Materials Today: Proceedings 60 (2022) 216–222

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Stabilization of tropical soil using calcium carbide residue and rice husk
ash
F.O. Ayodele a,⇑, M.S. Fajimi a, B.A. Alo b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal Polytechnic Ado- Ekiti, Nigeria
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Ekiti State University Ado- Ekiti, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Many alternative stabilizers have been used in improving soil properties for road applications. However,
Available online 6 January 2022 they were mostly used to complement/partially replace cement or lime. This study seeks to use zero -
cement/lime binders in the evaluation of engineering characteristics of soil stabilized with the best bin-
Keywords: ary Calcium Carbide Residue (CCR) and Rice Husk Ash (RHA) treatment possible. The oxide compositions
Tropical soil of the soil, CCR, and RHA were determined. The natural soil was subjected to index property tests), com-
Stabilization paction, Soaked California Bearing Ratio (SCBR), Unconfined Compressive Strength(UCS), and erodibility.
Pozzolan
To achieve optimal CCR: RHA ratio, compaction and CBR were used. Atterberg limits, compaction, SCBR,
Calcium-based stabilizer
Engineering properties
Unconfined Compressive Strength, and erodibility were used to evaluate the engineering performance of
the soil stabilized at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10% of the optimum CCR: RHA mix. The RHA is a class N pozzolan while the
CCR’s CaO of 61% indicates how cementitious the residue is. The soil sample is non-lateritic. CCR: RHA
combined ratio of 40:60% offered the best strength and compaction performances. Further, the addition
of the optimum CCR: RHA at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10% improved the soil’s Plasticity Index (PI). Only 8% addition had a
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of 1770 kg/m3 meeting the AASHTO standard. The addition of CCR: RHA
improved the soil’s strength properties in terms of UCS and CBR. However, the CBR values generally do
not meet the FMWH and AASHTO recommendations for subgrade. Erodibility behaviour showed that
increasing CCR and RHA content improves soil durability. CCR and RHA have undoubtedly increased soil
strength, but not to the desired level. Therefore, further research should be conducted to determine their
compatibility with other stabilizers.
Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Sustainable Materials
and Practices for Built Environment.

1. Introduction are not adequate, there is a need for stabilization. Stabilization

Lateritic soils are one of the most common soil types in tropical
and subtropical climates. Nwakoala and Amadi [1] described them
as highly weathered tropical or subtropical residual soils with
varying particle size compositions varying from clay size to gravel
size. The availability of lateritic soil in Nigeria has resulted in its
multi-dimensional use, which includes brick moulding, filling
material in buildings, and use as a base and sub-base in road con-
struction. The lateritic soil’s nature, in terms of stability and low
expansivity, among other properties, has led to its acceptance as
a suitable material for base and sub-base in road construction
[2]. Although, whenever the desired properties required in soil
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ayodele_fo@fedpolyado.edu.ng (F.O. Ayodele).
through various methods such as the use of chemicals and natu-
rally occurring pozzolans is a vital way of enhancing the quality
of road materials. This improves the engineering properties of
the materials. Generally, conventional stabilizers have been used
in the past. Stabilizers such as lime and cement have been consid-
ered for soil stabilization.
Nigerian researchers such as Adebayo et al. [3], Adedokun et al.
[4], Edeh et al. [5], Offiong and Akpan [6], Ojuri and Oluwatuyi [7]
and Owamah et al. [8] have assessed the use of lime and cement
either in a binary or ternary form in the stabilization of soil. Com-
plementary pozzolans have proven to be effective. The use of poz-
zolans marginalizes the cost of these conventional binders, reduces
blight associated with littering of waste materials to the optimum
level in the environment, enhances the ideology of waste to wealth
and reuse of waste [9-11]. The pozzolans vary from industrial

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.465
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Sustainable Materials and Practices for Built Environment.
F.O. Ayodele, M.S. Fajimi and B.A. Alo
wastes to agricultural wastes. They include bagasse, coconut shell,
cassava peel ash, fly ash, calcium carbide residue (CCR), and rice
husk ash (RHA), among others. The use of solid waste materials
(agricultural or industrial) in soil stabilization for construction
has been reported. Danso et al. [12] investigated the effect of sug-
arcane bagasse fibre on the strength of soil blocks. It was reported
that adding 0.5 per cent sugarcane fibre content to clayey soil
resulted in stronger earth bricks. Bandyopadhyay et al. [13] exam-
ined GGBS and Calcium Carbide Residue for soil stabilization. The
experimental results show that various properties of soil added
with these stabilizers at a certain percentage show notable positive
changes as compared to the natural soil obtained. Shawl et al. [14]
investigated the effects of lime and sawdust ash on soil stability. It
was discovered that SDA and industrial waste can be used effi-
ciently in soil stabilization with a lower percentage of activator.
Edeh et al. [15] investigated the effects of oil palm fiber ash on
cement stabilized lateritic soil used for highway construction in
their report and found that oil palm fiber can be used as a base
material in road construction because it improves engineering
properties. Otunyo and Chukuigwe [16] in their work stabilized
lateritic soil with Palm Bunch Ash (PBA). It was noted that both
the soaked and unsoaked CBR of stabilized soil improved optimally
at 20% addition of the dry weight of soil. This justifies the use of
PBA as a construction material. This study is focused on the use
of Rice Husk Ash and Calcium Carbide Residue(CCR) in stabilizing
Nigerian lateritic soil. Annually, Nigeria produces approximately
1.1 million tons of rice husk and 200 thousand tons of Rice Husk
Ash [17]. Rice husk is used in Nigeria for cattle feed, partition board
manufacturing, and a variety of other small-scale applications.
However, it can be utilized in several other applications [18].
Resulting from its high content of silica, aluminates, ferrite, and
others as shown in Table 1, it is considered to be a good pozzolan
that can be used in the stabilization of lateritic soil.
Owoseni and Atigro [20] investigated the use of RHA in the sta-
bilization of soil. It was observed that the plasticity index and
swelling potential were reduced thereby leading to improvement
in the soil engineering properties. Alhassan and Alhaji [21], Gupta
and Kumar [22], Liu et al. [10], Oluwatuyi and Ojuri [23] and many
other researchers have considered the use of this agricultural
waste (RHA) and unanimously concluded that it improves the
strength properties of the soil.
Similarly, CCR is gaining attention for use in highway applica-
tions. Nigeria produces a considerably large amount of calcium car-
bide waste which emanates mainly from automobile workshops,
and local industries for headlights, and minor industrial works.
Calcium carbide is a chemical compound that contains calcium
and carbide and has the chemical formula CaC2. It is a calcium-
based stabilizer. Its residue has cementitious properties, making
it a viable replacement for conventional binders, as shown in
Table 2.
The use of CCR in conjunction with pozzolanic materials pro-
vides cementing property [25]. The viability of calcium carbide
residue has been established and proven to be feasible [1,10]. Akin-
wumi et al. [26] investigated the use of CCR in soil stabilization and
concluded that increasing the application of CCR reduced the soil’s
specific gravity, plasticity index, and maximum dry unit weight. As
a result, the soil became more workable and its strength properties
significantly improved. Bandyopadhyay et al. [13], Phummiphan
et al. [27] and Kumar et al. [28] also investigated the use of CCR
Table 1
Chemical composition of RHA (Source: Olorunnisola [19]).
Parameters SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
Composition (%) 82.14 1.34 1.27
Materials Today: Proceedings 60 (2022) 216–222
as a stabilizing agent. They concluded that cation exchange
between the soil and CCR improves the engineering properties of
the soil and, more broadly, the plasticity index of the soil. RHA
and CCR can be used as binary materials for soil stabilization due
to their inherent cementitious properties. As a result, the primary
objective of this study is to improve the engineering properties
of soil by stabilizing it with RHA and CCR.
This will provide baseline data on the use of RHA-CCR stabilized
lateritic soil for construction and may help to minimize the envi-
ronmental impact of waste materials.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Sampling of materials
The lateritic soil used in this soil was collected from the borrow
pit along Ado-Iworoko road, close to the Ekiti State University, Ekiti
State, Nigeria. Vegetative materials were removed from the sam-
ples before being placed in a polythene bag to prevent loss of nat-
ural moisture content. The sample was air-dried in the laboratory
and prepared following BS 1377 [29]. The CRR used was collected
from automobile workshops in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. The
CCR was air-dried, pulverized, and sieved through a sieve with a
300 lm opening. Rice husk was collected from Igbemo - Ekiti, Ekiti
State. It was moved to the Federal Polytechnic, Ado - Ekiti where it
was burnt openly to produce the rice husk ash. It was allowed to
cool and sieved using a 300 lm sieve. The oxide composition of
lateritic soil, RHA and CCR was carried out at Lafarge Cement lab-
oratory (Lafarge Readymix Nigeria Limited) Oregun, Lagos, Nigeria.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Physical and chemical properties of the binder materials
The specific gravity of RHA and CCR was determined following
BS 1377 [29]. The oxide composition of the soil openly burnt RHA
and the CCR was carried out at the laboratory of Lafarge Africa Plc,
Oregun, Lagos, Nigeria. X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), Vulcan machine,
and Carbolite fusion machine were used for the analytical mea-
surement of the oxides present in the ash.
2.2.2. Engineering properties of soil
Index property tests following BS 1377 [29] were carried out on
the natural soil samples. Table 3 shows the mix design used to
determine the optimum proportion used for the stabilization of
the soil. The employed RHA and CCR combinations are described
in Table 3. In determining the optimum RHA + CCR combination,
compaction (standard proctor method) and California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) tests were performed according to BS 1377 [29]. The
percentage combination is shown in Table 3 and the optimum
combined binder ratio (OCBR) at 40% CCR + 60% RHA was adopted
due to its preliminary optimum effect on the compaction charac-
teristics and CBR behaviour of the stabilized soil (See Fig. 1). The
adopted combination was subsequently added at varying percent-
ages of 0,2,4,6,8,10 and 12% by dry weight of soil. Compaction, CBR,
UCS were carried out on the stabilized soil following BS 1377 [29].
The durability (Erodibility) of the soil samples was assessed adopt-
ing the method used by Onyelowe [30].
CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O LOI
1.21 1.96 0.17 0.14 2.09 –
217
F.O. Ayodele, M.S. Fajimi and B.A. Alo Materials Today: Proceedings 60 (2022) 216–222

Table 2
The chemical composition of carbide waste (Source; Horpibulsuk et al. [24]).

Oxide composition CaO MgO SO3 SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 LOI

Percentage 65.05% 0.97% 0.64% <0.10% <1.22% 0.02% 27.92%

Table 3 Table 4
Determination of Optimum Mixing Ratio of RHA and CCR. The specific gravity of RHA and CCR.

S/N Binder Percentage Combination Defining Tests S/N Materials Specific gravity
1 90:10 CCR-RHA 1 Calcium Carbide Residue 2.26
2 80:20 CCR-RHA 2 Rice Husk Ash 1.56
3 70:30 CCR-RHA CBR
4 60:40 CCR-RHA Compaction
5 50:50 CCR-RHA
6 40:60 CCR-RHA respective weight composition in percentages. The lateritic soil has
7 30:70 CCR-RHA silica (SiO2) of 59.89%, aluminium oxide (Al2O3) of 17.69% and Fer-
8 20:80 CCR-RHA ric oxide (Fe2O3) of 7.48%. In defining soil based on the ratios of sil-
9 10:90 CCR-RHA
ica (SiO2) to sesquioxides (Fe2O3 + Al2O3), the soil has a value of
S/N Mixtures Tests 2.37. This indicated that the soil is not lateritic (Ola, 1976). As for
1 0 %OPT Specific gravity, particle size
RHA, it fit the description of Class N pozzolan since the sum of
2 2 %OPT distribution, Atterberg limits,
3 4 %OPT compaction, California Bearing SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 is 78.07% (ASTM C618, 2005). Also, loss on
4 6 %OPT Ratio (CBR), Unconfined ignition (LOI) of RHA is 6.91% which is less than the permitted
5 8 %OPT Compressive Strength (UCS), 10.0% for class N pozzolan. In the case of CCR, it had the sum of
6 10 %OPT erodibility SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 to be 4.31%, which makes it a non-
OPT is the optimum % binder combination. pozzolan but has a high content of CaO. It should be noted that
the CaO of CCR is 61.40% which shows how cementitious the CCR
is. The observed high LOI of 33.29% for CCR was because the mate-
rial mainly consists of Ca (OH) 2 which decomposes into H2O (gas)
and CaO at approximately 550 °C. The high LOI of CCR is slightly
3. Results and discussion
close to 32.27% as reported in the findings of Du et al. [31].

3.1. The specific gravity of RHA and CCR

Specific gravity indicates the density of the materials. The speci-
fic gravity of CCR and RHA used in this study is shown in Table 4. It
was noted that the specific gravity of CCR and RHA are relatively
low due to their powdered and ash form respectively. The specific
gravity of CCR is consistent with the findings of Horpibulsuk [24]
and Behak [18]. However, the specific gravity of RHA is relatively
lower which may be due to the method of calcination.
3.2. Oxide composition of the materials (Soil, RHA and CCR)
Table 5 shows the elemental oxides present in the Lateritic soil,
Calcium Carbide Residue (CCR) and Rice Husk Ash (RHA) and their
3.3. Determination of the optimum combined binder ratio
See Table 5.
3.4. Engineering properties of natural soil
The specific gravity of the soil which is a measure of density is
2.63. This value agrees with the reports of soil available in Ado-
Ekiti, Nigeria [32]. The particle grading properties are shown in
Table 6. The soil is coarse-grained with a little fraction of clay
(5.18%). The MDD of the natural soil is 1941 kg/m3 while the
OMC is 13.12%. The consistency properties especially the Plasticity
Index (PI) of 26.88 showed that the soil has medium plasticity and

Fig. 1. CBR and compaction characteristics of stabilized soil.

218
F.O. Ayodele, M.S. Fajimi and B.A. Alo Materials Today: Proceedings 60 (2022) 216–222

Table 5
Oxide composition of the soil, RHA and CCR.

Materials Oxide Composition (%)

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2O Na2O M2O5 P2O5 TiO2 LOI Total
Soil 58.99 17.69 7.48 0.62 0.20 0.00 5.35 0.00 0.13 0.03 1.17 5.87 98.44
CCR 2.98 1.10 0.23 61.40 0.00 0.13 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.07 0.07 33.29 99.29
RHA 75.53 0.84 1.70 0.96 2.58 0.00 2.32 0.00 0.39 8.50 0.19 6.91 99.92

Table 6 in the liquid limit and plastic limit of the soil but a decrease in the
Physical and chemical properties of the soil. PI of the stabilized soil. The increase in LL and PL can be attributed
Properties of Soil Soil Sample more to the replacement of soil by RHA particles and also RHA
Colour Reddish Brown causing flocculation, though it is pozzolanic [34]. The reduction
Percentage of Silt 40.97% in PI may be due to the hydration of the additives (pozzolan and
Percentage of Clay 5.18% calcium-based stabilizer) with the stabilized mixture which ulti-
Percentage of Sand 51.60% mately results in producing a stiff soil mixture (Onyelowe & Bui
Percentage Gravel 2.25%.
Van, 2018). Although, all the OCBR addition reduced the PI of the
Percentage Passing BS No 200 sieve (%) 46.15
Liquid Limit (%) 47.80 stabilized soil; 10% OCBR had the best plasticity performance with
Plastic Limit (%) 20.92 the lowest PI (16.23%), an indication of a reduction in the plasticity
Linear Shrinkage 4.80 of the soil. Fig. 2 shows the result of the effects of RHA: CCR on the
Plasticity Index (%) 26.88
lateritic soil.
Specific Gravity 2.63
Maximum Dry Density (kg/m3) 1941
Optimum Moisture Content (%) 13.12
Coefficient of Curvature, Cc 2.39
Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu 63
3.6. Effect of OCBR on compaction characteristics of the stabilized soil
California Bearing Ratio (%) 3.01
AASHTO Classification A-7–6(8) The compaction behaviour of the OCBR stabilized soil showed
Laterite class (SiO2 Þ=ðAl2 O3 þ Fe2 O3 Þ 2.37 (Non-lateritic soil) that the MDD was lowered by the addition of varying OCBR com-
pared to the natural soil. The compaction chart showing the
MDD and OMC generated as a result of the stabilization are shown
the soaked CBR behaviour showed a material with low subgrade in Fig. 3. There was a general decrease in MDD with the addition of
strength. The CBR value (3.01) makes the soil unsuitable for high- CCR and RHA. This decrease is not unconnected to the initial simul-
way construction purposes in Nigeria [33]. Generally, the AASHTO taneous flocculation and agglomeration of clay particles caused by
class (A-7–6) of the soil puts it away for fair - to- poor subgrade cation exchange leading to an increase in volume and decrease in
material and hence the need for stabilization. The summary of dry density. Also, this is due to the comparatively low specific grav-
the soil properties is detailed in Table 6. ity value of 1.56 and 2.26 of the RHA and CCR respectively com-
pared to that of the soil which is 2.63. On the other hand, the
3.5. Effect of OCBR on consistency limit behaviour of the stabilized soil OMC increased with higher RHA and CCR treatment due to the
increase in fines from the stabilizers with larger surface areas that
The behaviour of the consistency limits of the stabilized soil required more water for hydration. This aligns with the works of
was studied by the addition of the ratio of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) Roy [35] and Yadav et al. [36]. Only 8% of the OCBR met up with
and Calcium Carbide Residue (CCR). The plastic behaviour of the the recommended values of > 1760 kg/m3 MDD for subgrade
stabilized soil was observed and that there was a general increase and > 2000 kg/m3 for sub-base as specified by FMWH [33].

Fig. 2. Consistency limits of RHA: CCR stabilized lateritic soil.

219
F.O. Ayodele, M.S. Fajimi and B.A. Alo Materials Today: Proceedings 60 (2022) 216–222

Fig. 3. Compaction characteristics of the stabilized soil sample using OCBR.

Fig. 4. CBR characteristics of the stabilized soil sample.

Fig. 5. UCS characteristics of the stabilized soil.

3.7. Effect of OCBR on California Bearing Ratio of the stabilized soil
The CBR values of sub-grade, sub-base and base are important
factors in designing pavement thickness. Its value is commonly
used to evaluate the quality of pavement materials. Fig. 4 shows
the CBR behaviour of the stabilized soil. The CBR value increases
with the addition of OCBR content. In the stabilization process,
the CBR value increased up to 6% OCBR addition and then
decreased significantly as reported by other researchers
[32,37,38]. Peak performance of the addition of OCBR to soil was
achieved at 6% (optimum improvement of the lateritic soil with a
CBR value of 7.26%). This value is found to be meeting the required
220
5% specified for material to be used as a subgrade layer of road
pavement stipulated in the specification for Nigeria road and
bridges [33].
3.8. Effect of OCBR on unconfined compressive strength of the
stabilized soil
Unconfined compressive strength can be used to determine the
required amount of additives to be used in the stabilization of the
soil. The results of the unconfined compressive strength test of the
soil samples showed significant improvement in strength as the
stabilizing materials (OCBR) are being added as shown in Fig. 5.
F.O. Ayodele, M.S. Fajimi and B.A. Alo
Fig. 6. Erodibility behaviour of the soil samples.
This behaviour can be adduced to the fact that the fine particles of
RHA and CCR clog the interparticle pores of the stabilized soil mix-
ture, causing a change in soil structure and a reduction in plasticity
[10]. The improvement in the strength of the soil increased as the
OCBR content increased but got lowered at 10%. The improvement
in strength may be attributed to the Physico-chemical properties of
CCR and RHA. These properties reduced the water present in the
stabilized. This behaviour is typical of the additives’ behaviour as
reported by Gupta and Kumar [22].
3.9. Effect of OCBR on erodibility potential of the stabilized soil
This test is carried out to assess the resistance of the soil to ero-
sion under traffic load. There is vibration under the layers of the
road when vehicles pass through which tend to lose the particles
of the soil layer underneath and expose them to erosion. The ability
of the stabilized soil with OCBR to resist this phenomenon (The
resistance to loss of strength of soil treated with OCBR) is shown
in Fig. 6. The erodibility potential of the natural and stabilized soil
ranged from 83.18 g/min to 101.40 g/min. There is a clear indica-
tion that the addition of the OCBR to soil exhibits higher resistance
to loss of strength. This infers that bonding occurred as a result of
the use of the additives in the stabilization of the soil and therefore
make it more durable. Generally, the behaviour of the stabilized
soil mixture is due to stabilized mechanism of RHA-CCR (replace-
ment, coagulation reaction and ion-exchanged) as reported by
Liu et al. [10]. It was observed that the increase in OCBR increased
the strength of the lateritic soil to withstand the effect of water.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this study investigated the effect of binary blends
of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) and Calcium Carbide Residue (CCR) on the
engineering properties of lateritic soil. The consistency of the soil
improved noticeably. The plasticity of the soil decreased as the
additive content increased. MDD and OMC were reduced as the
optimal CCR: RHA addition was increased. The California Bearing
Ratio improved for soil strength at different additions of optimum
CCR: RHA dosage up to 6% and then decreased. Generally, as the
additives were added, the strength of the stabilized soil as mea-
sured by UCS improved. In general, the additives improve the soil’s
resistance to erosion. To summarize, the addition of CCR: RHA
221
Materials Today: Proceedings 60 (2022) 216–222
improved the geotechnical properties of the stabilized soil sam-
ples. It is possible to conclude that CCR and RHA are effective addi-
tives for improving soil engineering properties, particularly for
road applications. However, additional research may be required,
particularly regarding the durability of the CCR-RHA stabilized soil
and the use of different CCR and RHA additions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
F.O. Ayodele: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
Visualization, Writing – review & editing. M.S. Fajimi: Writing –
original draft, Investigation. B.A. Alo: Conceptualization, Method-
ology, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We hereby state that this study was part of the Higher National
Diploma final year project work of M. S. Fajimi as a student of Civil
Engineering Department, Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.
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