8].

Fig 3. XRD pattern of the synthesized particles obtained from Microwave Method [8].

It is meaningless to not study further the properties of the obtained

particles in order to unlock the further potentials it can offer; thus,
Characterization techniques are used in order to understand the
morphology, phase, purity and etc properties of the particles. X-Ray
Diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Tunnelling Electron
Microscope (TEM) and Raman Spectroscopy are among the standard
techniques used to study the structure of the particles obtained [6]. The
crystallite size of the SnO2 Nanoparticles is calculated using Full Width
Half Maxima from the X-Ray Diffraction Graph’s most intense peaks,
using the Debye-Scherrer Formula which has been discussed earlier
during Sol-Gel Method as well.

Fig 4. SEM Images of pure SnO2 particles at different magnification [6].

c) Sono-Chemical Synthesis Method

Sonochemistry is the use of ultrasonic waves to induce chemical

reactions. Ultrasound waves create tiny bubbles in the liquid, which
collapse violently. This causes vibrations and thus temperature and
pressure rise which helps induces chemical reaction in the suitable
materials. A tin precursor commonly SnCl4 or SnCl2 is used, to
maintain the pH NH4OH (Ammonium Hydroxide) is used throughout
the sonification process [12]. The obtained product is centrifuged and
washed multiple times to remove the impurities. Ultrasonic Processor
(750 W ;20KHz and 6nm Titanium-probe tip) is the standard for the
Sono-Chemical Synthesis [12]. Fine Shape and Size of the nanoparticles
are easily attained by Sono-Chemical Method in comparison to other
methods [14]. During the continuous exposure to ultrasonic radiation
provides cavitation effect that provides high frequency to prevent the
formation of large crystals and thus fine particles are achieved [13].
Figure 5 and 6 provides a clear comparison between the refinement of
particles obtained from other Sono-Chemical Methods and other
methods.
 Fig 5. Low and high magnification FESEM images of obtained product prepared by Sono-chemical
method [12].

Fig 6. (a–c) FESEM images of SnO2 particles grown by simple hydrolysis [12].

d) Hydro-Thermal Method

The hydrothermal method works by heating a solution of tin chloride

and water in a sealed container. The heat and pressure inside the
container cause the tin chloride to break down and form tin oxide
nanoparticles. The nanoparticles are then cooled and collected. The tin
oxide nanoparticles can be used to make a sensor that can detect
 ethanol[18]. The sensor works by measuring the electrical conductivity
of the nanoparticles.

Fig 7. SEM images of SnO2 samples obtained at different temperature for 24 h. (a) 100 C (b) 120 C (c) 150 C (d)180 C [18]

When ethanol is present, it reacts with the nanoparticles and changes

their electrical conductivity. This change in electrical conductivity can
be used to detect the presence of ethanol. The hydrothermal method is
a promising way to make tin oxide nanoparticles for the detection of
ethanol. The method is simple, efficient, and can be used to make
nanoparticles with different sizes and properties. The tin oxide
nanoparticles made by the hydrothermal method have potential
applications in a variety of fields, including gas sensing, catalysis, and
electronics.The hydrothermal method is a one-pot process, which
means that all of the chemicals involved in the reaction are mixed
together in a single container [18]. This makes the process simpler and
more efficient than other methods of making nanoparticles. The
hydrothermal method can be used to make nanoparticles with a wide
range of shapes, sizes, and properties. This flexibility makes the
method ideal for a variety of applications. The hydrothermal method is
a relatively low-cost process, which makes it a good option for
commercial production of nanoparticles.

e) Pulsed Laser Ablation Method

Pulsed laser ablation is a fancy way of using a powerful laser to make

tiny particles of SnO2, which is a special material. In this method, we
focus the laser on a small piece of tin, and the intense heat from the
laser makes the tin turn into gas and form a plasma[19]. This gas reacts
with a liquid around it and turns into SnO2 nanoparticles. The cool
thing about pulsed laser ablation is that we can control the size and
shape of the nanoparticles very precisely. By adjusting the laser's
power and how long each pulse lasts, we can make the particles big or
small and give them different shapes. This control is important because
different sizes and shapes can give the nanoparticles special properties
that we can use in different applications. Another great thing about
pulsed laser ablation is that it's a clean and safe way to make
nanoparticles[19]. We don't need to use any harmful chemicals, and the
process doesn't create any harmful waste[19]. This makes it better for
the environment. The nanoparticles we get from this method are also
very pure and don't have any unwanted substances mixed in, which is
important for using them in things like medical devices and
electronics.

Another great thing about pulsed laser ablation is that it's a clean and
safe way to make nanoparticles. We don't need to use any harmful
chemicals, and the process doesn't create any harmful waste. This
makes it better for the environment. The nanoparticles we get from this
method are also very pure and don't have any unwanted substances
mixed in, which is important for using them in things like medical
devices and electronics. In summary, pulsed laser ablation is a
powerful technique that uses a laser to make tiny particles of SnO2. We
 can control the size and shape of the particles, and the method is
environmentally friendly and gives us very pure nanoparticles[19].
These nanoparticles have special properties that can be useful in many
different applications.

f) Chemical Vapor Deposition Method

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) is a sophisticated technique used to

produce high-quality SnO2 nanoparticles. In this method, a vapor
containing tin and other reactive gases is introduced into a chamber,
where it interacts with a heated substrate. Under controlled conditions,
chemical reactions occur on the substrate's surface, leading to the
deposition of SnO2 nanoparticles[20]. CVD offers precise control over
various parameters, including temperature, pressure, and gas
composition, allowing researchers to tailor the size, morphology, and
crystallinity of the nanoparticles. One of the key advantages of CVD is
its ability to produce well-defined nanoparticles with excellent
crystallinity[21]. By carefully controlling the growth conditions, such as
temperature and gas flow rates, CVD ensures that the deposited SnO2
nanoparticles have a uniform size, shape, and orientation. This high
crystallinity is crucial for achieving enhanced electrical, optical, and
catalytic properties, making CVD-prepared nanoparticles highly
desirable for a range of applications, including electronics, energy
storage, and gas sensors. Additionally, CVD offers scalability and
reproducibility, making it suitable for large-scale production of SnO2
nanoparticles. The technique allows for the continuous deposition of
nanoparticles on a substrate, enabling the synthesis of thin films or
coatings. This makes CVD a versatile method that can be integrated
into existing manufacturing processes. Moreover, CVD provides the
advantage of depositing nanoparticles directly onto the desired
substrate, eliminating the need for additional steps to transfer the
nanoparticles onto a target material, thus improving efficiency and
reducing potential contamination[20]. In conclusion, Chemical Vapor
Deposition (CVD) is a highly controlled and scalable method for
synthesizing SnO2 nanoparticles. It enables precise control over
particle size, morphology, and crystallinity, resulting in high-quality
nanoparticles with uniform properties[20]. The ability to deposit
nanoparticles directly onto substrates makes CVD suitable for large-
scale production and integration into existing manufacturing
processes. With its versatility and ability to produce nanoparticles with
 enhanced properties, CVD holds great promise for advancing
technologies in various fields, including electronics, energy storage,
and sensing applications.

g) Micro-Emulsion Method

The microemulsion method is a unique and effective technique for

synthesizing SnO2 nanoparticles. This method involves creating a
stable system called a microemulsion, where small droplets of one
liquid are dispersed within another liquid. Within these droplets, the
chemical reactions occur to form SnO2 nanoparticles[22].The
microemulsion method provides precise control over particle size,
uniformity, and morphology, making it highly suitable for producing
nanoparticles with specific characteristics[23]. One of the advantages of
the microemulsion method is its ability to produce nanoparticles with a
narrow size distribution. By adjusting the composition and
concentration of surfactants and co-surfactants, the size of the droplets
within the microemulsion can be controlled[22]. This, in turn, allows
for control over the size of the resulting SnO2 nanoparticles. The
uniform size distribution obtained through this method ensures
consistent properties and performance, making the nanoparticles ideal
for applications where uniformity is critical.
 Furthermore, the microemulsion method offers versatility in producing
SnO2 nanoparticles with diverse morphologies. By manipulating the
composition of the microemulsion, including the types of surfactants
used, researchers can control the shape and structure of the resulting
nanoparticles[23]. This flexibility allows for tailoring the nanoparticles'
properties to suit specific application requirements. The microemulsion
method also provides a stable and controlled environment for the
synthesis, minimizing the formation of unwanted by-products and
ensuring the purity of the SnO2 nanoparticles[22]. In conclusion, the
microemulsion method is a powerful and versatile technique for
synthesizing SnO2 nanoparticles[22]. It enables precise control over
particle size distribution and morphology, resulting in nanoparticles
with tailored properties. The stability and controlled nature of the
microemulsion system ensure the purity and uniformity of the
synthesized nanoparticles. With its ability to produce nanoparticles
with specific characteristics, the microemulsion method holds great
potential for applications in various fields, including catalysis, energy
storage, and optoelectronics.

h) Template-assisted Synthesis Method

Template-assisted synthesis is a cutting-edge method for synthesizing

SnO2 nanoparticles with precise control over their size, shape, and
surface characteristics. This approach involves using a template or
sacrificial material as a mold or scaffold for the synthesis process[24].
The template can be made of porous materials like polymers or
carbonaceous materials. The precursor materials are introduced into
the template structure, allowing them to adopt the shape and size of
the template[24]. Subsequent processing steps are then employed to
remove the template material, leaving behind SnO2 nanoparticles with
well-defined properties. One of the key advantages of template-
assisted synthesis is the ability to produce nanoparticles with tailored
properties[25].By carefully selecting the template material and
adjusting the synthesis conditions, researchers can control the size,
shape, and surface features of the resulting SnO2 nanoparticles. This
level of control is crucial for applications that demand specific
nanoparticle characteristics, such as catalysis, sensing, and energy
storage.

Furthermore, template-assisted synthesis enables the creation of

complex nanostructures by utilizing templates with intricate
architectures, leading to the formation of SnO2 nanoparticles with
hierarchical morphologies.

Additionally, template-assisted synthesis offers versatility and

scalability. The method can be adapted to various templates and
precursor materials, allowing for the synthesis of SnO2 nanoparticles
with diverse compositions and structures[25]. Moreover, this technique
can be easily scaled up for large-scale production, making it attractive
for industrial applications. The precise control over nanoparticle
properties and the scalability of template-assisted synthesis make it a
promising method in the field of nanomaterial synthesis, providing
researchers with a powerful tool for tailoring nanoparticle properties to
meet specific application requirements[24]. In conclusion, template-
assisted synthesis is an innovative approach for synthesizing SnO2
nanoparticles with tailored properties. By utilizing templates,
researchers can control the size, shape, and surface features of the
nanoparticles, making them suitable for various applications.
3)Applications

SnO2 nanoparticles have gained significant attention due to their

unique properties, leading to a wide range of potential applications.
Here are some notable applications of SnO2 nanoparticles:

Gas Sensors: SnO2 nanoparticles exhibit excellent gas-sensing

properties, making them suitable for gas detection applications. The
high surface-to-volume ratio and tunable surface chemistry of SnO2
nanoparticles enhance their sensitivity and selectivity towards various
gases. They are commonly utilized in the development of gas sensors
for detecting harmful gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). SnO2-based
gas sensors have significant potential for applications in environmental
monitoring, industrial safety, and automotive exhaust systems.

Energy Storage: SnO2 nanoparticles have shown promise in energy

storage devices, particularly in lithium-ion batteries. Their high
theoretical capacity, low volume expansion, and good cycling stability
make them attractive materials for electrode components. SnO2
nanoparticles can be used as anode materials to improve the energy
storage capacity and performance of lithium-ion batteries, contributing
to the development of high-performance and longer-lasting energy
storage systems.

Photocatalysis: SnO2 nanoparticles possess excellent photocatalytic

properties, allowing them to efficiently utilize solar energy for various
chemical reactions. They can be employed as photocatalysts for
environmental remediation processes, such as the degradation of
organic pollutants and the purification of water. The photocatalytic
activity of SnO2 nanoparticles is attributed to their ability to generate
electron-hole pairs upon light absorption, which subsequently
participate in redox reactions. The utilization of SnO2 nanoparticles in
photocatalysis has the potential to address critical environmental
challenges and enable sustainable solutions.
 Optoelectronics: SnO2 nanoparticles have optical properties that make
them valuable in optoelectronic applications. Their wide bandgap and
high transparency in the visible range make them suitable for
transparent conducting electrodes, which are crucial components in
devices like solar cells, displays, and touchscreens. SnO2 nanoparticles
can also be utilized in optoelectronic devices such as light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), sensors, and photodetectors.

Biomedical Applications: SnO2 nanoparticles show promise in

biomedical applications, particularly in imaging and therapy. Their
excellent biocompatibility, high surface area, and tunable surface
properties make them attractive for targeted drug delivery systems.
SnO2 nanoparticles can be functionalized with specific ligands or
drugs and used for targeted delivery to specific sites in the body.
Furthermore, their optical properties enable their use in imaging
techniques like fluorescence imaging and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI).

4)Conclusion
This paper would be concluded with keeping the highlight on the fact that
there is huge amount of scope in ways of SnO2 nanoparticles synthesis, their
characterizations and the potential applications. Nanotechnology though
present in the academic and industry circle for almost years, still needs a huge
amount of investment in terms of academics indulging their time and
industry indulging their money into it. The characterization parameters can
be altered in many ways to look at the potential application and this paper
may fall short to cover all these important points in detail.

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