2020 TheFutureOfEnergy

ENERGY POLICIES, POLITICS AND PRICES
THE FUTURE OF ENERGY
CHALLENGES, PERSPECTIVES,
AND SOLUTIONS
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ENERGY POLICIES, POLITICS
AND PRICES
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ENERGY POLICIES, POLITICS AND PRICES
THE FUTURE OF ENERGY
CHALLENGES, PERSPECTIVES,
AND SOLUTIONS
THOMAS VALONE, PHD

EDITOR
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Valone, Thomas, editor.
Title: The future of energy : challenges, perspectives, and solutions /
Thomas Valone, PhD (editor), president, Integrity Research Institute,
Beltsville MD, US.
Description: New York : Nova Science Publishers, [2020] | Series: Energy
policies, politics and prices | Includes bibliographical references and
index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2020030185 (print) | LCCN 2020030186 (ebook) | ISBN
9781536181869 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781536183481 (Adobe pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Renewable energy sources.
Classification: LCC TJ808.5 .88 2020 (print) | LCC TJ808.5 (ebook) | DDC
621.042--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020030185
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020030186
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

A great review of advanced energy conversion topics that could be easily
implemented today!
These new sciences are needed now - while we still have time to implement
them - so why are they still being suppressed?
- Dr. Patrick G. Bailey, President, Institute for New Energy
The Future of Energy reveals a diversity of paths to a cleaner, cooler world.

This technical anthology pioneers the inclusion of truly game-changing
breakthroughs.
Jeane Manning,
Author, The Coming Energy Revolution and co-author of other books
A very inspiring review of creative technologies. Lots of interesting ideas,

some that were new to me and had me searching to learn more, and others that
got the wheels turning with questions about what will it take for this technology
to become common place.
Alison B. Flatau, Ph.D., Fellow: AIAA, ASME
Professor and Associate Chair, Aerospace Engineering Dept.
Director, Aerospace Engineering Graduate Program
Affiliate, Fischell Bioengineering Dept.
Affiliate, Materials Science & Engr.
Affiliate, Institute for Systems Research
Univ. Maryland
3188 Martin Hall
4298 Campus Drive, College Park MD 20742
aflatau@umd.edu
Office: 301-405-1131
Cell: 301-461-6038
Zoom: https://umd.zoom.us/my/aflatau
CONTENTS
Preface ix
Acronymns xi
Chapter 1 Future Energy Is Almost Here Along
with Increasing Global Heat 1
Thomas F. Valone
Chapter 2 Smart Cities and Energy Storage 33
Antonio Colmenar-Santos, Enrique Luis Molina,
Enrique Rosales-Asensio and David Borge-Diez
Chapter 3 Energy Resiliency and Microgrids 73
Antonio Colmenar-Santos,
Enrique Rosales-Asensio and David Borge-Diez
Chapter 4 Methods for 1D ZnO Nanostructures
and Potential for Future Solar Cells 107
Kelvii Wei Guo
Chapter 5 Possible Future Development of a Fusion-Fission
Hybrid Reactor as a Clean Energy Generator 133
John E. Brandenburg
viii Contents
Chapter 6 Low Energy Nuclear Reactions:

Documentation of Research Records 151
Thomas Grimshaw
Chapter 7 Electric Vehicle Development by Arthur Manelas
with Anomalous Results 167
Bill Zebuhr
Chapter 8 Questioning the Future of Solar Energy 179
Judy Kosovich
Chapter 9 Nikolai Kozyrev: His Theory of Time
and the True Position of Stars 201
Thorsten Ludwig and Marco Bischof
Chapter 10 Nonlinear Electromagnetic Energy Device
and Potential Explanations 243
P. A. Murad, M. J. Boardman, J. E. Brandenburg
and W. Mitzen
Chapter 11 Gravity/Anti-Gravity, Libration Points,
and Relativity: Exposing the Light on Dark Matter 303
P. A. Murad
Chapter 12 Proton and Electron Production and Destruction
as Sources of Energy 347
Ray Fleming
About the Editor 365
Index 367
PREFACE
The Future of Energy always presents numerous challenges and this

book demonstrates them abundantly. From the challenge of global climate
change, tripling of the world’s population since mid-century, quadrupling of
the carbon emissions in the same time frame, to the rapidly increasing energy
demand, which has quintupled since 1950, the Future of Energy can only be
speculative at best. The perspectives on the subject offered in this anthology
reflect the highlights of energy developments from the present with an eye
toward the future energy demands. While the solutions outlined in these
chapters may not be ideal or comprehensive, they serve to challenge the
reader with new ideas, evidence, and insights into the future needs of a
changing world.
The consideration of solar energy microgrids and energy storage
systems, along with the new nanostructures for solar photovoltaics (PV) is
reviewed in depth in the first few chapters. This anthology is filled with
many other future energy concepts and technologies worth examining. Some
of the most robust energy inventions are yet in need of the most R&D
funding and support. These include the Nonlinear Electromagnetic Energy
Device from Searl, the Manelas Device Generator, the proposed Hybrid
Fusion-Fission Reactor (HFFR), and the Low Energy Nuclear Reactions
(LENR) Research. However, renewable energy carries the weight of change
as we approach the 22nd century and is well represented in these chapters.
Chapter 1, which serves as an overview of the main topics comprising
the Future of Energy, includes a wide range of little-known discoveries, such
x Thomas Valone
as the study by Columbia University that “Energy harvesting by evaporation

could power much of the U.S.”9 Many other robust energy inventions are
briefly reviewed in the same chapter to give the reader a sense of the broad
landscape of energy solutions that are available today to solve the world’s
future energy problems in the long term, such as wave power, osmotic
power, floating wind farms, piezoelectric roadways, hot magma energy
harvesting, wireless transmission of power, 8-hour solar lights that work
anywhere, net zero homes, and phase-change insulation. Other inventions
under development are also described, such as the spiral magnetic motor,
diode energy converter, zero-point energy, and also carbon capture, use, and
storage (CCUS). A last-minute addition to that chapter, which just appeared
on a physics news service, is a water electrolyzer module from Rice
University to produce hydrogen that includes the solar-power source and can
be simply dropped into water to start working.37 Such all-in-one energy
inventions are key to a rapid transition with public acceptance to widespread
renewable energy that will ensure a clean Future of Energy to replace dirty
fuels of the past.
While the above hydrogen-oxygen invention comprises carbon
nanorods to work efficiently, other nanostructures are also presented in this
book that propose to improve the performance of solar cells. A new theory
of time with unusual benefits attributed to Kozyrev, is another surprise in
this collection. While the production or destruction of protons and electrons
may be speculative as a source of energy, the physics review of gravity,
antigravity, and dark matter also serves to stretch the imagination.
It is hoped that with continued research and development, the exciting
discoveries of HFFR, LENR, the Manelas device, and the nonlinear Searl
device presented in this book will come to fruition in the near future. Such
inventions hint at the possibility of the zero-point field (ZPF), also called the
quantum vacuum, being a vast, untapped reservoir of unlimited energy, as
physics already certifies as a law of nature.1
1
Valone, Thomas. “Historical Background of the ZPF”, Chapter 1 and “Future Prospects of
Advanced ZPF Technologies”, Chapter 7, in Musha, Takaaki, editor. Physics of the Zero
Point Field and its Applications to Advanced Technology, Nova Science Publishers, Physics
Research and Technology series, 2013.
ACRONYMNS
In order of their appearance in the text
UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme

NCA4 - National Climate Assessment #4
IPCC - International Panel on Climate Change
COP24 - 24th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations held in
Katowice, Poland 2018
NPR - National Public Radio
NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
GISS - Goddard Institute for Space Studies (NASA)
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide (also technically written properly as CO2)
US - United States
PETM - Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum
ppm - parts per million
GMO - Genetically Modified Organism
EESI - Energy and Environment Studies Institute
COFE - Conference on Future Energy
LED - Light Emitting Diode
R&D - Research and Development
IRI - Integrity Research Institute
xii Acronyms
ZPE - Zero Point Energy

CEO - Chief Executive Officer
SRI - Solar Reflectance Index
PCM - Phase Change Material
SMM - Spiral Magnetic Motor
DEAC - Diode Energy Array Converter
NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
DG - Distributed Generation
SMES - Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
LCL - LCL-filter = inductor-capacitor-inductor filter
REE - Red Eléctrica de España
ESS - Energy Storage Systems
CAES - Compressed Air Energy Systems
HV - High Voltage
kV - kilovolts
MV - Megavolts
EU - European Union
MW - Megawatts
A - Amperes
V - Volts
MWh - Megawatt-hours
IGBT - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
Tc - Critical Temperature for superconductivity
PHS - Pumped Hydro Storage
FES - Flywheel Energy Storage
EDLC - Electric Double Layer Capacitor
SPWM - Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
REBT - Reglamento Electrotécnico de Baja Tensión
HESS - Hybrid Energy Storage System
TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
PLC - Power Line Communications
THD - Total Harmonic Distortion
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
DC - Direct Current
Acronyms xiii
UPS - Uninterrupted Power Supply

LV - Low Voltage
LTS - Low Temperature Superconductor
HTS - High Temperature Superconductor
NbTi - Niobium – Titanium
YBCO - Yttrium barium copper oxide
BSCCO- Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide
MCU - Main Control Unit
CPLD - Complex programmable logic device
IP - Internet Protocol
MPLS - Multi-Protocol Label Switching (communications network)
SDH - Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
PV - PhotoVoltaic (solar system)
BESS - Battery Energy Storage System
DNO - Distributed Network Operator
RES - Renewable Energy Storage
MWh - Megawatt-hour
SG - Smart Grid
V2G - Vehicle to Grid
VBA - Visual Basic for Applications
C - Capacity
DC - Direct Current
AC - Alternating Current
kWh - kilowatt-hour
SoC - State of Charge
Ah - Amp-hour
Vdc - Direct Current Voltage
NaS - Sodium-Sulfur battery
Li-ion - Lithium-ion battery
Ni-Cd - Niobium-Cadmium battery
Pb-acid - Lead-acid battery
MC - Monte Carlo
MG - MicroGrid
Copt - Optimized Capacity
xiv Acronyms
kVA - kilovolt-amperes
PoC - Point of Connection
MVA - MegaVolt-Amperes
BYD - Build Your Dreams electric vehicle company
PPC - Power Plant Controller
PR - Performance Ratio
KWp - Peak power in kWh
CPI - Consumer Price Index
MPPT - Maximum Power Point Tracking
BDG - Backup Diesel Generators
nZEB - nearly Zero Energy Building
MILP - Mixed Integer Linear Program
ED - Energy Demand
LCOE - Levelized Cost of Energy
LCC - also LCCA – Life Cycle Cost Analysis
SoC - State of Charge
EB - Energy Balance
GCM - Grid Connected Mode
PICM - Power Interruption Cost Model
SGIP - Self-Generation Incentive Program
CSI - California Solar Initiative
HETR - Host Effective Tax Rate
FCI - Federal Corporate Income
EIA - Energy Information Administration (part of US DOE)
NPV - Net Present Value
IM - Islanded Mode
1D - One Dimensional
ZnO - Zinc Oxide
CVTC - Chemical Vapor Transport and Condensation
CVD - Chemical Vapor Deposition
MOCVD - Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition
VLS - Vapor-Liquid-Solid
0D - Zero Dimensional
2D - Two Dimensional
Acronyms xv
SLS - Solution-Liquid-Solid
OAG - Oxide-Assisted Growth
nm - nanometer (10-9 meters)
UV - UltraViolet
GaN - Gallium Nitride
eV - electron Volts
Å - Angstrom (10-10 meters
NR - NanoRod
OH - Hydroxl (oxygen-hydrogen) ion
XRD - X-Ray Diffraction
NW - NanoWire
NWA - NanoWire Array
DEZn - DiEthyl Zinc
DMZn - DiMethyl Zinc
mL - milliliter
mM - millimole
DI - DeIonized (water)
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope
h - hour
EDX - Energy Dispersive X-Ray
DSSC - Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell
QDSSC - Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cell
QD - Quantum Dot
PCE - Power Conversion Efficiency
MeV - Million electron Volt
Q - Quality factor Q = fr/Δf
nE - density confinement time
He - Helium
D - Deuterium (“heavy hydrogen” with extra neutron)
n - neutron
T - Tritium (“heavy hydrogen” with two extra neutrons)
TFTR - Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor
JET - Joint European Torus (fusion reactor)
U-235 - Uranium 235 (radioactive isotope of uranium)
xvi Acronyms
fc - Delayed neutron fraction

U-238 - Uranium 238 (stable isotope of uranium)
LENR - Low Energy Nuclear Reaction
LRDI - LENR Research Documentation Initiative
CV - Curriculum Vitae
CANR - Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions
ICCF - International Conference on Cold Fusion
SRI - Stanford Research Institute
ENECO - Eneco https://www.eneco.com or
https://www.enecoenergielab.nl/
COFE10 - Tenth Conference on Future Energy (www.futurenergy.org)
LENR - Low Energy Nuclear Reaction
nm - nanometer
PV - Photovoltaic solar panels
CSP - Concentrated Solar Panels
DC - Direct Current
AC - Alternating Current
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
SREC - Solar Renewable Energy Credits
RPS - Renewable Portfolio Standards
RECs - Renewable Energy Credits
24x7 - 24 hours and 7 days a week
μ - star velocity or proper motion of a star
 - trigonometric parallax
 - angle between true and apparent position of star
c2 - velocity of cause and effect
ʘ - angle between true position of star and sun
c3 - information velocity
A - Aberration
Aʘ - Aberration from position of sun
ly - light-year (~10 trillion km)
e - elementary charge
VT - tangential speed component
c - light speed (~30 million km/s)
Acronyms xvii
α - fine structure constant

γ - gravitational constant
GPIB - General Purpose Interface Bus
USB - Universal Serial Bus
DVR - Deutsche Vereinigung für Raumenergie
GEM - Gravito-Electro-Magnetism
MEC - Magnetic Energy Converter
rpm - revolutions per minute
E - Electric field
B - Magnetic field
J - Current density
S - Poynting vector
g - acceleration due to gravity
K - Cogravity field (Jefimenko)
P - momentum
h - Planck’s constant
hp - horsepower
MOND - Modified Newtonian Dynamics
WIMP - Weakly Interacting Massive Particle
G - Gravitational constant
ρs - a mass source term
φ - scalar potential
ω - angular momentum
AU - Astronomical Unit (93 million miles or the distance from the
earth to the sun)
MET - Microwave Electro-Thermal (thruster)
νe - neutrino
Z-pinch - directly driving a column of plasma with an electrical discharge
for fusion
SAFIRE - Stellar Atmospheric Function in Regulation Experiment –
plasma discharge chamber
In: The Future of Energy ISBN: 978-1-53618-186-9
Editor: Thomas Valone © 2020 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
FUTURE ENERGY IS ALMOST HERE ALONG

WITH INCREASING GLOBAL HEAT
Thomas F. Valone*
Integrity Research Institute, Beltsville MD, US
ABSTRACT
Motivation to present a review of emerging future energy technologies

was spurred on by the three climate reports at the end of 2018. The UNEP
Emissions Gap Report 11/27/18, NCA4 11/23/18, IPCC Report 10/8/18,
[1] and COP24 KATOWICE 12/2/18 [2] each had the same misconception
about a 1.5 to 2°C limit on warming if we implement sufficient (about
50%) renewable energy to cut the present carbon emissions by an arbitrary
amount. It seemed to me from those public offerings that either 1) a major
deception is being perpetrated, or 2) no one seems to know nor able to
express clearly the driving factors which already are forcing the biosphere
to a 5 to 6°C indebted response over the next 80 years, except for the famed
climatologist, James Hansen. Even the recent 2019 book, published by
Crown Publishers (Penguin Random House), called “The Uninhabitable
Earth” (and featured on NPR in 2019) failed to discern the innate cause of
global warming. Therefore, it requires a review article, citing the best
* Corresponding Author’s Email: IRI@erols.com.

2 Thomas F. Valone
authoritative sources, to educate the public about some basic formulas that
Dr. Hansen brought to light in 1988 and in 2006, along with their dire
consequences.
Keywords: future energy, climate change, clean energy, global warming,

new energy
INTRODUCTION
Such an energy review aimed toward the future is a challenge to include

remedies for power and food and waste conversion. However, at least for
professionals, the primary theme of this chapter is clear and is actually the
most compelling of any crisis today since it underlies basic necessities of
life, rather than a temporary threat. We, the inhabitants of planet earth, are
presently experiencing a 1.1° Celsius increase from baseline of 1925
NASA/GISS which presents a moving playing field that, as of April, 2020,
created the 2nd hottest March ever on record.
Figure 1. Global warming - manmade temperature anomaly.

Future Energy Is Almost Here Along with Increasing Global Heat 3
CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS DRIVE GLOBAL WARMING
In addition, the published compilation from Vostok of global

temperature, sea level, and CO2 (same as “CO2”) levels for the past 420,000
years shows a tight correlation of all three climate variables, so that a change
in one parameter affects the other two very rapidly (in geological time). No
one today, except for National Geographic [3], is revealing the real,
desperate situation that this immediate future presents to the world. The
present graph (Figure 1) of global temperature, will most likely become
exponential with the increasing energy demand focused mainly on fossil fuel
usage globally and unilaterally encouraged by the US government. It is
important for any environmental team to start with the premise that the CO2
driver for this rate of temperature increase is already on an exponential
increase that is unprecedented in earth’s history (290 ppm has been the
maximum CO2 for the past 400,000 years and now we are pushing past 410
ppm only a few decades later, with no end or “peak” in sight of the level nor
the rate of change). In this chapter, we are emphasizing the 55 million-year-
old Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) revisitation that the earth
is headed for by next century at the latest, which Dr. Scott Wing presented
at the Smithsonian in 2017 [4] and that Dr. Jim Hansen implies with his
Climate Graph. [5] Hansen single-handedly turned global warming into an
international issue in 1988 when he told a group of reporters in a hearing
room, just after testifying to a Senate committee, “It’s time to stop waffling
so much and say that the greenhouse effect is here and is affecting our
climate now.” [6] He then proved in 2006 that since temperature, CO2, and
sea level are extremely correlated and closely matched in “lockstep” for
almost a half million years, the global temperature and sea level will
inexorably increase proportionally to keep up with the increasing CO2
levels, even into the 2100s. Therefore, we show that all three change by the
same relative amount, with an astonishing, linear relationship of 20 ppm =
1°C = 20 m, from the published data shown in Figures 13-14.
4 Thomas F. Valone
Figure 2. Billions of tons of carbon added annually to atmosphere.
However, to begin with, Figure 2 shows the accumulated carbon in our

atmosphere, mostly since 1950, when there was only about 2 billion people
on the earth. Now 10 billion tons of carbon shown here translates into about
39 tons of CO2 just emitted in one very recent year, as compared to less than
30 a decade ago. The way to calculate the total accumulated CO2 that is
causing the delayed, extreme greenhouse effect we are just beginning on the
entry ramp of the global temperature “hockey stick,” is to consider the
excess parts per million (ppm) of CO2 that is currently just sitting in our air
since 1950 when the baseline of 290 ppm on Hansen’s Climate Graph (see
condensed version in Figure 13) actually existed worldwide. If we take 410
– 290 ppm = 120 ppm, that is the excess we need to remove by gigaton (Gt)
geoengineering carbon capture, if we ever hope to go back to the stable
climate of the past. Translating that to gigatons (1 ppm CO2 = 7.77 Gt CO2)
we get 932 Gt CO2 that needs to be captured AT THIS TIME. If we keep
adding at least 40 Gt every year as we did last year, then this total keeps
rising by that amount of emissions every year!
FUTURE ENERGY TO TRANSFORM THE ENVIRONMENT
We can keep in mind that global ethics are involved with transforming
the environment. As a comparison, at least one environmentalist will recall
the “Green Revolution” when hybrid wheat was developed by Dr. Norman
Borlaug that was resistant to “wheat rust” and distributed to the world with
an increase in the need for fertilizer to spawn the higher yield crops.
However, looking at the global impact of the Green Revolution, along with
the benefits gained from the Green Revolution, there have been several
criticisms. The first is that the increased amount of food production has led
to overpopulation worldwide and accelerated its exponential growth. The
second major criticism is that places like Africa have not significantly
benefited from the Green Revolution and the genetic diversity worldwide
has diminished to perhaps 3% of the original crop, endangering its long-term
survival. Since this chapter’s author taught Environmental Science at the
college level for years, I can also attest to the additional criticism of the
Green Revolution that the number of starving people worldwide was
actually quantitatively increased due to the population growth from two
billion at the time (1950s) to over six billion today, while the percentage
stayed the same worldwide. According to Wikipedia and other sources,
Borlaug, who received a Nobel Prize for his work, is credited with “saving
a billion people from starvation” when there were only 2 billion people on
the planet! [7] Dr. Borlaug also stated that he gave us only 20 to 30 more
years to solve the population problem which he noted was contributing to
unsustainability. However, the Green Revolution of his amazing, high
productivity hybrid (natural GMO) wheat only caused the global human
population to continue increasing, though its rate of increase reached a peak
in 1975 and is slowly leveling off.
The recycling of waste is paramount for a sustainable society and a
showcase of the floating plastic islands in the ocean should be made at the
conference. As I mentioned before, www.EESI.org (Energy and
Environment Studies Institute) recently sponsored a panel on Capitol Hill in
the Senate Building on Waste Processing for energy generation. Studying
their website for suggestions, especially the “Fact Sheet – Biogas:
6 Thomas F. Valone
Converting Waste to Energy”, is worthwhile since from what can be learned

from the event is that several companies are growing rapidly and making
significant profit. Dr. Nirmala Khandan from New Mexico’s State
University [8] has also presented his department’s work on waste to energy
conversion at COFE8.
Figure 3. Biogas sources and products.
Now getting to another topic of future energy, many renewable energy

companies not addressing the solutions to climate change at all. Instead, they
seem to be defensive and combative, with skeptics and climate deniers
included in the discussion, who should no longer be entertained. Our COFE
series of 11 conferences have accumulated a wealth of solutions to climate
change, including carbon capture and clean, renewable energy production,
to mention some of the most recent developments.
In that regard, I would tend to stress the emerging industry of solar-
powered portable LED lights that at least three companies are now
responsible for. When we consider the major impact of disasters, the
electricity loss is widespread. Furthermore, third world countries are
notorious for the lack of evening indoor lighting so school kids try to study
by candle light by the millions. Therefore, www.mpowred.com,

COFE = Conference on Future Energy, a series of annual events sponsored by Integrity Research
Institute, with DVDs and electronic download available afterwards. www.futurenergy.org.
www.littlesun.com, and www.luminaid.com all have been manufacturing

and distributing thousands of long-lasting, durable portable solar lights,
yielding eight hours of bright LED light at night. For example, the Luci
model is the least expensive and most reliable, in my experience
(https://mpowerd.com/products/give-luci) and also half price for donors to
disaster areas, as seen in Figure 4.
Figure 4. MpowerD.com is leading solar lighting with 8 hours of portable light.
Of course, this anthology is filled with many other future energy

concepts and technologies worth examining. Some of the most robust yet in
need of the most R&D funding are the Nonlinear Electromagnetic Energy
Device, the Manelas Device Generator, the Hybrid Fusion-Fission Reactor,
and the Low Energy Nuclear Reactions Research. The rest relate to more
conventional renewable energy.
8 Thomas F. Valone
WATER CRISIS, SALT WATER, AND WATER POWER
It is noted that the latest discovery of “Evaporation Energy Generation”

is a huge development, reported in the IRI Future Energy eNews,1 and
predicted by Yale, MIT, and Cambridge to have the capability to power
“much of the U.S.” with gigawatts of power from open reservoirs and
isolated lakes. [9] These are the breakthroughs which IRI pays attention to
and advocates, so we pass this cutting-edge discovery onto the forefront for
consideration by any principal investigators of companies wishing to
position themselves for the future of energy.
Figure 5. Atmospheric water generator.
Addressing the impending water crisis: websites and books are

everywhere which show even more compelling details about a water
shortage worldwide as compared to food. With glaciers disappearing,
mountain streams and rivers are disappearing globally. Wars are being
blamed on drought. However, water from the air (Figure 5), with
1
Future Energy eNews is a free monthly emailed newsletter from
www.IntegrityResearchInstitute.org with a sign-up on the homepage and provided by the
secure Constant Contact broadcast service.
condensation converters, are becoming more commercially available to

install anywhere, producing gallons of drinking water daily. [10]
It is well known that solar-driven desalination plants are now returning
to popularity (Santa Barbara’s old decommisioned desalination plant in
California is now being reactivated). However, the more interesting
connection to food production is “Saltwater Farming” which was the topic
of NASA Chief Scientist Dennis Bushnell at the IRI Second Conference on
Future Energy (COFE2) in 2006.
Another fascinating water person is Walter Jenkins who invented an
engine that runs on charged water fog, and it is described in his recently
granted Canadian patent as well as his US patent application, filed in 2011,
establishing him as the discoverer. The patent describes an ultrasonic
transducer under water in a small cylindrical container (Figure 6). An
electrostatic charged grid surrounds the periphery of the water at the surface
level. The grid is charged at high voltage but very low current so that fog
particles created adjacent to the grid become electrostatically charged. The
low current ensures little power is consumed to charge the plain water fog,
which can even exceed the percentage of conventional gasoline fuel. An
electrostatically charged mesh attracts the charged fog toward the orifice for
intake into the combustion chamber.
Figure 6. Ultrasonic fogger with charged grids.

10 Thomas F. Valone
Figure 7. Wide plasma spark plug.
The patent also describes a wide-plasma spark plug with a center

spherical cathode intended to flare out the plasma during discharge (Figure
7). The spark plug is fired for the entire down stroke of the piston, and it is
driven with a transformer oil at high frequency and at a higher voltage than
normal, 100 to 200 kV. (Typical spark plugs run at 50 kV.)
Jenkins discovered he did not need the wide plasma spark plug if he
mixed in a small amount of gasoline with the water. The patent stated a
mixture with less than 5% gasoline, but Jenkins recently claimed success
with a mixture of about 1% gasoline. Here the charged fog particle would
be coated with a thin layer of gasoline which ignited to form plasma on the
fog particle surface. The patent was written as a method for vaporizing a fuel
mixture, and thus it was granted because it appeared to make ordinary
scientific claims.
Even though adding a secondary fuel like gasoline or hydrogen begets a
simple practical device, it obscures the scientific discovery that microscopic
plasmoids coherently interact with the zero-point energy (ZPE) as the
primary energy source. To convince the scientific community, it would be
better to work with pure water to make charged fog and use abrupt capacitor
discharge through the wide plasma spark plug. To make the capacitor
discharge very fast requires minimizing the inductance and resistance in the
circuit between the capacitor and the spark gap. Aaron Murakami’s team
patented a simple circuit that uses the high voltage coil to start the spark, and
the ionized gap then offers a conductive path for the capacitor discharge.
High voltage diodes ensure the discharge is unipolar. It is easy to know if
the capacitor discharge is fast enough: The arc makes such a large acoustical
shock wave in air (boom!) that it requires ear protection. A self-running
generator where the electrical output is sufficient to keep recharging the
capacitor would be a spectacular demonstration. Because fuel combustion is
notoriously inefficient where most of the energy is lost as heat, a repeating
experiment involving a self-running generator would be convincing. After
the scientific discovery is accepted by the world, then simpler, practical
systems can easily be engineered. [11]
Figure 8. Motion to electrical energy from wave power.
Similar water discoveries have been made regarding the little-known

“Motion Power” from tides and waves (Figure 8) and “Osmotic Power”
(Figure 9) from my presentation slide on a close proximity of a fresh water
12 Thomas F. Valone
lake and the sea, as Norway has proven. [2] Norway’s Statkraft electricity
generation plant is the world’s first osmosis power plant, built at the junction
between a lake and a saltwater sea. With a special permeable membrane, the
pressure between the salt water and the fresh water creates a flow that can
be converted into kilowatts of electricity.
Figure 9. Osmotic Power is a clean energy generator.
When we try to address the consequences of global warming, the IRI

Climate Graph (Figure 13) proves that sea level rise will be ongoing and
extremely significant for centuries to come, so that the latest implementation
of “Floating Wind Turbines” (Figure 10) is a paramount industry worth
promoting. These tend to be immune to the rising seas because they float on
top of the water.
2
IRI publishes a “Harvesting Osmotic Power Hydroelectricity” report from www.integrity-
research.org for those interested in more information on this emerging future energy source.
Figure 10. Floating wind farms can sustain rising sea levels
FUTURE OF LAND ENERGY – UNCONVENTIONAL DESIGNS
While many view land-based renewable energy or carbon-free energy to

be conventional solar and wind, energy engineers today are constantly
learning about new and exciting sources of robust energy that has just
recently been discovered. The Association of Energy Engineers
(https://www.aeecenter.org/) and other organizations that report on “energy
harvesting” are some of the leaders in the field. Some examples that are
promising and/or already in preliminary use are the following. They are not
exhaustive but only scratch the surface of alternative energy available today.
Piezoelectric Roadways
“California Is Testing Piezoelectricity on Roads to Generate Power from

Passing Cars” reads the title of an article online [12] that follows up on
research done by an Israeli company called Innowattech, which our institute
advocated for years, until it dissolved. Installing piezo panels under
14 Thomas F. Valone
highways and railways, Innowattech was able to generate 250 kW to 500

kW for every kilometer for 250 to 500 cars in a single lane per hour [10], so
it seemed that the invention should succeed.
It would rely on piezoelectric crystals, which produce a bit of current

when you squeeze them. Such crystals are often used in audio equipment
to turn sounds into signals or vice-versa, but if you put enough of them
together, they could run streetlights, sensors, and other useful highway
equipment. A total of US $2.3 million will be invested in two projects. First
up, a 60-meter (200 foot) stretch of roadway near the campus of the
University of California, Merced, north of Fresno, will salt the pavement
with 2-centimeter-wide piezoelectric generators “stacked like quarters,” as
Jian-Qiao Sun, an engineering professor at the school, told the San
Francisco Chronicle. The other project, to be run by Pyro-E, LLC of San
Jose, will use similar devices to generate power for off-road use; the
company speaks of scavenging enough power to supply 5,000 homes. If
the experiment proves out, California state officials say the system would
be expanded to other roads. By recovering energy that would have gone to
waste, such systems count as renewable energy sources under the state’s
green-energy policy. [13]
As a result of this and many other awards, the Pyro-E company is now
a leader in the field of energy harvesting of broadband natural and manmade
vibrations, with 80% efficiency using a proprietary SSIM technology.
“Pyro-E custom designs and deploys solid-state technologies for energy
harvesting applications. Our electromechanical device could extract energy
from low-frequency, intermittent vibrations befitting of buildings, train rails,
oil/gas pipelines, etc. By coupling with commercial sensors, vibrational
energy harvesting enables other devices to operate without wiring, thus
paving for an interconnected future that is attainable today. Foreseeably,
Pyro-E's unique perpetual power solution will utilize a greater portion of the
renewable energy resources available from highways and railways
(https://www.pyro-e.com/).
In 2018, “a preliminary study on the highway piezoelectric power
supply system” was published with a positive assessment in a Chinese study
in terms of lighting LED signs with moving traffic, for a similar but more
limited size demonstration project than mentioned above. [14]
Hot Magma Energy Conversion is Ten Times

the Geothermal Norm
Drilling into hot rocks to tap geothermal energy is one thing. Drilling
deep enough to tap the energy from magma oozing into volcanoes is quite
another, offering a massive increase in the potential to exploit Earth’s inner
heat. That is the task of a rig now drilling five kilometers into the rugged
landscape of old lava flows in Reykjanes, at the south-west corner of
Iceland. The Iceland Deep Drilling Project (IDDP) in 2017 created the
hottest hole in the ground, hitting temperatures anywhere between 400 and
1000 °C. The project also is generating up to 50 MW, instead of the usual 5
MW from normal geothermal wells. [15]
Recently, the Krafla power plant in Iceland’s Krafla caldera now
generates 60 megawatts of electricity and is operated by Landsvirkjun, the
National Power Company of Iceland. [16] Such a project power plant could
also be installed in the Yellowstone Caldera, which presently holds the
largest magma caldera in the world with shallow magma reachable within a
three mile depth. Furthermore, if expanded to provide sufficient output, such
a drain on the enclosed caldera heat might reasonably delay the expected
eruption of the caldera, from any thermodynamics consideration. Such an
eruption, which can happen without warning, would devastate the
midwestern states in the US with volcanic ash [17] and cause a nuclear
winter effect from floating ash and smoke high in the upper atmosphere,
blotting out the sun for a year or more. [18] Since Iceland has proven that
drilling into magma can generate super-heated steam for ten times the energy
generation of a normal geothermal well, it would seem prudent for the
United States to follow suit and pioneer such a clean energy technology, also
capable of postponing or neutralizing a huge natural disaster.
16 Thomas F. Valone
Time for Adaptation to a Warming World
As we approach mid-century and beyond, some experts state even today

that it is not enough to try to limit further global warming – we must also do
far more just to ensure that we survive it. That is the message of the Global
Commission on Adaptation, a coalition of 28 global commissioners
including Bill Gates, a former UN head and the CEO of the World Bank,
Kristalina Georgieva. Overseas, urgency is the word from the newly formed
Global Centre on Adaption, says its CEO, Patrick Verkooijen. Today, half
of the money lent by the World Bank is for climate-related projects or $20.5
billion in the past year for adaptation. [19] With the coming shock to the
global atmosphere being a call for alarm, as many nations, scientists, and
politicians agree, as CO2, already 38% higher than the 290 ppm historic
maximum, aiming to triple by 2100, with temperatures projected to be
surpassing six (6°C) degrees hotter by 2100, adaptation should be a high
priority for everyone.
Cool Roofs Make a Difference in a Hotter Climate
Now that more and more young people are motivated, such as the U.K.
Student Climate Network, old and young alike may want to know some of
the best methods for adapting to hotter environments. For homeowners, one
of the most important is cool roof coatings that work to keep your home cool
in two distinct ways. It’s a potent combination of high solar reflectance and
thermal emittance that make these roof coatings so effective at keeping your
home cool and your energy costs and usage down. [20]
Another option that is similar is simply to install white roof shingles.
The White Roof Project is a nonprofit movement which seeks to educate the
public about such a simple, long-term solution to increased environmental
heating of dark-roof home and business buildings. A white roof is
constructed with solar reflective white coating and reflects up to 90% of
sunlight (as opposed to traditional black roofs which reflect only 20%).
White roofs' benefits are measured partly according to the solar reflectance
index, or SRI. A roof's SRI is a measure of a surface's ability to reflect solar

heat. SRI measures reflectance (reflecting the sun's rays) and thermal
emittance (the roof's ability to radiate absorbed heat). If you've ever worn a
black T-shirt in the sun than you already understand that black's reflectance
is negligible and its emittance is zero. A white roof's reflectance is as high
as 90% and its emittance is 100%. [21]
Phase Change Insulation Is Ten Times Better
In the construction of new homes, many states like California are

designing more efficient insulation so that the structure requires very little
heating or more importantly, expensive air conditioning. The best and most
advanced building insulation consists of phase change materials (PCM).
Phase-change materials (PCMs) use a quirk of physics to aid in thermal
storage. When you warm up a solid material (like ice), its temperature rises
steadily until it nears the melting point. At that point, the temperature
remains roughly the same as the material continues to absorb heat; the
process of changing phase from solid to liquid absorbs a lot of energy, called
latent heat. Once the material is entirely melted, its temperature resumes
rising. When you cool down and freeze a liquid, the same process happens
in reverse, releasing stored energy. [22] A one centimeter of the best,
BioPCM brand of soy-based gel, from Phase Change Energy Solutions, in
wall cavities has low flammability and equals about 25 cm of concrete!
Other companies such as DuPont “Energain” and BASF “Miconal” sell
similar PCM products for insulation as well, which are highly recommended
for those middle-income individuals who want to keep their costs minimized
as each decade becomes hotter with continued global warming. GlassX
Crystal is another PCM product designed as quadruple-glazing windows.
The four panes of tempered safety glass form three separate insulating
glazing units great for southern facing windows to allow low-angle winter
sun to aid in heating but to also keep out high summer sun to minimize
cooling costs. [23]
18 Thomas F. Valone
To complete this section, the ultimate adaptation is a zero energy home.

Fortunately, another nonprofit organization called the “Zero Energy Project”
has pioneered such information for us. Recent counts done by a coalition of
net zero advocates shows the number of zero and near-zero energy home
projects in the U.S.A. and Canada at over 6,177 residential units in 3,330
buildings. [24] With $23,500 in upgrades, it costs less than $10.00 per square
foot more to build a home that uses no energy: $0.0 energy cost every month
for a net zero home; $125-$200 energy cost per month for standard homes
versus 10 to 16 years to recoup the additional cost of building a net zero
home. [25]
Electricity for the Rest of the World
Approximately 1.2 billion people (roughly one in six people) still live
without access to electricity today. About 3 billion (a little less than half of
the global population) rely on solid fuels and kerosene for cooking and
heating, even though kerosene fumes are very unhealthy. The electricity
access deficit is evident in Sub-Saharan Africa (63% of Sub-Saharan Africa
population), South Asia (20%), East Asia and the Pacific (4%), Latin
America (3%), and the Middle East and North Africa (3%).
Because this population tends to be concentrated near the equator and
most energy produced during daylight hours is consumed during the day, a
breakthrough in energy generation technology could provide off-grid
populations with a game changing solution for productivity and
development.
In the year 2000, the number of people living without electricity access
was roughly 1.3 billion, so even though that figure has dropped since then,
this deficit is not shrinking fast enough. How can we incentivize solutions
that reduce that number more quickly? Our IRI advocacy of solar lights
(Figure 4) is a prominent and successful movement, with MpowerD.com
leading the way, donating them to the most deserving towns and villages
that have NO electricity presently.
Amazing work around the world has already led to great progress in
rural electrification. The global rural electrification rate (fraction of the
population having access to electricity) has increased from 63% in 2000 to
73% in 2014. Still, there is a huge gap: 27% of rural populations still lack
electricity.
Figure 11. Tesla’s Wardenclyffe Tower and new pilot at Viziv Technologies.
Wireless transmission and reception of electrical power across the earth

without power lines was first demonstrated by Tesla in 1899 at Colorado
Springs, CO. In recalling that experience, Nikola Tesla (Dec., 1904, L.A.
Times) stated, "With my transmitter I actually sent electrical vibrations
around the world and received them again, and I then went on to develop my
machinery." This topic was also introduced in the book, Harnessing the
Wheelwork of Nature [26] by this author, and is recommended reading. A
second book, Nikola Tesla’s Electricity Unplugged, [27] has also been added
to the topic by this author, with an exclusive focus on the science of wireless
transmission of electrical power. The book contains a collection of the best
contributions from the world’s experts proving that such a technology is not
only possible but has already been tested in numerous settings. The latest
development, proving the worth of Tesla’s theory, is the successful
20 Thomas F. Valone
experiment by Texzon/Viziv Technologies in Texas (Figure 11) who

transmitted power 25 miles throught the earth’s Zenneck waves (explained
in the book) and previously operated a 1 kW motor from 1 km away with no
connecting wires. The wireless power supply system uses a "transmitter
probe" located near the power generator to trigger a Zenneck carrier wave.
Receiver antennas are suitably positioned around the world to receive the
signal and load the power into a local micro-network or conventional
network architecture. [28]
Integrity Research Institute’s Future Energy Program
With only a few promising energy, propulsion, and bioenergetics

inventions, IRI has focused its attention on maximizing its effectiveness by
perfecting the inventions that promise the best outcome for the effort. The
Spiral Magnetic Motor (SMM) can be showcased as the easiest to complete
for commercialization as a prime mover for electrical energy production.
The magnetic gradient has not been utilized to the extent that is possible and
the SMM is proof that this neglected workhorse can be put to use. Only
minor improvements to the several switching or commutation devices need
to be completed this year for a working prototype. The Zero Bias Diode or
officially, the Diode Energy Array Converter (DEAC) project [29] is a little
more involved with various prototypes proposed and predicted, from various
thermal and nonthermal sources, including ZPE. However, with thermal
rectification becoming an accepted improvement in energy conversion
technology, much of the work has already been pioneered and documented
by the Colorado State University Zero-Point Energy Lab, headed by Dr.
Garret Moddel. [3]
3
Zero-Point Energy Technology, Quantum Engineering Lab Publications, Garret Moddel,
https://www.colorado.edu/faculty/moddel/quantum-engineering-lab/zero-point-energy-
technology. Also see Valone, Thomas. Zero Point Energy: The Fuel of the Future, Integrity
Research Institute, 2009
CARBON CAPTURE: GLOBAL WARMING INTO COOLING
Many environmental conference events need to address the most

important and least discussed problem of the climate crisis: the carbon
capture and sequestration (CCS) options, since we have over a thousand
gigatons of CO2 to remove from the atmosphere (a teraton = a trillion
tons = 1,000 billion tons). If the world hopes to survive the inevitable
temperature increase PAST the two-degree danger zone, which will be here
in just another decade, it needs to:
1) Convert the majority of energy production to carbonless source over

time, and
2) Initiate an immediate large scale, one trillion-ton sequestration
project for CO2 removal from the atmosphere, as soon as possible.
Figure 12 shows one of the concepts for carbon capture using polymer
membranes for smoke-stacks, exhaust pipes, etc. [30] However, a new
graphene membrane now developed only uses a single atom thickness. [31]
It is well known that innovative engineering has to ramp up the million-
ton carbon capture success of “Iron Seeding” of plankton for example, in
order to remove the excess billions of tons of CO2 sitting in the atmosphere,
which is trapping heat and driving the global temperature and sea level rise
for centuries to come.
Figure 12. Multi-layer polymer membrane design for carbon capture.

22 Thomas F. Valone
Figure 13. Dr. Jim Hansen’s Table, in 2006 when CO2 was only at 377 ppm, to a
surprisingly LINEAR proportionality between the three parameters of CO2, Global
Temperature, and Sea Level.
NOTE: Dr. Hansen’s data summarized in his key on the half million year
graph proves that the CO2 level is already dangerously high and must be
restored to 1950 levels for the world to start experiencing a DECREASE in
temperature and sea level, even if all fossil fuel burning stopped tomorrow!
Hansen at the Goddard Institute of Space Studies used the 1999 Vostok
data, to add temperature data with calculated historic sea levels, along with
concurrent carbon dioxide levels for the same period, matching maximum
and minimum level perhaps in order to provide a similar visible range of the
three variables on the same graph (Figure 14). proportional relationship of
the three variables (carbon dioxide, temperature, sea level) with whole
numbers, in black, red, and blue, that the Table data can be converted into
an equation and thereby create a “Key” to Figure 14.
Figure 14. The author’s 2019 composite of the first and last portions of the Hansen
Climate Graph, with the KEY summarizing an equation for three reversible variables.
Thus, a compact form of Figures 13 and 14 can be expressed, after due

examination of the linear data in the columns of Figure 13, in a convenient
three-variable equation, using real values for the magnitude of the variables,
∆C/20 = ∆T = ∆S/20 (1)
where ∆C is the +/- relative change in CO2 in ppm, with a corresponding

∆T in degrees Celsius, and ∆S being sea level in meters. This becomes very
analytical with the (before 1950) historically stable, assumed baseline “zero
values” of So = 0 m, Co of 290 ppm, and To = 14.55°C (or ~15C) from Figure
14, we find that putting those ∆ values in Equation (1), the next scaling point
for the Y-axis can be found only for a limited extrapolated range, from the
present 410 ppm up to perhaps 600 ppm or so. This is mainly because the
sea level increase is already calculated to reach its earthly maximum of over
70 meters, with the 410 ppm CO2 level. Furthermore, the temperature
increase calculated for each further 100 ppm in CO2 = 5°C warmer, so
another 200 ppm, up to 610 ppm will total an increase of 16°C above
24 Thomas F. Valone
baseline, which equals what the earth experienced in the PETM epoch, when
the CO2 level reached about 800 ppm. Therefore, a nonlinearity starts to
become apparent at even slightly higher CO2 levels. Let the reader be
warned that even a 6°C increase will be catastrophic for the earth inhabitants
and present governments.
One of the only top contenders for addressing the magnitude of the
sequestration needed, in view of Figure 2, is iron seeding of the oceans. Russ
George from a company called Planktos was a COFE2 speaker in 2006 and
has been vindicated many times since then for having proven the efficacy of
providing sufficient powdered iron to a patch of the ocean and then
monitoring the percentage of plankton that fall to the bottom of the ocean,
past the thermocline. He has succeeded many times to cause plankton
blooms which grab millions of tons of CO2 from the atmosphere and deliver
it to the bottom of the ocean. [32]
Figure 15. Solomon “irreversible” scenario of a 4-5°C rise in global temperature by

2050 before any manmade, yet-to-be-discovered gigaton geoengineering kicks in to
remove the accumulated atmospheric carbon. Such a temperature increase seen here
will displace a billion people on the average and reintroduce widespread starvation by
reducing vast areas of farmland around the world to desert (desertification). [33]
National Geographic has been publishing the development of carbon

capture as the only hope for reducing atmospheric carbon. Many other
articles and companies like Climos have advocated iron seeding, which has
a simple and natural origin for its efficacy. Even NOAA explains that:
“Diatoms supply the oxygen in every fourth breath you take. Diatoms are
critical in the ecological food chain of streams, lakes and oceans. Scientists
have suggested that seeding the ocean with iron to stimulate diatom
reproduction could help remove atmospheric carbon dioxide, slowing
Earth's current warming trend.” [34]
CONCLUSION
The deleterious effects that the Hansen Climate Graph predicts for our
immediate future is approximately one degree of temperature increase for
every twenty (20) years going forward, if not more. In fact, in 1988, Hansen
predicted about a 4°C increase globally around 2060. [35] It took 30 years
for the first degree C increase and now it starts occurring on a regular and
totally predictable basis well into the 22nd century, unless our earth’s heat
trapping cloaking is removed by its reduction to IR transparency.
Furthermore, specific actions must be taken to reverse this catastrophic,
runaway train which threatens the survival of a huge portion of humanity.
As Figure 14 proves historically, the driving effect of CO2 on the global
temperature response is reversible. It also has been proven by humans to
have a relatively short time delay of only a few decades and can go in either
direction, based in this case on the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Therefore, it is recommended that, at the same time that carbon-free,
renewable energy sources are slowly adopted worldwide, including the
notable, robust energy inventions cited in this chapter, the real heavy lifting
will be designing herculean gigaton carbon capture and carbon
sequestration on a global scale to start bringing the global concentration of
the heat-trapping CO2 downward instead of scaling upwards every year.
Furthermore, judging from the ineffectual and minimal impact of previous
national commitments, it is recommended that at least one and perhaps
26 Thomas F. Valone
several specific multinational agencies are vital, along with the United
Nations endorsement, to implement a scaled up massive, hundreds of
billions of tons of CO2 injection into a distributed array of carbon capture
technologies that produce a carbonate rock underground. We must reach a
trillion-ton CO2 capture by 2100, along with a multi-billion-ton concurrent
CCS perpetually, until the carbon emission rate levels out and declines. The
goal needs to be a sequestration, capture, and conversion of up to 2,000 to
3000 billion (2-3 trillion) tons of CO2 in relatively few 5 to 10 decades, even
as other nations keep adding more and more CO2 to the finite, transparent,
“overhead pollution wastebasket” otherwise called earth’s atmosphere, to
avoid a hothouse earth. Just converting CO2 into another fuel, as many
companies are now doing today, is only postponing the inevitable, since the
CO2 will be expelled right back into the atmosphere when it is burned.
Sadly, even planting a trillion trees, as many have advocated, just buys the
world a short respite of 100 years or less, until those trees die and give up
their captured CO2 back into the atmosphere again. Since 1950, the world’s
population has tripled, carbon emissions have quadrupled, and energy
demand has quintupled. [36] When will we learn to control population or
simply control consumerism, avarice, individual carbon footprints, and self-
centered luxury-striving by the majority of humanity?
Figure 16. Water-splitting module just needs continuous water and sunlight.
Perhaps the latest breakthrough of “perpetual energy” on a chip will

help, developed by Rice University researchers who have created an
efficient, low-cost device that splits water to produce hydrogen fuel, along
with oxygen. The platform developed by the Brown School of Engineering
scientist Jun Lou integrates catalytic electrodes and perovskite solar cells
that, when triggered by sunlight, produce electricity. The current flows to
the catalysts that turn water into hydrogen and oxygen, with a sunlight-to-
hydrogen efficiency as high as 6.7%. This sort of catalysis isn't new, but the
lab packaged a perovskite layer and the electrodes into a single module that,
when dropped into water and placed in sunlight, produces hydrogen with no
further input. The researchers intend to improve the encapsulation technique
as well as the solar cells to raise the efficiency of the modules. [37]
Though it may seem like an impossible task at this time, the requisite
trillion-ton carbon capture technology recommended here will only become
more and more difficult with each passing year from now, similar to the US
national debt, both of which keep growing. Justification for this “Saving the
Earth for Future Humanity” project can simply be the realizable vision of
the forlorn 290 ppm CO2 environment, historically seen in Figure 14 before
1950, where 14.5°C can once again be maintained to stabilize global average
temperature. Such a future will also restore the global heat sinks called
glaciers, since they will see the proper, compatible environment to begin
refreezing as proven time and again by 420,000 years of earth’s history. [38]
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Conference, https://cop24.gov.pl/.
28 Thomas F. Valone
[3] “Six Degrees Could Change the World”, https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=R_pb1G2wIoA, National Geographic Society,
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[4] Wing, Scott. Global Warming 56 Million Years Ago and What It
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piezoelectricity-on-roads-to-generate-power-from-passing-cars/
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Chapter 2
SMART CITIES AND ENERGY STORAGE
Antonio Colmenar-Santos1,*, Enrique Luis Molina1,

Enrique Rosales-Asensio2 and David Borge-Diez2
1
Department of Electric, Electronic and Control Engineering, UNED,
Juan del Rosal, 12 – Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain
2
Department of Electric, Systems and Automatics Engineering,
Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071 León, Spain
ABSTRACT
Smart grids are a concept which is evolving quickly with the

implementation of renewable energies and concepts such as Distributed
Generation (DG) and micro-grids. Energy storage systems play a very
important role in smart grids. The characteristics of smart cities enhance
the use of high power density storage systems, such as SMES systems.
Because of this, we studied the possibility of adapting these systems in this
kind of electrical topology by simulating the effects of an energy storage
system with high power density (as SMES). An electrical and control
adaptation circuit for storing energy was designed. The circuit consisted of
three blocks. The first one was a passive filter LCL. The second was a
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: acolmenar@ieec.uned.es.
34 Antonio Colmenar-Santos, Enrique Luis Molina et al.
converter system that allows rectifying of the signal when the system runs
in charge mode but acts as an inverter when it changes to discharge mode.
Finally, there is a chopper that allows the current levels to be modified.
Throughout simulations, we have seen the possibility of controlling the
energy supply so as the storage. This permits to adapt to different
contingencies which may induce the wiring of the charge in the net, as well
as different types of charges. Despite the technical contribution of this kind
of systems in the Spanish electrical network, there are big obstacles that
would prevent its inclusion in the network, such as the high cost of
manufacturing and maintenance compared with other cheaper systems
such as superconductors or the low energy density, which limits their use.
Keywords: energy storage, superconducting, adaptation system, smart

city, simulation
INTRODUCTION
A smart grid is a concept that has evolved quickly with the

implementation of renewable energies and concepts as distributed
generation (DG) and micro-grids. According to the electricity system
operator in the Spanish electricity network, REE, a smart grid [1] is “one
that can efficiently integrate the behaviour and the actions of all the users
connected to it, so that it ensures a sustainable and efficient energy system
with low losses and high-level quality and supply security”.
The definition given by the REE of Smart grids encompasses both the
electrical system and the communications system. The main idea is to
synergize efforts and capabilities to improve the system so that it allows
optimal results to be obtained, despite the complexity of factors and entities
acting in the electrical network.
Within that concept and in the electricity supply networks of the near
future, we may find the concept of smart city, which can be defined as those
cities that already have an innovative system and networking to provide an
improved model of economic and political efficiency allowing social,
cultural and urban development. To support this growth, there is a
commitment to innovation industries and to high technology, which permits
Smart Cities and Energy Storage 35
urban growth based on the impulse of capabilities and networks. This will
be achieved through strategic and inclusive plans that enable the
improvement of the local innovative system [2].
Nowadays, the focus is on the development of models that permit to
increase the efficiency of the elements which electric network has towards
cities. This is based on statistics and data that shows that 54% of the world’s
population lives in cities. This percentage will increase, not only owing to
the migration of the rural population towards cities but also by the growth
of the population. It is estimated that in the next 25 years, the world
population will increase from 7300 million to 9500 million people and that
the population will be more urban, increasing to 66% in 2050 [3].
This urbanization process is even more advanced in Europe and
particularly in Spain, in which more than two-thirds of the population is
urban and is expected to reach 85% by 2050, which, along with the
American continent, leads this population change [3].
The model of the electricity system by means of DG allows to diversify
generation systems and adapt them to temporal or geographical needs. This
model promotes renewable generation systems of low and medium power.
This is associated with the use of energy storage systems (ESS).
Besides traditional storage systems, such as different types of batteries
or compressed air systems (CAES), there are other systems such as
flywheels and Li-ion batteries; and supercapacitors or Superconducting
Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES), which might face system’s requirements
with high power density energy storage.
The use of SMES systems in smart cities provides an element of support
to zones in which peak power is required at certain times, such as in
industrial areas. Furthermore, SMES systems can provide other applications,
which enable its inclusion in the network, such as Uninterruptible Power
Supplies (UPS), adequacy systems of voltage levels and frequency control.
The inclusion of an ESS in the electricity network in a Smart city
complements the use of renewable generation systems because these
systems could bring distortions in the quality of the network signal.
Therefore, a DG system is related to ESS, which implies different
possibilities in the connection to the network, as will be seen during the

chapter.
The present chapter is divided into 6 sections. In addition to the
introductory section, the methods and materials used in this chapter will be
explained in section 2. In this section, section 2, the actual electric network
model will be presented followed by distribution grid settings of the ESS
towards the reference distribution grid. In the section 3, the theoretical
framework concerning the inclusion of storage system SMES in a Smart city
is explained. This allows to obtain possible benefits of the inclusion of these
systems on the electric network, so as another type of indirect profits. In the
section 4, the results are shown according to simulations performed
following the methodology and calculations indicated in the previous
sections. In this section, section 4, obtained signals in the inlet and outlet of
the converter during the charge and discharge of these systems are shown.
The discussion of the results obtained in the section 4 at a theoretical
level as well as the analysis of the different architectures of the network are
presented in section 5, considering the characteristics and main assumptions
developed earlier. Finally, in section 6, the main conclusions learned
throughout the technical study of the inclusion of these systems in a smart
city connected to the Spanish electric network will be presented.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In this section, we describe the processes we carried out during this

study to obtain the results. The analysis of the electricity network is one of
the most important aspects in this process and, also, the main point.
We have to keep in mind that the actual electricity network in the
Spanish system is based on a pyramidal structure. Currently, energy is
mainly generated in big production centres, such as thermal power stations,
hydroelectric power plants, and nuclear power plants. Energy is carried at a
HV until it reaches the distribution grid and final consumers, Figure 1.
Source: Adapted from [4].
Figure 1. Model of the Spanish electricity grid.
In the last years, this structure has started to change owing to the
inclusion of small generation centres in the network, which has been
empowered by the expansion of renewable energies. This is possible thanks
to a meshed grid with distributed generation, a concept which is very much
linked to smart grids, Figure 2. The use of cogeneration systems that allow
the generation of district heating and electric generation systems is also
enhanced [5].
Figure 2. Distributed generation model.
Figure 3. Basic scheme of a SMES system [7].
In the new electricity grid model, renewable generation sources play a

very important role. In addition, renewable energies are linked systems, such
as ESS, that enable proper operation in the electrical system.
In relation to ESS, it is important to consider that storage systems can
act in two ways. On the one hand as loads in the network when they are in
charge mode, and on the other hand, as generators when they are in discharge
mode. The connection of these systems to the network can be done at any
point of the network. In the study, we focused on network transport at MV.

Figure 3 shows a basic scheme of the SMES System.
For the connection of the ESS of the terminals normalized in the
transformer is ∆Yn11, that is to say, the primary voltage from the
transformer goes in a triangle and the secondary in star, with an accessible
neutral terminal in order to power the various receivers and also to connect
for electrical grounding the neutral point of the secondary. The secondary
voltage of the transformer, which is normalized by the European Union [8]
(EU), is 400 V between phases and 230 V between phase and neutral for
supplying final user in the distribution grid.
With the aim of understanding the behaviour of the SMES system in the
network, the data of the study conducted by [9], in which there is a SMES
system Energy/Power = 6.49 MWh/1.52 MW, with the idea of being able to
simulate the circuit by means of the program Proteus 8.3. With these
indications, it was determined that a secondary voltage of 2000 V from the
transformer and a coil current of 325 A are required to obtain the required
power requirement.
In this case, it is considered that we work both in primary and in
secondary voltage with MT. For this reason, voltages have to be over 1001
V (doing so we intend to mark an initial limit of medium voltage). The aim
is to limit the current in every electrical and electronic devices for the
purpose of reducing losses. Also, this implies working with elements with
huge voltage drops, something to bear in mind while designing the rest of
the circuit, especially considering semiconductors.
With these premises, a circuit has been designed that seeks to adapt the
network signal to the working of the SMES system. The circuit shown in
Figure 4 has been configured, where it is divided into the filter, converter,
chopper and SMES coil. The calculation for obtaining the characteristic
values of the components is developed in Appendix A.
For the design of this circuit has taken into account the working
frequency of the grid in Spain, 50 Hz, for the design of the LCL filter placed
after the transformer. That transformer will be designed to bear the operating
power of the system and will also act as a protective element both in the
input and in the output, because it acts as an overcurrent limiter.
Figure 4. Storage system circuit.
In relation to the design of the converter, two main points were

considered. The first one is if the converter in rectifier mode can or cannot
be controlled. Due to the simplicity of the design and the little importance
in the simulated system, we chose the uncontrolled system throughout
power diodes. The second point are peak voltages to work with. It is
important to keep in mind the voltage design selected in order not to work
with higher voltages than the breakdown voltage of the IGBT’s and from
the rectification capacitor. This can be applied with the IGBT’s of the
Chopper.
As for the simulation, to obtain the graphs of the corresponding signals,
voltage and current probes have been placed at the input of the coil to see its
charge and discharge. This probes of Proteus are also provided which show
the voltage and current signals to the rectifier input. For this simulation,
power losses in transformers, wiring resistances and others elements
influencing the measurement of the characteristic values of the SMES
system have not been taken into account.
It is important to point out that for the study realization we dismissed
samples taken during a second, t = 0 - 1 s. This is mainly due to the lack of
a smooth start circuit, which prevents undesired fluctuations to appear
during the boot.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this section, we analyse the theoretical framework of the network and

the ESS in which the present research was performed. To do that we are
going to analyse one of the main smart cities in Spain, Málaga [10].
In appendix B, a smart cities analysis along with SMES storage systems
and control and monitoring systems are shown. The interconnection of all
the network elements is indispensable in Smart grids.
It is important to keep in mind that nowadays cities occupy 2% of earth
surface, consume 75% of world energy and generate 80% of greenhouse
gases [11].
A model that encompass the main aspects of a smart city is shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Smart city model.

Within these aspects, we may find transversal elements, such as:
 Information and communication technologies

 Sensors
 Security
 Materials
Inside transversal systems is the concept of information and

communication technologies, which allows information interconnection
among different systems. The communication system of the project smart
city Málaga is shown in Appendix C, [10] which displays the
interconnection of the different nodes and transformation centres; the
communication nodes mostly match with the centres.
There are also 4 blocks to focus on when developing a Smart city:
Energy and environment, buildings and facilities [12], mobility and inter-
modality and government and social services. All these blocks are
connected, they are not isolated. Inside the first block, Energy and
Environment, one important element in the smart city is the energy storage
systems, ESS, whose main purpose is to guarantee energy supply. Energy
storage systems (ESS) can be grouped according to different characteristics
which facilitate the choice of one device or another for the storage system
[11]. Devices that actually are commercialized and/or in development are
grouped in four main groups: Electrochemistry (different kind of batteries),
Mechanic (FES, PHS, CAES), Electrical (SMES, EDLC) and Thermal.
Most of the electricity storage across the world, approximately 95-98%,
is based on PHS owing to the simplicity and maturity of this technology.
Nevertheless, the number of ESS that are different from PHS has grown
from less than 1% to more than 1.5% in 2010, and 2.5% in 2015 (a growth
rate higher than 10%) [13, 14].
As stated above, the present chapter focuses on superconducting
magnetic energy storage (SMES), and the technical possibilities of its
inclusion in a Smart city. We have to keep in mind that superconducting
magnetic energy storage is a system that allows the storage of energy under
a magnetic field thanks to the current going through a refrigerated coil at a
temperature under critical superconductivity temperature, Tc. The system is

based on a superconducting coil, a refrigeration system that allows the
critical temperature to be obtained, an electric system to convert and
adequate the signal and a control system to adapt currents and optimize the
process.
In order to develop these systems and reach the proper working levels,
a lot of studies have been realized about performance optimization of these
systems, as well as network connection settings [15-22]. Other studies deal
with optimization of the electrical adaptation elements, as well as in
regulation and control systems [23] or the study of inclusion of these systems
in the microgrids/smart grids [24, 25].
RESULTS
In this section, we present the results of simulations realized through the

Proteus program. It is divided into two subsections. The first one shows
signals obtained during the charge of the device, using a converter in rectify
mode, both in the coil and in the other entry of that rectifier.
Once the coil charge is simulated, the second subsection shows the
signals obtained during the discharge of the SMES system to the network,
showing the signal at the terminals of the SMES coil and at the output of the
inverter in inversion mode.
Charge of the Storage System
To carry out simulation in the charge mode, we set the circuit with the
non-controlled three-phase full wave rectifier. The circuit has been designed
with the calculations shown in Appendix A.
The input voltage to the rectifier, with the 3 phases differenced and out
of phase by 120°, is shown in Figure 6. The peak voltage of the waves is at
2828 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. Trials have been carried out, introducing
noise and interference, with the intention of verifying the efficiency of the
LCL filter design adapted for the case, showing at all times a perfect sinus
signal at the entry of the rectifier.
On the other hand, there are input currents in the rectifier. This is shown
in Figure 7, where charge moments can be distinguished and when t = 0.36
s, approximately, permanent mode is reached. At this time, the control
system considers the ESS charged, consequently the system will disconnect
from the rest getting into permanent mode.
Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 6. Signal to rectifier input.
Figure 7. Current at the rectifier input.

Furthermore, we have to bear in mind voltage and current signals in the

SMES system. In this case, as shown in Figure 8, the voltage reached after
rectification of full wave is 4600 V after the charge period. Also in Figure 9
it is shown the slope given by the current in the coil during the charge,
reaching approximately 325 A. This current is regulated and adapted at each
moment by the chopper, achieving a total control over the energy we want
to store.
Figure 8. Voltage at the output of the rectifier.
Figure 9. Current at the entrance of the SMES.

For a system connected to the network, a reliable and rapid response

data acquisition system allows the increase of the efficiency and accuracy of
the measurements, and therefore in the system operation.
Discharge of the Storage System
Once the system is charged, we can discharge the energy stored in the
coil. This energy is provided by means of the control of the current, with the
chopper and the converter in inverter mode. Then, by means of the control
system, a rapid drop in the coil current iSMES (t) is imparted, as shown in
Figure 10. This setting is reflected in the voltage in the capacitor of the
converter, noticing the change from the reached values to 0 V, Figure 11.
Furthermore, the inverter provides a sinus signal, at 50 Hz and an
effective voltage of 2000 V, which, after going through the filter, is refined
to remove the undesired harmonics hat are introduced by the electronic
elements of the circuit. In order to obtain the three sinusoidal phases, the
signal inversion is carried out by means of the IGBT’s continuous voltage
switching with weighted sinusoidal pulse width (SPWM) [26]. The inverters
with this kind of setting are easy to filter because the coupled harmonics are
distant from the main harmonic.
Figure 10. SMES output current during discharge.

Figure 11. Voltage in the capacitor during discharge.
Figure 12. Phase voltage at the inverter output during discharge.
An important characteristic has to be emphasized, obtained from the

simulations of this type of ESS. Because of the short distance between the
storage systems and loads, small network losses occur. These losses are only
shown in the loads that are connected to the ESS.
DISCUSSION
It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the electricity

network, such as the large number of generation sources, the length of the
transmission and distribution grid, as well as the wide variety of loads in the
electricity network.
In the case of the smart city, the SMES system has been positioned in
the distribution grid, in medium voltage, to support the loads related to
industrial production. This implies that the distance between the storage
systems and the loads is not large, so the resistive and capacitive effects are
not relevant in this study.
With the simulations, you can see the limitations that these types of
systems have on the electricity grid. The main technical limitation is the
short discharge time of these systems, owing to their high power density. On
the contrary, this provides great advantages, such as the possibility of being
used for the compensation of energy fluctuations. However, at present, they
cannot be considered as a long-lasting auxiliary energy support system.
Although it is true that these ESS allow control of the fluctuations of the
network, largely caused by the connection of loads, there are elements or
configurations that allow to control that connection of loads. Among the
most used are three-phase star-triangle motor connection, connection by
means of a soft starter or frequency converter connection.
However, the “Reglamento Electrotécnico de Baja Tensión” (REBT),
electric normative manual Spanish, in Instruction ITC-BT-47, requires the
incorporation of suitable systems that limit the intensity at the engine start
[27], or another loads, that greatly introduce distortions to the network.
Despite the use of these devices or configurations, signals that can influence
the quality of the network signal are always introduced.
As discussed at the outset, one must take into account the interrelation
between the different blocks that interact in the smart cities. In the case of
the electrical network, it is important to highlight the communications
system in the electricity system. The main objective of the communication
systems in the smart grids is to strengthen and automate the network,
improve its operation, the quality indexes and reduce the losses during
operation.
Increased storage capacity in SMES systems and the adequacy of the

energy conversion rate are the most important factors in the applications of
this ESS in intelligent electric grids. In terms of configuration, it should
focus on DFACTS models, distributed AC distribution systems with the aim
of solving the quality problems of power. On the other hand, there are
technical limitations that prevent its use being generalized in storage
systems. Until technical solutions and technologies are developed to solve
this problem, a hybrid systems called HESS can be used as a solution.
Compared to SMES high power density systems, hybridization focuses on
combining them with other high energy density systems, the most important
factors in the applications of these systems in smart electric grids:
 Batteries-SMES: Hybrid models with SMES and batteries is the

most used, owing to the wide variety of battery types. The
simulation of this type of systems has been carried out and a suitable
mathematical model has been obtained [28, 29].
 CAES-SMES: This type of system has not been used because of its
high complexity and cost. In spite of this, this hybridization is
compatible because of the technical characteristics of each of the
systems.
 Fuel Cells-SMES: This type of system has been tested and simulated
with the aim of creating a small-scale efficient storage system for
use in electric cars [30].
 PHS-SMES: PHS systems are the most widespread storage systems
and are oriented towards large capacity systems. This type of
systems should be utilized for power supply in HV.
Table 1 shows different types of ESS with their associated

characteristics. Here you can see the storage capacity and operation of
different ESS and the possibility of hybridizing the systems:
Table 1. Summary of the characteristics of the hybrid

architectures [31]
Discharge time
Efficiency (%)
Response time
Power (MW)
Maturity
Life time
Capacity
(MWh)
(Years)
Technologies
Battery: Lead– 0.25 ̴50 ≤ 100 millisecon ≤ 4h Demo ̴ ≤ 20 ≤ 85

acid d Commercial
Battery: 0.25 ̴ 25 ≤ 100 ≤ 1h Demo ≤ 15 ≤ 90
Lithium-ion
Battery: NaS ≤ 300 ≤ 50 ≤ 6h Commercial ≤ 15 ≤ 80
Battery: ≤ 250 ≤ 50 ≤ 10 min ≤ 8h Demo ≤ 10 ≤ 80
Vanadium
Redox
FES ≤ 10 ≤ 20 ≤ 10 min ≤ 1h Demo ̴Mature ≤ 20 ≤ 85
PHS 5000 ̴ 14000 500 ̴ 1400 sec ̴min 6h ̴ 24h Mature ≤ 70 ≤ 85
CAES 250 ̴ 2700 50 ̴ 135 ≤ 15 min 5h ̴ 20h Demo ̴ ≤ 40 ≤ 85
Commercial
DLC 0.1 ̴ 0.5 ≤1 ≤ 10 ms ≤ 1min Commercial ≤ 40 ≤ 95
SMES 1̴3 ≤ 10 ≤ 10 ms ≤ 1min Commercial ≤ 40 ≤ 95
Thermal ≤ 350 ≤ 50 ≤ 10 min N/A Mature ≤ 30 ≤ 90
As for the architecture model to be used, hybrid systems can be grouped

into 3 main types:
 Active Parallel. This model consists of connecting each ESS with

an independent adaptation system to converge in another one and to
be able to adapt the signals in a single one that meets the conditions
to be supplied to the electric network, Figure 13.
 Passive (or direct) parallel. This model consists of the direct
connection with a single adaptation system, without other
intermediaries, Figure 14.
 Cascade: Finally, the cascade model consists of linking the ESSs
with their corresponding adaptation system (Figure 15).
Figure 13. Active Parallel model adapted from [28].
Figure 14. Passive Parallel model adapted from [28].
Figure 15. Waterfall model adapted from [28].
Table 2 shows a summary of the characteristics of the different

architectures discussed [28].
Table 2. Summary of the characteristics of the hybrid

architectures [28]
Active parallel Passive parallel Cascade

Scalability Scalability is higher Limitation provided Scalability in these
because the number of by a single systems is limited to the
power conversion steps adaptation system operation
between any ESS and load
is always two, and the
power conversion loss
does not increase as the
heterogeneity increases
Flexibility A variety of control and There is no Lack of freedom in the
energy management flexibility in the control policy
strategies can be selection of ESSs
implemented nominal voltage
Operation Each ESS can operate at Simplicity but the Provides decoupling of
its specific voltage, which current distribution the ESSs which allows
allows the specific power between ESSs is active energy
and specific energy be uncontrolled and management by use of
optimized using the best determined just by additional power
available technology the factors which conditioning between
vary with voltage ESSs in turn
Cost More expensive Less expensive Expensive
Others The stability is also Easy The cascade architecture
improved since a failure implementation is restricted in terms of
of one source still allows scalability because it
the operation of the other suffers from more
conversion losses as the
number of power
conversion steps
increases
These hybrid architectures are controlled by the central control system

of each ESS that communicates with the communications equipment of the
central control system of the facility, being able to send status and alarm
signals, and receive commands. On the other hand, has four outputs for
contactor control or equivalent protection elements of the ESS.
In the case of Smartcity Málaga, the distributed storage system must be
attached to the generator elements mainly, with the dual mission of storing
energy and regulating the energy generated by wind or photovoltaic systems.
As for hybrid storage systems, they should be considered in industrial
environments or environments in which the load requires a considerable
instantaneous power input that high energy density systems cannot handle.
Figure 16 shows the distribution of the generator systems of Smartcity

Málaga [10].
Each storage module must have monitoring equipment that
communicates, via standard RS-485, with the central control system of the
ESS. This monitoring includes temperature, voltage, current and load status,
plus other multilevel alarms.
In this case, the control equipment of the storage system must be formed
by an automaton equipped with different modules. The communications of
the PLC signals can be made by the conventional telephone data
communication network, using TCP/IP protocols, by a wireless telephony
backup system, in case the telephone connection by cable fails, or by Power
Line Communications (PLC), using power cabling as a support for
communications.
Source: [10].
Figure 16. Distributed Generation in Smartcity Málaga.

CONCLUSION
We designed and simulated a storage system SMES that can be adapted

to the Spanish electricity network. Knowing the proper functioning of these
storage systems allow their inclusion in the Spanish electric system. Through
simulation, we have seen the behaviour of the systems and the advantages
they can bring to such complex systems as Smart Cities.
Electric energy storage systems with high power density can be used to
eliminate signal fluctuations and support industries starting with elements
such as three-phase induction motors, which can introduce harmonics and
signals that impact the quality of the signal. The current peak for the electric
motor start-up may contribute imbalances in the electric network indirectly
affecting other connected loads. For that reason, Smart cities may contribute
a big advantage in industrial areas where the use of high-density power ESS,
such as batteries or other systems, do not add that start-up power peak
needed for these kind of loads. We have to keep in mind the characteristics
of the smart cities themselves. The electric and energetic system of this
concept is based on energy saving and increasing the efficiency in its
generation, transport, supply, and use.
Despite technical advantages that the SMES systems provided by the
Spanish electric network, there are several negative points that impede the
implementation and development in electric systems. Along with the high
cost of construction and operation, compared with other ESS with similar
characteristics such as superconductors, there is a need to form hybrid
systems together with high-density power ESS.
SMES, by themselves, have little future, as long as the technical
characteristics do not improve, such as rising the energy density or adding a
system that allows working with a continuous supply regimen. This implies
the need to develop hybrid configurations that can overcome these
disadvantage.
APPENDIX A
In order to obtain the maximum energy of the SMES system, it must be

taken into account that it consists of a coil of a determined material with an
indicated geometric shape. For this, the storage energy of a coil is given by
the inductance and the current.
1
𝐸 = 2 𝐿𝑆𝑀𝐸𝑆 𝐼 2 (1)
After the transformer, the next circuit block is the star-connected LCL
filter, Figure A.1. LCL filters are specially designed to eliminate the
harmonics of the current absorbed by 6-pulse power converters. They are
essentially passive filters based on a series-parallel combination of inductors
and capacitors, adapted to filter the input of the power converters.
The LCL passive filters have a high quality factor, therefore, they show
a low damping to the resonance frequency that can cause instability in the
system. One way to increase damping is by adding a resistor in series with
the capacitor. It should be noted that selecting a very large R-resistor will
greatly reduce the oscillation at the resonance frequency as well as the
efficiency of the system. With all this, and neglecting the value of the
resistance, we obtain a transfer function [32]:
Figure A.1. LCL filter circuit adapted from [15].

𝐼2 1
𝑉𝑎
(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿 2 +𝜔2 ) (2)
1 𝐿2 𝐶(𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠
In which:
𝐿1 +𝐿2
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑠 = √ (3)
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
It should be noted that the value of the capacitor 𝐶 is limited to the

maximum consumption of the reactive power allowed by the inverter:
𝑉0
𝑍𝐶 = 𝐼𝑐
(4)
In which:
1
𝐶 = 𝜔∙𝑍 (5)
𝐶
With 𝜔 is the frequency of the grid in rad/s.

The resonance frequency of the LCL filter should be located between 10
times the grid frequency and half the switching frequency, in order to avoid
resonance problems in the low and high part of the harmonic spectrum [33].
𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑛
10 ∙ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑠 ≤ (6)
2
It is also necessary to take into account parameters that can influence the
quality of the signal. Among others, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is
found.
1
𝑇𝐻𝐷 = 𝑉 ∙ √∑∞ 2
𝑛=2,3,.. 𝑉0𝑛 (7)
01
The THD indicates the total harmonic content, but does not indicate the
level of each of the components. The aim is to reduce THD to values close
to 8%, as required by IEC-61000-3.4 [34] and IEEE-519.
Following the circuit block is a three-phase converter, as shown in
Figure A.2. The purpose of this converter is twofold, on the one hand, it
converts the alternating signal into a continuous one when it is attempted to
charge the storage system and on the other hand converts the direct current
of the charged coil into alternating current to supply to the grid. This block
can work in a controlled or uncontrolled way through the control system of
the IGBTs, with the goal of gaining wave quality.
This circuit consists of a bridge of 6 IGBT power transistors with
parallel protection diodes. A capacitor is then used to stabilize the charge
voltage. To obtain the characteristic capacity of the capacitor, the input
power of the inverter must be taken into account, as shown in equation (8).
𝑃
𝐶 = 2∙𝜔∙𝑣𝑛∙∆𝑣 (8)
0 0
In which:
𝑣0 is the mean voltage in the capacitor, and
∆𝑣0 is the ripple of the voltage allowed in the capacitor (1%).
This converter circuit works in 3 modes. The first, in charge mode, the
converter operates as a rectifier, in this case the chopper uses the control
strategy of a current cycle. When the current reaches the nominal value, the
SMES system will be switched in persistent mode to keep its current at a
constant value, thus storing the energy. In the third mode, the discharge
mode, the chopper uses the control strategy of a voltage cycle, the converter
functions as an inverter to transfer the stored energy from the coil to the grid.
It is therefore essential to use a chopper circuit, which is shown in Figure
A.3, for the proper functions of a DC-DC converter to regulate the input to
the coil or its output.
Figure A.2. Converter circuit.
Figure A.3. Chopper circuit.
Finally, there is the SMES system. This system is represented in the

circuit as a coil but it must be borne in mind that behind the coil is a
cryogenization system that allows the coil conductive element to be cooled
to a temperature below the critical temperature at all times, it depends on

that the system does not have losses in the storage part and, therefore, its
efficiency.
As indicated above, it must be borne in mind that the inductance of the
coil depends on its geometry and the material used. This influences the
charging and discharging times of the coil, an essential issue for the design
of a complete SMES system, together with the auxiliary electrical system,
as it is one of the disadvantages of these systems.
−𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑡
𝑢
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑑𝑐 (1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ) (9)
𝑒𝑞
In which:
𝑢𝑑𝑐 is the voltage behind the rectifier, and
𝑅𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent resistance seen from the coil.
APPENDIX B
The storage of electric energy in the smart city, both at low voltage (LV)
and medium voltage (MV) levels, is considered a distributed resource. The
capacity to store electrical energy, as well as the DG, allows to improve the
grid quality and reduce imbalances in the demand curve. Also, the ESS allow
to satisfy the demand when there is a temporary wear between the tip of
consumption and the point of generation.
It should be borne in mind that SMES systems in particular have a
number of strengths, of which the following [35-42] include:
 Short response time: The response time of these systems is mainly

limited by the data acquisition system, both the grid and the ESS
system, as well as the electronic control system. Nevertheless, this
ESS stands out for a considerably low response time compared to
other systems.
 High performance: It has a high performance of energy

transformation. Mainly, the losses are concentrated in the electronic
conversion system.
 High power density: This is one of the main characteristics that
make its use remarkable for industrial zones within the smart cities.
 Wide range of uses: There are many uses in which it can bring a
differential value with respect to other ESS. Possible uses include
charge monitoring, power reserve, emergency elements,
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS), adaptation of voltage levels
and frequency regulation or as protection elements.
 High charge/discharge cycles: This extends the life of these devices
and is due to the absence of mechanical elements that tend to wear
out more than the electrical elements.
 Specialized work: The construction of this type of systems enables
the creation of high-skilled jobs during the operating time,
emphasizing that this period is usually very high.
Apart from the large number of advantages shown, there are some
drawbacks that currently prevent SMES systems from being more
widespread. Among them we can highlight:
 High manufacturing costs: This is the main drawback of this type of

systems. These high costs come mainly from the manufacture of coil
cryogenization systems.
 Low Energy Density: These systems can bring a lot of energy in a
short amount of time. This can be a disadvantage when it is intended
to have continuous power auxiliary systems.
 Possible health risks for the magnetic fields generated: Although
there are no studies that certify or completely reject this statement,
it is a subject that can provoke social rejection, in the same style as
a nuclear power plant.
In Figure B.1 an example schema can be observed with the location of

the storage systems in the smart grids, taking into account the main function
dematerialized by them in the system. It is also possible to observe the

differentiation by voltage levels according to the segment of the grid:
 Transport grid: HV and MV

 Distribution grid: MV and LV
In the concept of smart city, the storage system has control devices,
adaptation and coupling to the grid. Among the main devices that make up
these systems are:
Figure B.1. Location of ESS in the electricity grid.
 Storage system: Composed by the SMES system and the cooling

system.
 Charge/Discharge management system: Element that provides the
state of charge of the SMES system.
 Adaptation system: Adapt the signal between the distribution grid

and the storage system.
 System of control: Element in charge of administering the system,
in consideration of the different slogans.
This system can be summarized by a block diagram in Figure B.2, where

all these devices are schematically shown.
This scheme can be converted into the circuit of symbols shown in
Figure 4, where the devices discussed above are specified. It is a system
oriented to the simulation so these blocks are translated in the filter LCL, the
converter, the Chopper and the system of storage SMES, represented with a
coil and to which it is associated the whole system of refrigeration. For a
real system, soft-start elements or system protection elements, such as
disconnectors, should be taken into account.
One of the most important elements of grid-connected storage systems
are the parallel monitoring and control systems capable of adapting to the
signals and with the ability to act for the correct operation of the whole
system. Some of these control signals are:
Source: [43].
Figure B.2. Schematic of the storage system.
 Voltage and current at the input and output of the filter.

 Voltage UDC in the capacitor C2, after the output of the inverter.
 Current at the input/output to the SMES system.
Apart from the variables indicated, as well as the control elements of the
inverter and the Chopper, the cooling control of the SMES system must be
taken into account. This implies the need to have the temperature of the
building material of the coil below its critical temperature. The critical
temperature Tc depends on the material to be used, LTS (NbTi) and HTS
(YBCO, BSCCO) [44]. This cooling system is usually linked to the global
control system, discussed above.
This control system can be summarized in Figure B.3, although it may
vary depending on the configuration in blocks (D-SMES), its application or
if it is part of some type of hybrid storage system [28]. These systems must
also monitor the quality of the signal in the grid, so that the load voltage for
proper operation is taken into account.
Considering the instantaneous load and the quality of the electric
current, the monitoring and operation system must send the different
setpoints for activating the IGBT switches, S1-S8, with a certain activation
sequence. You must also keep track of the ESS charge level, in case the
charging or charging operation is viable at any given time, or if it is
necessary to keep the stored energy in Stand-by.
Regardless of the devices that are used, you must take into account the
currents and operating voltages for the correct choice of these devices. One
of the problems that can be found is the overheating of the semiconductors,
in particular the IGBT’s and the diodes. Despite being power elements and
designed for large currents, they are the main elements that can cause losses
in operation, so choosing a suitable device and a suitable working current
and voltage can reduce these losses considerably or even failures in the
system [46]. This is why the design of liquid cooling systems, which
considerably reduce the losses caused by energy dissipation in
semiconductors, [47-50].
On the other hand, Figure B.4 shows a basic operation flowchart for
controlling the charging or charging of the SMES system.
Figure B.3. Control module of an SMES system adapted from [45].
Figure B.4. Control diagram of a SMES system.

APPENDIX C
The project Smartcity Malaga was launched in 2008 by Endesa [10], a

company that seeks to focus on this and other similar projects in concepts
such as:
 Improved grid operation.

 Improving efficiency.
 The incorporation of renewable energies through distributed
generation.
It is necessary to have as reference that the storage system used for the
project Smart-city Malaga is based on a rechargeable lithium-ion battery
system. The total set of batteries installed consists of 60 modules, of 1,766
kWh per module, reaching a total storage of 106 kWh.
In addition, Endesa has participated in R&D projects such as DENISE
[51] or STORE [52], obtaining very interesting theoretical results that
Smartcity Málaga has collected and demonstrated on a real scale in the city
of Malaga, mobilizing a very important amount of means.
The Smartcity Malaga project grid consists of three distinct areas [10].
At the top level is the MPLS grid. At a second level, there is the so-called
distribution grid (from the communications point of view) that connects the
control centres (located in Seville) and the Operations Management Centre
with the main HV substations. It consists of a main ring that is divided into
two segments, according to the transmission technology used, namely:
 Tour in the interior of the province of Malaga. Direct connection to

optical fibre using native IP technology (Gigabit Ethernet).
Bandwidth available 1 Gbit/s.
 Connections to Seville, which are carried out transporting the IP
over SDH technology. Bandwidth available 50 Mbit/s.
The links used for ring redundancy and give capillarity to the grid are
connections at 2 Mbit/s and 64 kbit/s, depending on the existing transmission
technologies. For this fiber optic grid a Gigabit Ethernet ring has been built
that allows the integration of all the services in a safe, flexible and efficient
way. Finally, there is the access grid, composed of the transformation centres
that communicate with one or more HV substations.
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Chapter 3
ENERGY RESILIENCY AND MICROGRIDS
Antonio Colmenar-Santos1,*, Enrique Rosales-Asensio2

and David Borge-Diez2
1
Department of Electric, Electronic and Control Engineering,
UNED, Juan del Rosal, Madrid, Spain
2
Department of Electric, Systems and Automatics Engineering,
Universidad de León, León, Spain
ABSTRACT
This work describes a methodology to quantify the benefits from both

a business-related and energy resilience perspectives provided by a
microgrid based on photovoltaic solar energy and electrochemical energy
storage integrated in large buildings, such as office buildings not open to
the general public, which is presented as case study. First it has been
identified how, by using distributed renewable energy sources (in
particular, photovoltaic solar energy) and electrochemical energy storage
systems, the life-cycle cost of the energy in a microgrid connected to the
electrical network can be reduced significantly. As novel approach, it has
been evaluated how this microgrid design can increase the resilience of a
* Corresponding Author’s Email: acolmenar@ieec.uned.es.

74 A. Colmenar-Santos, E. Rosales-Asensio and D. Borge-Diez
power customer supply, quantified as the time period the microgrid is able
to feed an electrical consumer at an outage, which it results of great
importance for large office buildings that are used to have several critical
loads, such as data servers and data processing centers. It was found that,
by adding photovoltaic solar energy and electrochemical storage, it is
possible to extend the power resilience of this sort of power customers
achieving an average survival time to a power cut of four hours thanks to
the proposed solar photovoltaic and energy storage system. Then, the
microgrid could save $112,410 in energy over the 20-year life cycle of the
facility, while increasing the amount of time it can survive a power outage.
The proposed methodology presented in this chapter provides a model that
can be applied to other case studies and scenarios where an alternative to
the classic diesel-based emergency supply systems are needed.
Keywords: power resilience, distributed renewable energy sources, solar

photovolatic energy, electrochemical storage, microgrids
INTRODUCTION
Although policy makers have focused on the decarbonization of

electricity generation for many years, some recent extreme weather events
have led to an increase in attention to the resilience of the electricity sector
[1]. Failures in the power grid related with strong weather conditions
affecting renewable energy generation, out of bounds power loads and safety
breaches, have conducted to test with caution the ability of the power grid
to operate with safety under stated conditions [1]. Therefore, it is imperative
to increase the availability of electricity supply in order to provide an
adequate service during power outages and other emergencies [1].
In an electrical power system, resilience is characterized by four key
elements, namely: i) prevention of interruption of the power supply; ii)
mitigation of the consequences of the interruption of the power supply; iii)
reduction of the response times needed to restore the electricity, and iv)
recovery of the electricity supply [2].
Backup diesel generators (BDGs) are currently the most widely
accepted option to provide energy when an outage occurs, sometimes
combined with energy storage systems [3], although other technologies have
Energy Resiliency and Microgrids 75
arisen, as fuel cells [4]. On the other hand, BDGs, which are nearly inactive
all the year, have proven to have a lower reliability than other technologies
that can be used in normal conditions, such as solar photovoltaic generators
[5]. This circumstance has, in the case of large office buildings, important
economic effects [5]. Then, renewable energies are progressively acquiring
greater strategic importance in energy resilience [6], mainly due to the
following reasons:
a) Given the changing environmental conditions, the current

approaches and regulations for existing and future energy
infrastructures may no longer be sufficient [7]. In the particular case
of the United States of America (USA), seven out of the ten most
costly disasters that occurred during the 1980-2018 period have
taken place in the last 13 years [8].
b) Fuel supply interruptions are not only a theoretical vulnerability [9].
According to the “State of Reliability 2017” report [10] (from
NERC), the lack of fuel was the second most important cause of
forced outages of the generators; being the fourth most important
cause by 2015 [11].
c) The significant costs reduction of the solar photovoltaic technology
in the recent years has been “impressive” according to experts [12].
With regard to new and emerging electricity storage technologies,
their potential cost reduction is equally significant [10].
d) As shown in [13], forming an electric island to sustain power loads
considered critical and increase the resilience of the installation is
possible today by using standard equipment.
As a consequence of the above, the ability to maintain electrical service

during a blackout; the maximization of the economic benefit of the facilities;
and the integration of distributed resources that allow the system to
effectively use the energy, improve its stability (frequency and voltage), and
meet the requirements of the power demand, is something that must
necessarily get considered with the use of renewable energies [14].
The benefits of using distributed resources and electrochemical storage

in microgrids include, among others, (i) the improvement of the reliability
of the system; (ii) the improvement of the quality of energy; (iii) the
procurement of ancillary services (AS); (iv) a reduction of peak power
requirements (PPR) thanks to on-site generation; (v) the procurement of
reactive power (RP) for voltage control; and (vi) the provision of an
electricity supply available in emergency situations [15].
This chapter focuses on the role of renewable energies in reducing
energy consumption; energy costs; and dependence with respect to the
electrical grid of large office buildings not open to the public, which usually
concentrate important power loads due to intensive penetration of electronic
equipment. Part of this equipment can be considered a critical power load,
such as data servers and data processing centers, so this approach results of
great importance for them. About 50 publications were reviewed for this
work and, despite being a substantial and representative sample of the state-
of-the-art, this number is not absolute. Some researchers have focused on
investigating the design, implementation, and simulation of a hybrid
microgrid testing facility, outlining different elements within it required to
make a functional microgrid test system [16]; on proposing a power
balancing strategy with smart grid interaction, aiming at reducing grid peak
consumption [17]; on proposing a comprehensive approach for evaluating
the performance of various Smart and nearly Zero Energy Buildings
(nZEBs) [18]; or on develop, test and apply an optimization model to
evaluate on-site renewable energy technologies including energy storage in
buildings and assess optimal configurations for nZEBs [19].
According to [20-22], the definition of microgrid is: “a cluster of loads
and microsources operating as a single controllable system that provides
both power and heat to its local area.” If one analyses this definition, it readly
follows that the electric power system that feeds the power demand of a large
building, which includes several loads, when integrates energy generators
(such a PV system) and energy storage devices, agrees with it, even more, if
it accounts with a control system for a smart energy dispatching of the
energy.
From a deep survey of grey literature and updated literature related to

the addressed topic, it was found that – even though there are plenty deal of
different approaches – few methods quantify the benefits from both a
business-related and energy resilience perspectives provided by a microgrid
including photovoltaic solar energy and electrochemical storage.1 Thus, this
chapter undoubtedly contributes to the pool of existing knowledge and
provides a reference application considering specifically large office
buildings not open to the public. By performing this thorough literature
review, we ensure the originality of the idea and method here presented.
From this line of analysis, a much clearer insight of solar photovoltaic and
electrochemical storage systems’ benefits on the resilience of similar office
buildings not open to the public is gained (so far not explicitly included in
already published scientific contributions). Furthermore, the proposed
method here presented improves the analysis in the sense that it is a
systematic and easy approach that allows to make comparisons among
different office buildings regardless of their sizes and locations.
In many countries, and specially in the United States, are under
progressively increasing electricity consumption rates and, thus, new
paradigms of delivering electricity are required in order to meet the power
demand [23]. Despite the efficiency gains possible, regulators and utilities
have been reluctant to implement distributed generation, but certain
governments, most notable California, are making concerted efforts to
overcome these barriers [23]. Usually, microgrids design is intended to
provide a feasible solution to remote areas with difficulties to access the
utilities [24]. Several studies have demonstrated that polygeneration
microgrids with optimized combination of hybrid capacitors can operate
with great success [21-25].
Energy management systems are essential and indispensable for the
secure and optimal operation of Polygeneration microgrids which include
distributed energy technologies, in particular if they can operate connected
to the power grid, isolated or at transitional modes [26]. Several control
1
Ed. Note: See “Keeping the Lights On” by Maria Temming, Science News, Feb. 15, 2020, which
argues the importance of solar PV microgrids to prepare for increased outages from climate
change.
approaches can be applied including the latest Game Theory applications

[26]. Some authors, like in [27], even propose multi-objective control
strategies to optimize the behavior of microgrids with renewable energy
sources, including several generation technologies, such as micro-turbines,
fuel cells, and batteries as energy storage systems.
The deployment of microgrids is being favored by the technological
improvements, falling costs, proven track records and growing recognition
of their benefits [28]. Nevertheless, several challenges, such as legal and
regulatory uncertainty, interconnection policies, utilities regulations and
opposition still must be faced [29]. One of the main barriers to identify the
microgrids and smart grids benefits is the assessment of the overall project
success [29], although several demonstration projects have enabled to learn
for further develop and application of commercial, sustainable and
renewable technologies [30].
It has been demonstrated that the arrival of small-scale decentralized
energy installations can contribute to the minimization of the levelized cost
of energy (LCOE) both for PV and wind generators allowing even grid
parity under certain scenarios [31]. Moreover, it is expected that the future
deployment of electrochemical energy storage systems both in static devices
or thanks to electric vehicles, will contribute to reduce the energy costs and
guarantee power supply even considering the batteries capacity degradation
[32].
The manuscript is organized in three more sections. Section 2 describes
the proposed methodology to quantify the economic and resilience benefits
provided by the penetration of renewable energy sources in microgrids, and
summarizes the assumptions and key inputs for the carried-out analysis. In
the next section, ill different technologies to minimize the life-cycle cost of
the energy (LCC) are evaluated for normal operation conditions, connected
to the electricity grid; Then, once the best renewable resources are selected
and optimally evaluated, a series of stochastic simulations that analyze the
performance of the microgrid of a representative large office building are
run, considering interruptions of random durations. Finally, Section 4
explores the significance of the results and introduces the major outcomes
of the research.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This section describes the methodology used to quantify the economic

and resilience benefits provided by renewable energy resources in
microgrids, while summarizing assumptions and key inputs for the analysis.
Modeling Approach
The REopt® Model

In this chapter, the REopt® modeling platform [33] has been used in
order to evaluate the renewable energy resources and storage technologies
that minimize energy costs and increase the resilience of a microgrid.
Formulated as a linear program of mixed integers (MILP), the implemented
algorithm considers no randomness for the development of future system
states and then, it provides the most favorable technology to be used, its size,
as well as the optimal dispatching approach considering a minimum LCC
[34]. The LCC value includes the costs of the energy demand (ED), capital
costs, profits and tax incentives, and the operation and maintenance costs
[34]. The installation associated economic parameters are calculated for a N
years analysis period, optimizing only the energy dispatch or energy balance
(EB) for the first 365 days2. The rest N-1 years are used to evaluate the
economic impact of the facilities degradation and performance worthening.
It is supposed that all projects are built immediately and that they begin to
be operational in the first year3 [35]. REopt® also provides the optimum
2
According to [35], the model achieves an energy balance between consumption and generation
during each period of time by creating and dispatching an optimal combination of renewable
generation and energy storage. Although the REopt® economic model considers an analysis
period of N years, it is assumed that the energy consumption and production are constant for
all years in such a way that the optimal balance of energy achieved for year 1 remains valid
for the subsequent years in the analysis period. In making this assumption, the present value
of the total energy costs for the next N years can be determined by increasing the current
energy costs (using an increase rate for electricity) and then discounting those costs at present
by using an appropriate discount rate.
3
Following [36], REopt® assumes a perfect prediction of all future events, including weather
conditions and charges.
delivery strategy based on a business-related perspective to operate the

recommended technologies at maximum economic efficiency [36].
Assessment of the Economic Benefits of Renewable Energies

and Electrochemical Storage
Solar energy systems are an option increasingly widely used by those
electricity consumers (customers) who want to reduce their monthly bill and
generate electricity on-site [37]. When combined with storage in the form of
batteries, the benefits of solar energy are even higher [37]. A scheme that
includes solar energy and electrochemical storage can provide a variety of
services, from benefits in the form of resilience, such as emergency electric
power, to economic benefits, such as savings in electricity bills [37]. The
design of a hybrid scheme of solar energy and electrochemical storage will
depend on the expected function (or functions) of the system [37]. In general
terms, schemes based on photovoltaic solar energy and electrochemical
storage can be grouped into those designed to provide energy isolated from
the electricity grid and those designed to operate connected to the electricity
grid [37]. Solar energy and electrochemical storage facilities can potentially
provide high benefits from both a business-related and an electrical
resilience perspective [37]. REopt® model was used to simulate a case in
which the office building not open to the public continues to acquire its
electricity from the electricity grid. REopt® was also used to optimize a
scheme based on renewable energies with electrochemical storage, where
the size and operation of the system are optimized through the model. In this
case, it will be evaluated if the renewable energy systems are advantageous
supposing they operate on a grid connected mode (GCM), and if they are
also capable of feeding electrical loads during power grid failures or
blackouts.
Assessment of the Increase in Resilience Due to Renewable

Energies and Electrochemical Storage
Apart from the economic benefits, another important aspect when
evaluating microgrids that have to feed critical loads is the quantitative
evaluation of the additional resilience obtained through the proposed scheme
[38]. In this section, a methodology will be described to quantify the increase

in the capacity to supply energy to the loads of an office building not open
to the public through the introduction of renewable distributed energy
resources. Through the use of REopt®, the scheme based on renewable
energies is evaluated to obtain the greatest economic benefit for a microgrid
connected to the main power grid, in which the renewable energy system
can reduce the expenses related to the purchase of electricity, reduce demand
peaks, and carry out an energy arbitration.
As a measure for resilience we will use the term “survivability,” which
is defined as the probability of having electricity continuously available
during a power outage until it is reestablished within t units of time after the
interruption of the power grid supply has taken place [39]. It should be
considered the fact that the likeliness of happening an outage depends on the
variation in the electrical load versus time, the electrochemical storage SoC
when the interruption of the supply occurs; as well as on its duration, and
the battery management strategy [39].
By using a conventional BDGs and a constant quantity of on-site
combustible, the survivability changes depending on the power interruption
duration. For example, for a critical facility such as a hospital or an airport,
the survivability would typically be 100% for the first 24 hours of a power
outage (assuming a sufficient amount of fuel is available), falling rapidly as
the supply runs out of fuel. For a hybrid system based on renewable energies,
the survivability of the aforementioned hospital or airport due to power cuts
of longer durations would be greater due to their ability to satisfy the
electricity requirements of the loads that were previously exclusively
powered by backup diesel generators. However, for those facilities
considered as “non-critical” (such as office buildings not open to the public)
maintaining backup generators which are idle most of the time of the year
might not be advantageous from a business-related perspective.
To assess the increase in terms of electrical resilience provided to a
scheme based exclusively on renewable energies (such as the office building
evaluated in this research), the survivability is calculated solely considering
renewable energies and electrochemical storage. By default, it is normally
assumed that the electricity grid is 100% reliable, which means that it is
capable of providing an infinite amount of electricity at any time [40].

However, in an electrical resilience analysis, what is usually done is to inject
a random number of failures in the model to evaluate the ability of the
scheme to sustain interruptions in the electrical grid [40]. A model that can
evaluate the cost of a random interruption of the electricity supply from the
available statistics, called power interruption cost model (PICM) is
necessary to carry out an adequate cost-benefit analysis, as described in [41]
and [42]. The most widely used PICM is the “customer damage function”
[43], which models an average interruption cost for each type of customer
as a function of the outage duration. However, there are other factors besides
the duration that also may affect the cost of the interruption of the power
supply, such as the time and day of the week in which the power outage
occurs, or the season of the year, as it has been demonstrated in [42].
Moreover, in [42] the smart grid capabilities, such as smart switching the
distribution topology or renewable energy sources integration in microgrids
are evaluated to minimize the impact of widespread blackouts of the bulk
power grid system. REopt® takes these circumstances into account when
carrying out the optimization of the scheme, as described in the user manual
[34] and software description documents [34, 36].
Inputs of the Model

As case study, it has been chosen a representative scenario consisting on
an office building not open to the public, located in the city of Palmdale
(California), with a total area of 60,000 ft2 (about 5,575 m2). In a realistic
way, it has been considered that the building requires having a reliable
energy to avoid (or at least mitigate) the potential losses in the event that
there is a blackout. Considering McKenney et al. [44], the average load has
been assumed to be approximately 110 kW, varying from a minimum of 85
kW to a maximum of 180 kW in summer. The total annual energy
consumption has been estimated in 1,000,000 kWh, according to [40-42].
Electricity Tariff
In the Californian city of Palmdale are used to be under an unregulated
market, in this case provided by the Southern California Edison Company.
According to the building characteristics, the TOU-8 CPP rate (2 kV-50kV)

has been chosen for supply [45]. It has been assumed that, for the analyzed
year, the costs related to electricity amounted to $178,500. This tariff is
available to customers with demands not exceeding annual peak demands of
4 MW and who install, own, or operate solar, wind, fuel cells, or other
eligible onsite renewable distributed generation technologies as defined by
the California Solar Initiative (CSI) or the Self-Generation Incentive
Program (SGIP). Eligible systems must have a net renewable generating
capacity equal to or greater than 15 percent of the customer’s annual peak
demand, as recorded over the previous 12-months. Participation on this rate
option is limited to a cumulative installed distributed generation output
capacity of 400 MW for all eligible rate groups [46]. More details regarding
this tariff are shown in Table 1.
This tariff is favorable for photovoltaic solar energy because most of the
charges related to electricity occur during the generation power peaks.
However, it results less favorable to electrochemical storage because there
are no charges related to “Time-of-Use demand.”
Table 1. Applied electric tariff
Time-Of-Use - General Service - Large: TOU-8 CPP (2kV-50kV)

Fixed Charge (First Meter) [$/month] 319.47 Fixed Charges
Seasonal/Monthly Demand Charge Structure [$/kW] 14.88 Demand
Time of Use Demand Charge Structure
Period 1 (Tier 1) [$/kW] 0 Demand
Period 2 (Tier 1) [$/kW] 6.41 Demand
Period 3 (Tier 1) [$/kW] 23.24 Demand
Demand Reactive Power Charge [$/kVAr] 0.51 Demand
Tiered Energy Usage Charge Structure
Period 1 (Tier 1) [$/kWh] 0.06426 Energy
Source: [47].
Microgrid Configuration
The microgrid which constitutes the building is based on the power grid
interconnection, a solar photovoltaic field, and an electrochemical storage
system. Although other technologies could also play an important role in the
near future, today they are, among the most respectful with the environment,
the most widespread and which provide the best business model.
a) External power grid. It has been assumed that the national power
grid can provide an unlimited amount of electricity although it can
suffer from blackouts of random duration [48]. It has been supposed
that the utility has not capital nor operation and management costs
and that the only related expenditures are the energy flows from the
grid [49]. A retail electricity rate for the chosen rate type based on
the state has been considered and estimated in $ 0.16/kWh,
according to the Energy Information Agency (EIA) [50].
Table 2. Model assumptions for the PV field
Characteristic Value
Module type Standard
Cell material Crystalline Silicon
Approximate nominal efficiency 15%
Module cover Glass
Temperature coefficient -0.47%/ºC
Array type Fixed (roof mount)
Latitude 34.57 deg.
Longitude -118.1 deg.
Tilting angle 34.07 deg.
Azimuth angle 180.00 deg. (South)
DC/AC ratio 1.1
Inverter efficiency 96%
Ground Coverage Ratio (GCR) 0.4
Global system losses 14.08%
Soiling losses 2.00%
Shading losses 3.00%
Snow losses 0.00%
Mismatching losses 2.00%
Wiring losses 2.00%
Connection losses 0.50%
Light-induced degradation 1.50%
Nameplate rating 1.00%
Age degradation 0.00%
Availability 3.00%
Annual performance degradation 0.50%/yr
System capital costs $ 2,000/kW
Source: [50].
b) Solar photovoltaic field. The REopt® model evaluates the

renewable technology generation potential by hourly capacity
factors [47]. In the case of solar photovoltaic energy, the hourly
capacity factors are obtained by REopt® from the PVWatts®
database and solar model, also developed by NREL [50] for the
specified location and assuming a typical orientation and efficiency
for the photovoltaic modules [51]. The electric energy produced by
the solar photovoltaic modules is proportional to the capacity factor
of each site [36]. Due to the power production tends to decrease
throughout their useful life, REopt® calculates an annual generation
profile considering a degradation rate of 0.5% per year [52].
Moreover, following [34], roof mounting has been considered as it
is a typical for residential and administrative installations where
modules are attached to the roof surface with standoffs that provide
limited air flow between the module back and the roof surface. For
roof mount systems, the installed normal operating cell temperature
(INOCT) is 50ºC, which corresponds roughly to a three or four
inches standoff height. The installation capital costs, used for the PV
field size optimization, have been estimated in $ 2,000 per installed
kW peak power [53]. The considered assumptions are shown in
detail in Table 2.
Table 3. Model assumptions for the simulated lithium-ion batteries
Initial State of Charge (SoC) 50%
Minimum State of Charge (MSoC) 20%
Inverter efficiency (IE) 96%
Round trip efficiency (RTE) 97.5%
Rectifier efficiency (RE) 96%
Total AC-AC RTE 89.9%
Power Capacity Replacement Year (PCRY) 10
Energy Capacity Replacement Year (ECRY) 10
Power capacity costs $ 1,000/kW
Energy capacity costs $ 500/kWh
Power Capacity Replacement Cost (PCRC) $ 460/kW
Energy Capacity Replacement Cost (ECRC) $ 230/kWh
Source: [33].
c) Electrochemical storage. REopt® considers electrochemical

batteries as a “reservoir,” in which the storage energy at a certain
moment can be consumed in another, when the PV production is
lower than the electric energy demand [36]. The chemistry of
batteries is not considered directly by the model, but heuristic
restrictions are imposed, that are designed to ensure that the battery
operates within the manufacturer’s specifications. These restrictions
are based on limits for the minimum load status, the loading and
unloading rates, and the number of cycles per day. The model is
capable of selecting and dimensioning both the capacity of the
battery and the power provided [36]. The characteristics of the
simulated lithium-ion batteries are summarized in Table 3, based on
the considerations stated in [33].
Resilience Assessment
For the resilience assessment modelling, the REopt® model has been
applied considering the existence of blackouts along the whole year. The
GCM is considered the normal operation mode. Then, the renewable energy
generators can contribute to feed the electric power load in combination with
the external power grid during the GCM and support critical electrical loads
during a network outage, while conventional backup generators can only

operate during an outage due to the legal requirements relating to air quality
[34].
Economic Assumptions
It has been assumed that the renewable energy generators and the energy
storage system would be installed and fully operational since the first
evaluated year. The useful life cycle, according to the “2017 Annual
Technology Baseline” report from NREL [54], has been assumed to be of
20 years.
On the other hand, an increase rate of electricity costs4 of 2.6% per year
[55,5 566], and 2.5% per year [54,7 56,8 579] for operation and maintenance
costs has been assumed, considering that these costs escalate at inflation rate
[34]. Based on guidance for regulatory benefit-cost analyses from
FORTISBC ENERGY UTILITIES [58], all utility costs and operation and
management costs incurred in the out-years are discounted to the present.
Following the NREL 2017 Annual Technology Baseline and Standard
Scenarios [54], the electric sector’s historical nominal weighted average cost
of capital (8.1%), has been used as nominal discount rate to evaluate the
proposed scheme (it should be considered that distributed energy resources
requirements might change considerably among promoters).
It should be considered that solar PV stimulus are accessible at the
federal state and local (FS&L) level. Following [58], a federal 30%
4
The nominal electricity cost escalation rate is provided explicitly in the EIA’s Annual Energy
Outlook and can also be calculated implicitly by combining the NIST Handbook’s real
electricity cost escalation rates with expected inflation rates [34].
5
The EIA predicts a 2.6% average nominal annual commercial electricity escalation rate from
2017-2037 in their reference case scenario, assuming an inflation rate of 2.1%. Regional
variation yields a range of annual electricity cost escalation rates from 1.7% to 3.5% [34].
6
The average real commercial electricity cost escalation rate across the US over the period 2017-
2037 was 0.52%, as described in table Cb-5 of the NIST Handbook 2017. More detailed
projections for rates across the various regions of the US are available in the Handbook in
tables Cb-1 through Cb-4. Five-years average electricity cost escalation rates over the period
2017-2037 for the different regions of the US range from -0.2% to 1% [34].
7
NREL analyses assume an inflation rate of 2.5% [34].
8
Federal projects use an inflation rate of -0.6% [34].
9
Lists monthly US inflation rates from 1914-2017. Inflation rate in July 2017 listed as 1.7%. Since
2010, inflation rates have ranged from -0.2% to 3.9% [34].
investment tax credit has been supposed10. Solar projects are eligible for
accelerated depreciation deductions over a five-years period [60]11. This
circumstance has also been included in the model. A 40% host effective tax
rate, or HETR (15–35% for Federal Corporate Income taxes (FCI) between
0 and 12%) [54, 61, 62] has been supposed. The energy components of the
battery system are supposed to be replaced at the 10th year of the project life
cycle [63]. Model key inputs are summarized in Appendix B.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

First, optimal sizes for the PV installation and the energy storage system
are determined in such a way the LCC of the microgrid operating in GCM,
were evaluated. Thus, the system is optimized to maximize the economic
benefits under normal operation. Results show that the simulated office
building is able to minimize its energy cost by installing a 282 kW peak
power solar photovoltaic system, and an electrochemical storage of 29 kW
of nominal power and a 55 kWh of rated capacity, considering a TOU-8 CPP
tariff (2 kV-50kV). These recommended sizes minimize the LCC of energy
at the site [34]. The battery power and capacity are optimized for economic
performance [34]. However, it must be considered that the PV system
performance predictions calculated by the PVWatts® model include many
inherent assumptions and uncertainties and do not reflect variations between
PV technologies nor site-specific characteristics except as represented by
inputs. For example, PV modules with better performance are not
differentiated within PVWatts® from lesser performing modules [34].
Then, stochastic simulations to analyze the performance of the resulting
microgrid in the event of blackouts of random durations are carried out. This
way, the resilience of the microgrid is quantified. It must be noticed that the
10
Following [59] this investment tax credit is available to solar projects regardless of size, with no
maximum incentive for solar technologies.
11
The Consolidated Appropriations Act, signed in December 2015, extended the "placed in
service" deadline for bonus depreciation. Equipment placed in service before January 1, 2018
can qualify for 50% bonus depreciation. Equipment placed in service during 2018 can qualify
for 40% bonus depreciation. And equipment placed in service during 2019 can qualify for
30% bonus depreciation [60].
increasing resilience is an added value, it has not been considered as an

optimization.
In accordance with Table B.1 (Appendix B), the initial cost resulting
from installing 282 kW of photovoltaic solar energy would be $ 564,000,
while the cost of the electrochemical storage to be installed would be
approximately $ 29,00012. According to Table A.1, solar photovoltaic
energy would be able to generate 49% of the energy demanded by the office
building. REopt® calculates the solar photovoltaic energy scheme in such a
way that it is able to minimize the charges related to the consumed energy.
Although it “only” generates the 49% of the energy consumed in the office
building, a significant part of the generated energy is produced when the
electricity is more expensive, so the microgrid is able to sell all the produced
energy at a high price and to acquire it from the grid when the costs are lower
(using the storage system). As a consequence of the microgrid scheme,
utility energy costs would be reduced from $ 573,698 to $ 315,092. Current
site life cycle energy cost would be of $ 1,112,221, whereas the proposed
scheme would be $999,811. As a consequence, net present value (NPV) of
the investment would be $ 112,410. This is also the NPV of the savings (or
costs if negative) realized by the project based on the difference between the
life cycle energy cost of doing business as usual compared to the optimal
case [34]. All above values are summarized in Table A.1 from Appendix A.
These results assume perfect prediction of both solar irradiance and
electrical load. In practice, actual savings may be lower based on the ability
to accurately predict solar irradiance and load, and the battery control
strategy used in the system [34].
The results include both expected energy and demand savings.
However, the hourly model does not capture inter-hour variability of the PV
resource. Because demand is typically determined based on the maximum
15-minute peak, the estimated savings from demand reduction may be
exaggerated. The hourly simulation uses one year of load data and one year
12
Control costs associated with providing controls to the office building, including
communications infrastructure, local and overall supervisory controls for synchronization,
start-up and outputs of generators, as well as protection devices, are not included in the
REopt® model [64].
of solar resource data. Actual demand charges and savings will vary from
year to year as load and resource vary [34].
Figures 1 and 2 show the optimized energy dispatch for four typical days
which characteristics are also shown in Table 4. Figure 1(a) is an example
of a typical day when the hourly power demand remains at low level the
whole day and the solar resource is also low. Figure 1(b) shows how the
energy dispatch is performed when the power load is low but a high solar
resource is available. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show the equivalent energy
dispatch for high hourly power demand with low and high solar resource
availability, respectively. In general terms, the PV system and the
electrochemical storage work coordinated trying to supply the power
demand minimizing the imported electric energy from the power grid. The
microgrid uses electricity from the electricity grid during night hours, when
electricity prices are usually lower and solar photovoltaic modules are not
operative. During the daylight hours, the solar PV modules are able to satisfy
all the demanded energy, and the surplus of the PV energy is used to charge
the electrochemical storage system, or to export it to the grid if the batteries
state of charge is high. It should be noted that, as the storage capacity is
reduced in comparison with the building power load, its impact is relatively
low. Thus, it is able to provide some savings through a limited peak power
demand reduction (peak shavings strategy). Observe that the batteries SoC
drops and rises very fast due to the batteries power, optimized at 29 kW.
This means that they are able to discharge or charge approximately the half
part of their rated capacity (55 kW) in just one single hour time.
Because inevitably there will be time periods when the PV generation is
not able to satisfy all the power demand [65-70], the electrochemical storage
will be responsible for satisfying the rest of the demand until the PV
generation capacity can support the power demand by itself, or the batteries’
SoC reaches the lower limit.
Figure 3 shows the duration curves for the grid serving load, the PV
serving load and the batteries discharging energy, referred to the power
demand. Moreover, the duration curve for the energy storage SoC is also
shown. It can be appreciated that the 50% of time, the power load is fed by
the external grid in full, while the PV system supports completely the power
demand just the 15% of time. On the other hand, the energy storage
contributes only the 10% of the time and its contribution is less of 10% of
the power demand, on average. The energy storage SoC remains at 100%
more than 75% of the time.
For the energy resilience evaluation, the proportion of usual demand to
be satisfied at the time of an electrical interruption of service (critical load)
has been considered to be the 50%.
Table 4. Typical days for energy dispatching
Parameter Case A Case B Case C Case D

Power demand Low Low High High
PV potential Low High Low High
Figure 1a 1b 1c 1d
Example day January, August, January, July,
1st 6th 6th 22nd
Daily total electric load [kWh] 1,067.40 1,006.20 2,961.50 2,110.90
Daily total imported electric energy from grid 780.20 536.10 2,452.60 793.60
[kWh]
Daily total grid serving load [kWh] 780.20 536.10 2,452.60 793.60
Daily total PV generation [kWh] 483.40 1,273.60 468.10 1,629.00
Daily total PV serving load [kWh] 266.50 412.70 468.10 1,317.50
Daily total Batteries discharging [kWh] 20.60 57.50 41.10 0.00
Daily total PV charging battery [kWh] 51.60 64.10 0.00 45.70
Daily total Grid charging battery [kWh] 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Daily total PV exporting to grid [kWh] 165.30 796.80 0.00 265.80
Daily total Battery exporting to grid [kWh] 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Daily total net metering [kWh] -614.90 260.70 - -527.80
2,452.60
Daily self-consumption 26.90 46.73 17.19 62.41
Daily PV surplus [%] 34.20 62.56 0.00 16.32
Daily average SoC [%] 74.17 91.67 83.33 67.92
To evaluate the repercussion of the considered scheme on the microgrid

resilience, blackouts were simulated in the power grid with durations
between one hour and two weeks, which would occur randomly throughout
the year. In order to calculate the probability of surviving a power cut, all
simulated cuts were divided into 24-hour periods. The proportion of power
cuts that the microgrid could sustain for each 24-hour period is shown in
Figure 4, where it is possible to see how adding the optimal power size of
282 kW of the solar photovoltaic array and an optimal electrochemical
storage (29 kW of nominal power and 55 kWh of rated capacity) to the office
building, the time that the microgrid would survive a cut of electricity would
extend from the 0 to 4 hours, with a 40% probability. The minimum
resilience has been estimated to be 0 hours (as expected), while maximum
resilience is estimated in 18 hours.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Energy dispatch for typical days for low power demand: (a) when low PV
resource is available and (b) when high PV resource is available.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Energy dispatch for typical days for high power demand: (a) when low PV
resource is available and (b) when high PV resource is available.
Figure 3. Duration curves for grid serving load, PV serving load and battery
discharging referred to the power load demand; and duration curve for the energy
storage SoC.
For the estimation of the average amount of time that the system can
sustain the critical load, 8,760 outage simulations are run - one for each hour
of the year - and the average, minimum and maximum resiliency is
calculated as the average, minimum and maximum time survived during the
simulated outages, respectively. The battery SoC at the start of each outage
is determined by the economically optimal dispatch strategy. This means
that if the battery was being used for peak shaving prior to the outage, it may
be at a low SoC when the outage occurs. Note that in order to gain this
resiliency, the microgrid will operate in islanded mode (IM). This incurs
additional costs, associated with transfer switch and control, above the
normal operation set at GCM.
Figure 4. Probability of surviving outage [hours] vs. duration of outage [hours].
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the proper design of a microgrid including

renewable energy sources and energy storage systems can improve
significantly the power resilience of a large building without incurring in
extra costs and with a better reliability than classical BDGs. It has been
proposed a particular novel approach where, while optimizing the size of an
integrated PV field and the energy storage, the building’s resilience is
quantified.
The results of the carried-out analysis in this research demonstrate how
a scheme consisting of 282 kW of solar photovoltaic energy and an
electrochemical energy storage system with a nominal power of 29 kW and
55 kWh of rated capacity would be able to produce $35,651 per year of
savings regarding the energy consumption. Throughout the 20 years of the
expected useful lifespan for the facility, the proposed microgrid would be
able to generate a potential savings of $ 112,410. Moreover, the microgrid
would be able to produce up to the 49% of the total required energy by the
office building when operating in GCM, while it provides up to 4 hours of
resilience capacity with 40% probability of surviving the blackout.
Furthermore, it must be considered the additional benefits of deploying
microgrids based on renewable energy generators, that have not been
detailed in the analysis of the LCC and that provide a direct economic value
to this added survivability, as during a power outage, the incurred costs can
be dramatically large for a business. This value, despite not being included
in the economic analysis, should be considered in the investment decision.
Finally, it has been observed that the power demand profile, the
electricity tariff, the generator technology costs, the incentives, as well as
the solar resource play a critical role in determining the viability of this sort
of systems, so each case must be evaluated in a particular way, through the
proposed systematic approach.
APPENDICES
Appendix A. Results Comparison
Table A.1. Comparison between the business as usual approach

and the optimal case
Business As Optimal Difference

Usual Case
System Size, Energy Production and System Cost
PV Size 0 kW 282 kW 282 kW
Annualized PV Energy Production 0 kWh 490,590 kWh 490,590
kWh
Battery Power 0 kW 29 kW 29 kW
Battery Capacity 0 kWh 55 kWh 55 kWh
DG System Cost (Net CAPEX + O&M) $0 $ 321,186 $ 321,186
Energy Supplied From Grid in Year 1 1,000,000 572,718 kWh 427,282
kWh kWh
Utility Cost (Year 1) – Before Tax
Utility Energy Cost $ 79,088 $ 43,438 $ 35,651
Utility Demand Cost $ 74,239 $ 50,116 $ 24,124
Utility Fixed Cost $0 $0 $0
Utility Minimum Cost Adder $0 $0 $0
LIFE CYCLE UTILITY COST – AFTER TAX
Utility Energy Cost $ 573,698 $ 315,092 $ 258,605

Usual Case
Usual Case
Utility Demand Cost $ 538,523 $ 363,533 $ 174,990
Utility Fixed Cost $0 $0 $0
Utility Minimum Cost Adder $0 $0 $0
Total System And Life Cycle Utility Cost – After Tax
Life Cycle Energy Cost (LCC) $ 1,112,221 $ 999,811 $ 112,410
Net Present Value (NPV) $0 $ 112,410 $ 112,410
Appendix B. Summary of Model Inputs
Table B.1. Summary of the model inputs
Site and Utility

Site location Palmdale, CA
Latitude 34.579434
Longitude -118.116461
Land available (acres) Unlimited
Roofspace available (sq ft) Unlimited
Load profile Simulated
Type of building Office - Large
Annual energy consumption (kWh) 1,000,000
URDB rate Southern California Edison Co Time-Of-
Use - General Service - Large: TOU-8
CPP (2kV-50kV) last updated 2016-02-10
Do you want to evaluate PV and/or Battery? Both
Financial Parameters
Analysis period (years) 20
Host discount rate, nominal (%) 8.1%
Host effective tax rate (%) 40%
Electricity cost escalation rate, nominal (%) 2.6%
O&M cost escalation rate (%) 2.5%
Table B.1. (Continued)
Solar Photovoltaic System

System capital cost ($/kW) $ 2,000
O&M cost ($/kW per year) $ 16
Minimum size desired (kW DC) 0
Maximum size desired (kW DC) Unlimited
Module type Standard
Array type Rooftop, Fixed
Array azimuth (deg) 180
Array tilt (deg) 5
DC to AC size ratio 1.1
System losses (%) 14%
Net metering system size limit (kW) 0
Federal percentage-based incentive (%) 30%
Federal maximum incentive ($) Unlimited
Federal rebate ($/kW) $0
Federal maximum rebate ($) Unlimited
State percentage-based incentive (%) 0%
State maximum incentive ($) Unlimited
State rebate ($/kW) $0
State maximum rebate ($) Unlimited
Utility percentage-based incentive (%) 0%
Utility maximum incentive ($) Unlimited
Utility rebate ($/kW) $0
Utility maximum rebate ($) Unlimited
Production incentive ($/kWh) $0
Incentive duration (years) 1
Maximum incentive ($) Unlimited
System size limit (kW) Unlimited
MACRS schedule 5
Energy Storage System
Energy capacity cost ($/kWh) $ 500
Power capacity cost ($/kW) $ 1,000
Energy capacity replacement cost ($/kWh) $ 230
Energy capacity replacement year 10
Power capacity replacement cost ($/kW) $ 460
Power capacity replacement year 10
Minimum energy capacity (kWh) 0
Maximum energy capacity (kWh) Unlimited

Minimum power capacity (kW) 0
Maximum power capacity (kW) Unlimited
Rectifier efficiency (%) 96%
Round trip efficiency (%) 97.5%
Inverter efficiency (%) 96%
Minimum state of charge (%) 20%
Initial state of charge (%) 50%
Allow grid to charge battery yes
Total percentage-based incentive (%) 0%
Total rebate ($/kW) $0
MACRS schedule 7
Resilience
Critical load factor 50%
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Chapter 4
METHODS FOR 1D ZNO NANOSTRUCTURES

AND POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE SOLAR CELLS
Kelvii Wei Guo*

Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering,
City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
ABSTRACT
One-dimensional (1D) nanostructures are generally used to describe

large aspect ratio rods, wires, belts and tubes. The 1D ZnO nanostructures
have become the focus of research owing to its unique physical and
technological significance in fabricating nanoscale devices. When the
radial dimension of the 1D ZnO nanostructures decreases to some lengths
(for example, the light wavelength, the mean of the free path of the phonon,
Bohr radius, etc.) the effect of the quantum mechanics is definitely crucial.
With the large ratio of the surface to volume ratio and the confinement of
two dimensions, 1D ZnO nanostructures possess the captivating electronic,
magnetic, and optical properties. Furthermore, 1D ZnO nanostructure’s
large aspect ratio, an ideal candidate for the energy transport material, can
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: kelviiguo@yahoo.com.
108 Kelvii Wei Guo
conduct the quantum particles (photons, phonons, electrons) to improve the

relevant technique applications.
To date, many methods have been developed to synthesize 1D ZnO
nanostructures. Therefore, approaches for achieving 1D ZnO
nanostructures are expressed and the relevant potential application for solar
cells are also present to highlight the attractive property of 1D ZnO
nanostructures.
Keywords: ZnO, one dimensional, nanostructures, chemical vapour

transport and condensation (CVTC), chemical vapour deposition
(CVD), metal organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD), vapour-
liquid-solid (VLS), hydrothermal, electrochemical, solar cell
INTRODUCTION
To date, nanotechnology is the operation of matter on an atomic and

molecular scale. Generally speaking, the size scale in nanotechnology
including materials, devices and other structures is at least from 1 to 100
nanometers in one dimension. The revolution of the nanotechnology is
taking a crucial effect on the different fields, such as commercial sectors,
engineering, science, drug delivery, sensors and the construction industry.
Nanostructures in such size have made steadily increasing attraction because
of their attractive and captivating properties, same as their fascinating
applications complementary to the materials in bulk. The interesting
properties of materials in nanoscale (both physical and chemical) can make
the efficacy enhanced distinctively in mechanical strength, (photo)catalysis,
optical sensitivity, (thermal and electrical) conductivity and which enable
applications such as improved materials with higher properties, storage
devices of the electronic and energy, sensors and catalysts [1-8].
According to the dimensions in nanometer scale size, nanostructures can
be classified into the following three groups:
(a) Zero-dimensional (0D) nanostructures (quantum dots, nanoparticles

or nanoclusters).
Methods for 1D ZnO Nanostructures and Potential for Future … 109
(b) One-dimensional (1D) nanostructures (nanowires, nanorods,

nanotubes, nanoribbons, nanobelts or nanocables).
(c) Two-dimensional (2D) nanostructures (super thin films, multiple
layer films or supper lattices).
In comparison with 0D nanostructures, it is easier to investigate the

relationship between the mechanical properties, optical and electronic
transport and the confinement of the size and dimensionality for 1D
nanostructures. Moreover, 1D semiconductor nanomaterials have an
extremely crucial effect of the active components and interconnects in the
nanoscale electronic and photonic devices fabrications.
Up to now, 1D nanostructure is generally used to describe large aspect
ratio rods, wires, tubes and belt and tubes and has been the key point of
investigation due to its attractive physical and technological significance in
fabricating nanoscale devices. When the radial diameter of the 1D
nanostructure is lower than some lengths (the path of the phonon mean free,
the light of wavelength, Bohr radius, etc.), the effect of the quantum
mechanics will be crucial. Owing to the large ratio of the surface to volume
and the confinement of two dimensions, nanowires possess the definitely
attractive electronic, magnetic, optical properties. In addition, because
nanowires’ aspect ratio is extremely large, the quantum particles (photons,
phonons, electrons, etc.) can be conducted directly easily to make the
nanowires as the ideal candidate for the energy transport materials to
enhance the relevant technique applications [9-17].
Today, numerous approaches have been researched to synthesize 1D
nanostructures. Two fundamental steps essentially involve in the evolution:
nucleation and growth. A lot of solid materials with 1D nanostructures in
nature are controlled by the bonding in the structure of crystallography in
the highly anisotropic. The materials need common growth conditions
including chemical vapour deposition (CVD), wet-chemical routs and
template-assistant methods. In classification, all the contemporary
approaches are divided into bottom-up and top-down methods. The most
important issue for developing a new synthetic method is to control the
dimensions, morphology and uniformity of nanostructures. When making a
110 Kelvii Wei Guo
method to synthesize the nanostructures by the synthetic effects, it is

definitely important to control the related morphology (or shape),
dimensions and uniformity simultaneously. To obtain 1D growth
nanostructures, several chemical methods were generated. The current
common six different strategies are (1) the reduction of a 1D microstructure
in size; (2) 0D nanostructures self-assembly; (3) by a capping reagent kinetic
control; (4) a template usage for direction; (5) a liquid droplet confinement
as in the vapor-liquid-solid process; and (6) the control of a solid with the
anisotropic crystallographic structure.
Generally, there are four popular mechanisms for understanding the
synthesis of 1D nanostructure materials. They are the mechanism of vapor-
liquid-solid (VLS), the mechanism of oxide-assisted growth (OAG), the
mechanism of vapor-solid (VS) and the mechanism of solution-liquid-solid
(SLS).
Vapor-Liquid-Solid (VLS)
In the VLS mechanism, a liquid metal cluster or catalyst, such as Au,

Fe, Ni, or Co, takes as the energetically favorable point of the gas-phase
reactant absorption. The reactant supersaturates and segregates from the
cluster, then grows into a 1D structure of the material, the diameter of which
is limited by the size of the liquid metal catalyst that can be achieved under
equilibrium conditions [18-21].
Oxide-Assisted Growth (OAG)
This kind of the synthesized technique, in which oxides replaced by

metals have a crucial effect on the nucleation inducing and the nanowires
growth, can produce the high-purity 1D nanomaterials in the large
quantities, and the metal catalysts do not need any more. The 1D
nanomaterials synthesis with the mechanism of the oxide-assisted growth is
the extension of the traditional vapor-liquid-solid method with the metal-
catalyst. Moreover, it can be taken to make the nanowires by other materials

than silicon [22-26].
Vapor-Solid (VS)
For the mechanism of the vapor-solid (VS), the size of the nucleation
site is critical for defining the rod diameter when the vapor supersaturation
is appropriately controlled. Metal catalysts are not necessary. Three stages
can be summarized as the illustration: (i) The source forms vapor phase; (ii)
The vapor is transported by the carrier gas, and deposits on the substrate to
form crystalline nuclei; (iii) The defects of the nuclei become the growth
points, and the reactive vapor molecules further grow into nanostructures
[27, 28].
Solution-Liquid-Solid (SLS)
Solution-liquid-solid (SLS) phases are involved in the nanowire growth

that is in fact an analogy to the conventional whisker growth via vapor-
liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism. The difference is that the vapor phase
involved in the VLS growth is now substituted by a solution phase in the
SLS mechanism. In turns out, however, the nanowires prepared by the SLS
mechanism have a varying diameter ranging from 10 to 150 nm, which is
not uniform [29, 30].
PROPERTY OF ONE DIMENSIONAL (1D) NANOMATERIALS
Up to now, it is still a challenge to accurately characterize the property

of 1D nanostructures due to the constrains of the current measuring
techniques, such as (1) the size of 1D nanostructures is too small to adopt
the well-established testing techniques; (2) 1D nanostructures different from
bulk materials are hard to pinpoint at the desired location. Therefore, the
112 Kelvii Wei Guo
relevant techniques should be explored to detect the property of 1D

nanostructures accurately.
Mechanical Property
1D nanomaterials behave qualitatively different from the conventional

bulk materials when the size reduces to nanoscale. It is well known that the
increments of yield stress and the hardness of a polycrystalline material are
consistent with the decrement of the grain size to the micrometer scale, and
this significant phenomenon is defined as the Hall-Petch effect. For the
single crystalline 1D nanostructures, their property is extremely higher than
that of the counterparts in the larger dimensions.
Thermal Property
For 1D nanostructures, the great reduction of the melting point of a solid

material is very obvious. Because of the special characteristics of
nanocrystal materials, the high specific boundary area means large stored
interface energy. Consequently, 1D nanostructures can be tailored precisely
on the basis of their thermal property, such as synthesizing and annealing
temperatures [31-33].
Electronic Property
For 1D nanostructures, the grain size and boundaries are the dominated
factors effected on the electron mean free path and resistance. There is a
trend that many physical properties of 1D nanostructures like optical,
magnetic and electrical properties will be enhanced distinctively when the
size or dimension of the material reduces to nanosize (~ 10-9 m) scale.
Moreover, such 1D nanostructures (such as nanowires, nanorods, etc.) are
generally prone to be enriched with many surface defects, oxygen and cation
vacancies due to their low formation energy within nanoscale materials [34,
35].
Magnetic Property
Magnetic properties of materials are fundamentally determined by the

magnetic couplings at the atomic level. Unlike bulk ferromagnetic materials,
which usually form multiple magnetic domains, 1D nanomaterials consist of
the simple magnetic domain resulted in obvious difference in several
important aspects from the property of their bulk counterparts [36-40].
Optical Property
The confinement of the size have a significant effect on the energy levels
of the nanowire determination when its diameter decreases to some critical
length (Bohr radius). Results indicate that the nanowires absorption edge of
silicon is obviously blue-shifted because the bulk silicon indirect bandgap is
only 1.1 eV. The characteristics of the absorption spectra are sharp and
discrete along with the photoluminescence (PL) in the relatively strong
“band-edge”. At the same time, along the longitudinal axes of the nanowires
the emitted light is highly polarized [41-44].
ZINC OXIDE
Zinc oxide (ZnO) has been investigated for a long time as it is an

amazing material with multiple functions. ZnO is a direct wide band gap
semiconductor material with piezoelectric and photoelectric properties. ZnO
has a wide direct band gap of 3.37 eV which is similar to GaN and a high
exciton binding energy of 60 meV at room temperature. The wide band gap
gives good optical transparency to visible light which makes ZnO a suitable
candidate for short wavelength photonic applications (UV and blue spectral
114 Kelvii Wei Guo
range). ZnO has a non-central symmetric wurtzite structure, and the relevant
hexagonal unit cell (a = 3.25 Å, c = 5.20 Å) packed O2- closely and stacked
Zn2+ layers alternately along the c-axis direction. Due to the unique
fascinating property in electronics, optics, photonics, and magnetics, ZnO
provides an impact on applications in various areas, such as solar cells,
supercapacitors, sensors, catalysis, light-emitting, actuators and biomedical
devices. ZnO has equal importance in relation to silicon-based 1D
nanostructures in the field of 1D nanostructures, and it has an increasing
influence in developing nanotechnology. To date, various quasi-one-
dimensional nanostructures of ZnO have been synthesized, i.e., nanowires,
nanobelts and nanotubes [45-47]. Results indicate that the length of
synthesized ZnO nanorods (NRs) is about 4 µm with the diameter of around
700 nm, and ZnO nanorods with the flat top surface and they stack one by
one through polar surfaces. From the crystal structure of the ZnO, the ions
of Zn and O are arranged alternatively through c axis where the bottom
surface is O2− terminated (000-1) and the top surface is Zn2+ terminated
(0001). The surfaces of the flat top explored in the nanorods of ZnO are
contributed to the polar surfaces disappearance. In the basis solution with
the weak volume, the precipitate of Zn(OH)2 solid exists in the reactant
solution. Owing to the dipole interaction, Zn(OH)2 solid takes as the polar
that it could easily make the positive and negative surfaces of ZnO crystal
incorporate efficiently. Therefore, the surface energy of the polar surfaces is
relatively high than that of the nonpolar surfaces, disappear at the first when
the nonpolar surfaces start to slowly grow and appear in the last stage of
ZnO nanostructures crystal growth [48].
METHODOLOGIES FOR ACHIEVING 1D

ZNO NANOSTRUCTURES
ZnO nanostructures have already been synthesized by various methods.

There are mainly two methods to prepare 1D ZnO according to the state of
growth medium: vapour phase process and liquid phase process. The vapour
phase method includes chemical vapour deposition (CVD), metal chemical

vapour deposition (MOCVD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), pulsed laser
deposition (PLD), etc. The liquid phase method includes hydrothermal
method, electrochemical method, sol-gel method, and so on. The growth
mechanism can be classified into mainly three categories: vapour-solid (VS)
growth, vapour-liquid-solid (VLS) growth and solution-liquid-solid (SLS)
growth.
Chemical Vapour Transport and Condensation (CVTC)
The chemical vapour transport and condensation (CVTC) method is

processed in a tube furnace. The substrates coat with a layer of Au thin film
with thermal evaporation methods to control the thickness of the film in the
CVTC system. ZnO powder and graphite powder in the same amounts are
mix together and milled effectively, then put them into a boat made by
alumina. Then, the alumina boat and the substrate with Au film are placed
into a small quartz tube. Usually, the substrates are kept 5-10 cm away from
the alumina boat center. At the furnace center, the boat of the alumina sits
and at the downstream of the argon flow the substrates are positioned. The
system is raised to 800-900°C and maintained for 5-30 min. Light or dark
grey materials are attained on the surface of the substrate.
Figure 1. Schematic mechanism of ZnO NW growth.

116 Kelvii Wei Guo
Results indicate that the growth direction for the ZnO nanowires (NWs)
is <001>. Meanwhile, it is also observed in the high diffraction intensity of
(001) peaks of XRD results to confirm that the preferential growth direction
is <001> [49, 50].
Results show a patterned ZnO nanowires synthesized on silicon (Si)
substrate with the patterned Au islands with the diameters of the nanowires
from 20 to 120 nm and the length from 5 to 20 μm. The directions of the
grown nanowires on (100) Si substrate are random. Moreover, the flexible,
long, fine ZnO nanowires grow extensively from the hexagons’ edges. The
growth of nanowires is consistent with the copper grid in the hexagonal
pattern abundantly. Interestingly, a complicated intricate network is formed
due to lots of the nanowires connecting with the neighboring metal
hexagons.
ZnO NWs grown under the vapour-liquid-solid process begins together
with the reductive Zn gaseous reactants dissolution into the Au catalyst
liquid droplets in nano-size, and then the alloy metal is formed followed by
the supersaturation of Zn along with the single-crystalline wires growth. The
schematic growth mechanism is expressed in Figure 1. In this method, the
diameter, density and location of ZnO NWs can be controlled according to
the desired characteristics. As a result, ZnO NWs with the required
properties can be attained and tailed successfully. However, the metal
catalyst affects the purity of the product which can lower the performance
of the nanowires [51-56].
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
The aligned 1D ZnO NWs fabricated by patterning metal catalytic

particles through VLS growth involves tedious lift off processes for
patterning metal catalysts and may lead to serious contamination in
complementary metal oxide semiconductor processing. To avoid the effects
of the catalyst, CVD without the catalyst has been developed. The zinc oxide
NWs growth is proceeded and developed earlier when the flow type reactor
is at a reduced pressure the elemental vapour phase synthesis. Highly
purified metallic granulated Zn (99.99%) is placed in the boat made by the

alumina. After that, it is inserted at a quartz ampoule end which is sealed at
one end. Meantime, a wide slit in the ampoule is at the open end. The
substrates are mounted with their front sides up and below the ampoule.
Then, a horizontal two-zone flow-type quartz reactor is used for putting the
ampoule inside in order to make sure that the source of zinc is situated in
one of the zones (evaporation zone), the substrates and in the other (growth
zone). The arrays of ZnO growth are very allergic to the processing
parameters, especially for the well aligned nanorods. Wang ZL and his co-
workers firstly fabricated a ZnO nanobelt in 2001 using catalyst-free CVD
methods and applied it to the devices [57]. Furthermore, Wang’s group also
achieved the formation process of a rectangular cross-section by simply
evaporating ZnO powder at elevated temperatures. The structures of as-
synthesized nanobelts are uniform. Most of the nanobelts are single crystals
and free from defects and dislocations. To obtain the ZnO nanowire arrays
(NWAs) via catalyst-free CVD methods, many groups have adopted
different methods to reach the objective [58-62]. One method is to adopt a
ZnO film layer to induce the growth of ZnO NWs. The nucleation stage of
ZnO nanocrystals plays an important role. Firstly, the zinc metal droplet
condenses on the surface of the substrate due to the different heating
temperatures in the evaporation and growth zones. The diameter of catalyst
droplets can be controlled by zinc and oxygen partial pressure which is
different from the Au catalyst growth mechanism. In addition, Menzel A et
al. deeply investigated the method for tuning the growth mechanism of ZnO
nanowires under the various conditions and put out the related parameters
for a controlled NW growth by CVD method to change the nanowire shapes
[63].
Metal-Organic Chemical Vapour Deposition (MOCVD)
The MOCVD method, apart from its increasing advantages because of

its unique characters of the industry, has been illustrated to be effectively
taken to ZnO NWs synthesis with good controllable shape, high quality and
118 Kelvii Wei Guo
reproducibility. The growth of ZnO NWs with high quality by catalyst-free

MOCVD was explored firstly by Park WI et al. [64]. After that, the huge
effort has put into the in the field of the synthesis of the ZnO nanostructures
and great progress has subsequently been obtained [65-69]. Up to now, the
contributions relevant to MOCVD growth of ZnO nanostructures,
diethylzinc (DEZn), dimethylzinc (DMZn) as zinc precursor, nitrogen or
argon as carrier gas and low reactor-pressures have been mostly used. Park’s
group reported the growth of ZnO NWs, which requires no metal catalysts.
The nanorod growth temperature was as low as 400°C. However, the
preparation machine and source materials are more expensive than other
methods which have hindered its practical applications.
Chemical Solution Method
Chemical solution deposition is one of the commonly employed

synthesis methods for ZnO nanostructures, particularly in large-scale
fabrication for device purposes [70-75]. Chemical reactions between
different precursors play a key role in the synthesis. The advantages of the
solution method include the economical synthesis, the large scale and the
low temperature. For ZnO nanomaterials growing on a substrate, the
approaches of solution mostly adopt the hydrothermal procedure by a kind
of solution in an aqueous which includes an organic amine and zinc salt. In
addition, in order to enhance the ZnO NRs alignment on the substrate, a
textured ZnO nanocrystal or a ZnO thin film is taken as a seed layer.
In a typical chemical solution synthesis, a layer of ZnO seed layer is
spread over a Si substrate by dipping or sputtering. This kind of the seeding
method is simply suitable for different substrates. The ZnO seed layer
thickness is usually 10-200 nm. A calculated amount of zinc nitrate
hexahydrate is dissolved in 80 mL deionized water to obtain 1-40 mM
solutions for growth solution preparation. Then, the pH of the solution for
ZnO growth is adjusted by ammonia water addition. The amount of the
ammonia water addition related to the target pH and the zinc salt
concentration is usually about 0.1-5 mL. The growth of the hydrothermal
ZnO NRs is explored with Zn/Si substrate suspended upside down in a kind
of Teflon-capped glass bottle which is full of the growth solution. The
temperature of ZnO growth ranges from 60 to 90°C and the reacting time is
6 h. When the synthesis is finish, the substrate is taken from the reactant
solution. At the same time, the substrate is rinsed by the DI water and dried
successively. Therefore, the morphology (length, diameter) of the
synthesized nanorods are relied on the relevant parameters for instance, zinc
seed layer morphology, pH, growing temperature and zinc salt
concentration.
Research illustrates the sulphidation of ZnO nanorods with definitely
well particle decoration of the entire surface of ZnO nanorods, and the end
and side of facets are not in the well define morphology. With the reaction
increases, a more uniform film coated on ZnO nanorods can be easily
observed. Moreover, the side and end facets of the synthesized ZnO
nanorods become more smoothly. Meanwhile, EDX results agree well with
the relevant SEM results. In addition, ZnO nanorod is coated with an uneven
film. The distances of interplanar related to ZnO (01-12) and (10-10) and
ZnS (111), together with the relationship of the partial epitaxial between ZnS
shell and ZnO core where (10-10) ZnO//(111) ZnS. Furthermore, the
calculated parameters of the lattice of ZnO core are 5.35 Å ± 0.01 Å at the
c-axis and 3.29 Å ± 0.01 Å at the a-axis [76].
SOLAR CELLS
Advantages of ZnO NWs/NRs Arrays
ZnO has a large band gap (3.37 eV) n-type semiconductor which can be
easily synthesized into large-scale arrayed 1D ZnO structures and the
patterning of them. The facile synthesized property and its natural
characteristics make ZnO NRs a widely used template material in the field
of sensitized solar cells and preparing nanotubes.
The attractive characteristic of ZnO is the superior electron mobility,
which is more than one magnitude order larger than that of the anatase
120 Kelvii Wei Guo
titanium oxide, in all of the semiconductors with the wide band gap which
are taken as replaces of titanium oxide for the electron conductor. ZnO NRs-
based solar cells are promising devices for solar energy conversion. Because
NRs have strong light absorption and rapid carrier collection, in addition
they are inexpensive due to the cheap element and small amount of material
needed. Compared to planar solar cells, NRs photovoltaic devices have
enhanced optical absorption due to three effects. ZnO NRs can reduce
reflectivity and the incoming light is captured and confined into guided
modes which lead to concentration of the electromagnetic field inside the
absorbing material. Moreover, the nanowire arrays support the light along a
diffusive path leading to multiple scattering between the wires.
Excitonic Solar Cells
Conventional solar cells are the silicon p-n junction type invented in the
1950s. Nevertheless, the cost of solar power is too high to be extended
industrially. To reduce the cost, a great deal of research has been devoted to
less expensive types of solar cell. One of the great promises is the emergence
of excitonic solar cells. The difference between conventional and excitonic
solar cells is that light absorption results in the formation of excitons in
semiconductor materials rather than free electron-hole pairs. Excitonic solar
cells consist of molecular semiconductor solar cells, conducting polymer
solar cells, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) [77, 78] and quantum dot solar
cells (QDSSCs) [79-82].
Among the different types of excitonic solar cells, the ZnO NRs array is
popular in the fields of DSSCs and QDSSCs. The dye-sensitized solar cell
concept is on the basis of the dye optical excitation, and the conduction band
with the metal oxide in the nanostructure wide band gap is injected into an
electron. At the beginning, a kind of the dye-sensitized cell made of a dense
array of oriented, crystalline ZnO NWs was researched and attained with a
full Sun efficiency of 1.5%. To increase the efficiency of such cells,
researchers have adopted different methods such as using alternative
sensitizers and redox electrolytes to fabricate solid-state or nonvolatile-
liquid DSSCs. The new record power conversion efficiency (PCE) in DSCs
is 7%, adopted with the synthesized multilayer assemblies of high-surface-
area ZnO NWs to fabricate DSSCs [83, 84].
However, despite the successes of DSSCs, novel hybrids of the
architectures of device and materials are still hunting to further enhance solar
cells performance and cost. Quantum dots (QDs) is one possibility to
substitute photosensitive dyes. Compared to dye, the particle size of QDs
can be tuned for adjusting their absorption spectrum to match the solar
spectrum better. Also, the efficiency of the photovoltaic (PV) device can be
improved effectively by QDs which can make multiple electron-hole pairs
per photon. The maximum thermodynamic conversion efficiency of
QDSSCs can theoretically reach 44% which is much higher than for DSSCs.
In 2007, Aydil ES’s group demonstrated ZnO NWs with CdSe QDs
photosensitization and provided proof of QDs photogenerating electron
transfer to the nanowires for the first time. They proved the possibility of
QDs demonstrated ZnO NWs providing a promising solar cell architecture
[85]. Most reported values of ZnO NWs’ QDSSCs (typically below 3%) are
well below DSSCs (7%). With the time flying, more research on ZnO NWs’
QDSSCs keeps forward with the higher efficiency. The performances of
QDSSCs are typically limited by problems of aggregation, low QD loading
density and high expense of synthesis to hinder its large-scale applications
[86-88].
CONCLUSION
ZnO being one dimensional (1D) nanostructures is playing an

increasingly crucial role in the developing nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Due to its unique physical and chemical properties, 1D ZnO nanostructures
can definitely enhance remarkably the efficacy in optical sensitivity,
(photo)catalysis, mechanical strength and (thermal and electrical)
conductivity, which is beneficial to electronic and energy storage devices,
sensors, advanced mechanical materials and catalysts. To date, the state-of-
art resources of the renewable alternative energy with the cutting-edge
122 Kelvii Wei Guo
techniques are urgent to be explored to make them to play the crucial role in
the energy consumptions for the future along with the eco-friendly to
benefits of the environment and technics, especially considering on the basis
of taking an ideal candidate for the traditional energy resources. Solar energy
is the radiant energy that is produced by the sun. In many parts of the world,
the direct solar radiation is considered to be one of the best prospective
sources of energy with the highlighted environmentally friendly benefits.
Therefore, the deep insight into the properties of 1D ZnO nanostructures
shall be explored more and coupled with the relevant techniques of solar
cells. Meanwhile, the future methodologies for achieving 1D ZnO
nanostructures eco-friendly or green to the environments shall be also
researched further along with the relevant detailed mechanism revelation.
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Chapter 5
POSSIBLE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

OF A FUSION-FISSION HYBRID REACTOR
AS A CLEAN ENERGY GENERATOR
John E. Brandenburg*
Kepler Gravity Sciences Inc., Midland TX, US
ABSTRACT
The construction of Q = 1 or “scientific breakeven” tokamaks is now

possible with a new type of nuclear energy reactor: the Fusion-Fission
Hybrid. The Hybrid makes advantageous the fact that the easiest fusion
reaction : DT fusion, produces a 14MeV neutron which can drive much
more energetic fission reactions in a fissile blanket. Many problems are
solved that are seen in pure fusion and allows light-water fission reactor
technology for power reactors with fusion cores. There are two basic types
of Hybrid reactors that are possible. One type, a waste treatment reactor,
uses a Q ~ 1 fusion core to transmute high-level waste into shorter-lived
isotopes for more convenient disposal, thus solving the nuclear waste
problem. The second type the Fusion Controlled Fission Reactor uses a
fusion core to excite and control fission chain reactions in a fission blanket
*
Correpsonding Author’s Email: spaceranger137@yahoo.com.
134 John E. Brandenburg
for electrical power production. Here the fusion reactor is Q << 1 since it
only needs to supply enough neutrons to bring the fission blanket to
criticality. With a delayed neutron fraction in a fission reactor assumed to
be required for a fusion reactor to create criticality, this indicates a density-
confinement time or nE = 1.5 × 1010 for “Hybrid Breakeven” or 1/10,000
of Lawson Criterion.
Keywords: fusion reactions, fission, hybrid reactor, fast neutrons, thermal

neutrons, breakeven criterion, high-level waste, nuclear transmutation
INTRODUCTION
The threshold performance for fusion reactors to make an impact on

solving the global energy problem has now been dramatically lowered, due
to advances in engineering, so that it is now within contemporary mature
technology. This means humanity now has two forms of nuclear power
available to energize its civilization without increasing greenhouse gas
production: Fission and Fusion. Fission is the splitting of heavy nuclei like
Uranium into smaller pieces with the release of energy. Fusion is the joining
of light nuclei bodies that fuse to form heavier pieces. Fission is the left over
energy from supernova explosions. Fission is very energy rich, producing
approximately 180 MeV of prompt energy that goes directly into heat.
Fission power is now a mature technology but still suffers from three serious
problems: the possibility of reactor core meltdowns following emergency
shutdowns, the necessity to breed more radioactive fuel, and the
accumulation of long lived nuclear waste that must be stored someplace for
as long as 100,000 years. However, fusion has now begun to arrive as a new
energy technology and will help solve many of the problems with fission.
When combined with fission, fusion can now make a near term power source
called the hybrid-fusion-fission [1,2] reactor that can meet humanity’s
energy needs while preserving Earth’s environment. This development has
dramatically lowered the requirements of fusion technology performance
over those required for a pure fusion reactor and makes safe, limitless, and
Possible Future Development of a Fusion-Fission Hybrid Reactor … 135
clean nuclear power possible. As this author stated in 2011 (Aviation Week),
“Before the future can occur, it must be imagined.”
Fusion and Fission Reactions
Fusion is how the Sun and stars make energy to heat and light the
cosmos. They do this by heating light elements like hydrogen, chiefly its
stable isotope deuterium, in the star’s cores. At these high densities, thermal
collisions bring the hydrogen isotope nuclei close enough together to fuse
and make helium. Fusion reactions occur because of short-range nuclear
forces that are much stronger than electrostatic repulsion at short range but
much weaker than electric forces at long range. Hydrogen isotopes are
easiest to make undergo fusion reactions. This is because the nuclei of
isotopes of hydrogen have only one electric charge and it takes less thermal
energy for them to approach one another closely. This means that collisions
between nuclei where they approach close enough for fusion reactions to
occur, can happen at lower temperatures for hydrogen isotopes. Several
possible fusion reactions are:
1. D2 + D2  (He3 + 0.82 MeV) + (n1 + 2.45 MeV)

2. D2 + D2  (T3 + 1.01 MeV) + (H1 + 3.03 MeV)
3. D2 + T3  (He4 + 3.52 MeV) + (n1 + 14.06 MeV)
4. D2 + He3  (He4 + 3.67 MeV) + (H1 + 14.67)
5. Li6 + n  (He4 + H3 +4.78MeV)
It is generally believed that the fusion of deuterium and tritium, two

hydrogen isotopes, will form the basis for the first practical fusion power
plants. This reaction is very energetic, releasing 18 MeV per reaction, and
has the largest fusion cross section at the lowest temperatures, as can be seen
from Figure 1.
The fusion of Deuterium and Tritium (DT) releases an energetic neutron
at 14MeV. This means a DT fusion reactor will release its energy as heat
and thus must use the same sort of energy recovery as a light water fission
reactor: boiling water and turning turbines. Light water fission reactor
technology can easily create DT fusion power systems. Fuel for DT fusion
is abundant. Deuterium is stable and found in all natural waters at
concentrations of approximately 0.015% and Tritium, however, is
radioactive and has only a 12 year half-life but can one can fire neutrons at
Lithium-6 and create tritium, and lithium is not a rare metal, being
approximately as abundant as lead.
Figure 1. Fusion cross sections for collision energies or plasma temperature.

The second most likely fusion reaction to be practical is Deuterium and

Helium-3 (D-He3), also seen in Figure 1. Fusion using D-He reaction is
highly desirable because both Helium-3 and Deuterium are stable and the
reaction produces a 14 MeV proton instead of a neutron and the proton can
be shielded by magnetic fields. This means it is possible to make a fusion
reactor using D-He3 reaction where the fuels and the reactions produce no
radioactivity and the reaction occurs in a magnetized plasma and can be
engineered to release its energy directly into electricity. This means a very
compact and efficient fusion power plant design, suitable for aircraft and
spacecraft is possible using D-He3. Because of the lack of radioactivity for
direct power conversion to electricity, the practical use of D-He3 fusion
reaction for power is the long-range goal of most fusion researchers.
However, D-He3 fusion is more difficult than DT for several reasons.
The difficulty of D-He3 fusion relative to DT stems from the scarcity of
Helium-3 on Earth and because the Helium-3 nuclei have two positive
electric charges instead of the one charge found in hydrogen isotopes.
Because it has two charges instead of one, it requires higher thermal collision
energy for a Deuterium nuclei and a Helium-3 nuclei to approach each other
closely to fuse. This means D-He3 requires higher plasma temperatures and
pressures than DT fusion so it is more technologically challenging. Also
Helium-3 is found only in great abundance on the Moon, so it is a space
rather than terrestrial resource. Therefore D-He3 fusion is most often
associated with space propulsion and power and a future economy that
includes ready access to space resources. This means the first practical
fusion power on Earth will probably be centered on the DT fusion reaction
with D-He3 fusion being harnessed later in space.
A pure fusion reactor has been the research goal of this nation and others
for decades. This effort has yielded fusion reactor prototypes based on the
Tokamak design that have achieved close to “breakeven” or “Q = 1”
conditions, Q is the ratio of fusion power produced to heating power applied
to heat the plasma. At Princeton in 1995, Q = 27% was achieved in the TFTR
experiment with 11 Megawatts of DT fusion energy released. At the
European JET tokamak, Q = 60% at 16 megawatts of DT fusion power was
produced. However, as progress in demonstrating fusion’s feasibility was
made, it should become apparent that fusion can make its best near-term
contribution to America’s power needs using a combination with fission and
fusion, rather than in a pure independent form. When this is achieved, the
impact of the new fusion technology on America’s energy needs can be near
term, can become enormous, and can be very positive. Instead of pure
fusion, we can meet America’s needs for energy more quickly and more
simply by creating a hybrid-fusion-fission reactor, henceforth called simply
a hybrid reactor. This is illustrated by observing that if either the TFTR or
JET tokamaks were run as the core of hybrid reactors, they would easily
have produced more than ten times the power they made with fusion alone
or values higher as Q > 10.
A hybrid reactor consists of a fusion core that supplies neutrons to a
fission blanket. This combines the best features of both nuclear reactions.
Fusion using DT reaction is very neutron rich and fission is very energy rich.
Each fusion reaction releases 18 MeV, mostly as a 14 MeV neutron and this
can then split a Uranium nucleus to release 180 MeV. This means the fusion
core can mainly generate neutrons and the fission blanket is principally used
to generate power. A fission blanket thus serves as an energy amplifier
around the fusion core. This means, among other things, that a pure fusion
DT fusion reactor cannot compete economically with a hybrid fusion-fission
reactor because the hybrid can make at least ten times the power of any
fusion reactor. The economic superiority of the hybrid is not just based upon
pure physics but also in mature technology studies of materials-science, and
systems engineering.
The DT fusion reaction releases a 14 MeV neutron with every reaction.
This energetic neutron was an enormous engineering headache for DT
fusion reactor designers because the neutrons hammer on materials and the
nuclei of their atoms in a very destructive manner. The neutrons represent
almost all of the power of a pure fusion DT reactor and the rate of neutron
bombardment on the inner solid structure of a 100 Megawatt fusion reactor
was so high and damaging that special materials would be required for the
“first wall” near the plasma. These special materials would have to be
replaced often. This means materials engineering and operational problems
are a major design problem for pure fusion reactors using DT fusion.
This situation is completely different from a fission reactor where the

average neutron energy is much lower, the neutrons slow down by collisions
in water, and most of the power is carried in highly charged fission fragments
resulting from the splitting of the heavy nuclei. These charged fission nuclei
turn their energy into heat in the fuel itself by rapid collisions. Fission
reactions are inherently more energetic than fusion reactions by factor of
more than 10, and are easier to achieve and harness, by their heat production,
to make electric power. Nuclear fission reactor technology is mature and
materials problems were much easier to solve because of the low neutron
energies.
Despite the advantages of fission over fossil fuels, fission, by itself, has
serious problems which must be addressed. The most immediate problem is
the concern for safety due to the possibility of meltdowns after a reactor
shutdown. Modern fission reactors are designed to shut down their chain
reactions by control rods or if loss of coolant occurs. However, when a
shutdown of a reactor occurs at full power, approximately 6% of the heat
production continues despite the end of chain reactions. This “afterheat” is
due to the radioactive decay of fission fragments, the remains of the split
nuclei. The core afterheat must be removed after shut down by coolant to
prevent core meltdown. In a normal pure fission reactor, the cooling of the
core afterheat is made more difficult by the fact that the core must be made
compact, with minimum surface area, in order to confine neutrons to attain
“criticality” so that a chain-reactions are self-sustaining. The difficulty of
cooling the core afterheat, which must done on the core surface, means that
the safety margin for cooling after shutdown is small, and significant loss of
cooling capacity means a meltdown. Such problems caused core meltdowns
at both Three Mile Island and Fukushima. Additional problems with fission
reactors are also well known.
The fission fuel cycle is effectively unclosed at present, with limited
supplies of U-235 available world-wide. Plutonium can be bred in special
reactors from U-238 but since it can be used in atomic bombs, the present
geopolitical situation argues against widespread use of this as a fuel. At the
other end of the fuel cycle, spent fuel from fission reactors is full of long
lived fission waste, some of which have half lives of thousands of years.
This long lived fission waste presents the most serious problem for public
acceptance of fission, since no practical method for safe storage can be
certified for 10 thousand years. Thus, in addition to the problem of afterheat
cooling problem, fission fuel is limited and spent fuel presents a storage
problem of major proportions. However, despite these problems, fission
power has proved immensely practical and useful. It must be considered to
be a proven technology. A major goal of the fusion-fission hybrid effort is
to solve these just listed problems of pure fission. Studies have shown that
other than the fusion core, most of the present technology of for pressurized
water fission reactor technology can be immediately applied for operating a
hybrid power reactor [2]. This flows from the reality that in a hybrid, almost
all the power is created and harnessed in the fission blanket. This also greatly
lessens the technological requirements on the fusion core.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In a hybrid reactor, the fusion core supplies only neutrons to a fission

blanket where almost all the power is generated and removed. This means
the fusion reactor needs only operate at close to breakeven conditions. The
fission blanket is “subcritical” and cannot sustain a fission chain reaction
without the fusion core producing sufficient neutrons. The materials
problems that plague pure fusion reactor designs are largely absent because
the fusion core only serves as an exciter rather than as a main power element.
This means a fusion core needs only to operate at Q  1, much reducing
neutron damage and hot plasma requirements. This also means we have
already achieved the fusion technology required for building hybrid reactors.
This progress in fusion also means that a hybrid reactor is safer to
operate than a pure fission reactor because the fusion core supplies the seed
neutrons to allow a fission chain reaction. The fission blancket is open rather
than compact, and thus much easier to cool. If the fusion core is shut down
electrically, fission reactions stop instantly and only decay heat from the
radioactive waste, typically 6% of full power, remains to be removed, but it
is now removed by a much larger surface area than for a pure fission reactor.
Thus, the problem of afterheat-meltdown in a hybrid reactor is much reduced
if not elimninated. Fusion is safer than fission because it is easier to control,
but hard to formulate into a power plant. Fission is harder to control but for
the same reasons is more energetic than fusion and thus better for building
power plants. Hybrid reactors have another benefit besides operational
safety that stems from the high-energy neutrons of the fusion core; the
hybrid can burn radioactive waste and also breed more fuel for its fuel cycle.
The major problem with fission reactors, other than possible core
meltdowns is the problem of long-lived radioactive waste from pure fission
reactors. The severity of this problems is illustrated by the inability of the
US to find an acceptable or cost effective long-term storage location for
radioactive waste. However, the long-term waste problem was difficult to
solve because of the extreme longevity of the waste:100,000 yrs or more.
Fusion is a cheap source of high-energy neutrons. High-energy neutrons
hammer on the nuclei of radioactive waste and cause it to “burn up.”
Radioactive waste from fission plants is dangerous because the nuclei that
results are unstable, full of excess energy, and decay over time.
Bombardment of these nuclei by high-energy neutrons causes them to go
unstable more rapidly and release energy, and become stable much more
rapidly [3]. Radioactive waste from pure fission reactors, when “burned” in
a hybrid near the fusion core releases large amounts of thermal power, and
after burning, emerges in a form that needs to be stored for only 50 years,
rather than 10,000’s of years. The old spent fuel rods from fission reactors
are now a source of energy rather than a problem. They are now worth
money! Their content of radioactive waste can now be used as fuel in a
hybrid and then buried safely with safer margins in terms of radioactivity.
Hybrid reactors can also solve the remaining problem of fission, that of the
scarcity of fission fuel.
Hybrid fusion reactors can safely breed more fuel for themselves and
other fission reactors. A hybrid reactor also breeds its own Tritium using
low energy neutrons in the fission blanket. However, breeding Plutonium
from Uranium 238 or Uranium 233 from Thorium for the fission blanket
requires high energy neutrons, though a Thorium reactor can breed fuel in a
thermal mode also. Pure fission breeders require a high-energy neutron

spectrum to breed Plutonium, but a pure fission reactor based on fast
neutrons is unsafe to the possibility of energetic meltdowns and requires
weapon’s grade enriched uranium. This is why only a few were built
worldwide and those are used chiefly to make Plutonium for weapons. The
hybrid reactor uses high-energy neutrons but makes them with fusion rather
than fission. This means a hybrid is a commercial entity and can breed
fission fuel from Uranium 238 or Thorium, the latter being preferable since
it makes U-233 rahter than than the more dangerous Plutonium. Operation
is much safer than a fission breeder.. The easy availability of Thorium
clearly has an added benefit.
Widespread use of nuclear power in any form brings with it the risk of
nuclear weapons proliferation. However, hybrid fission-fusion reactors
using Thorium present greater obstacles to proliferation than those using
Uranium. By contrast with Plutonium or Uranium 235, Thorium-derived
Uranium 233 can be used in bombs only with great difficulty because it is
mixed with intense gamma ray emitters. It is for this reason that, historically,
Thorium has been exploited for nuclear power much less than Uranium-
nuclear power. Civilian Nuclear Power evolved as part of the nuclear
weapons programs of the world’s nuclear powers, and Thorium based
nuclear reactors created poor fodder for weapons.
This means hybrid reactor could be delivered to poor unstable nation
with a full load of Thorium, set up and activated by running the pure fusion
core for a few months to breed Uranium 233 in its fission blanket, and then
begin to make power to help economic growth. Finally the reactor would be
shut down and replaced and transported back to a more advanced nation for
refueling or reactor remote disassembly. All during this time the reactor core
and fission blanket would be relatively safe from fuel diversion obtained by
terrorists due to its intense gamma emission. However, nuclear weapons
proliferation must remain a concern for all applications of nuclear power and
widespread use of fission-fusion hybrids can only be done in the context of
international oversight. Despite this cautionary note, hybrid fission-fusion,
holds the promise of abundant energy for the development of human
civilization with minimized human climate impact.
All of this is now possible because Tokamaks have demonstrated that

the fusion core technology now exists for the creation of hybrid reactors.
However, Q>1 Tokamaks are presently large and complicated. We can do
this better. Tokamaks were conceived as pure fusion reactors, but we don’t
need something that large and expensive to use it in a hybrid. Since fusion
reactors don’t need a critical mass to work, and so do not need to be large
but can be small, and the fission blanket acts as an energy amplifier for the
fusion reactor that is itself subcritical. Furthermore, a hybrid reactor can be
made much smaller than a pure fission reactor. This means if a compact
version of a fusion reactor could be manufactured that could serve as an
intense neutron source, then a hybrid reactor could be as small as a tabletop.
Therefore, to hasten the use of hybrid nuclear power, fusion reactor designs
become simply the designs for cost-effective compact fusion neutron
sources.
The Two Basic Types of Fission Fusion Hybrid Reactor
Two basic types of hybrid reactors can be built using already

demonstrated fusion technology. The first type: the Fission Waste Treatment
Reactor uses a cutting edge fusion reactor, most likely as a Tokamak running
at Q~1 to generate large amount of 14 MeV neutrons transmute nuclear
waste into shorter lived isotopes (see Figure 2).
This transmutation process generates much energy and so generates
power. Therefore, such facility wrings out the last amounts of energy left
over from the fission reaction and at the same time renders the waste
manageable on less than century timescales rather than millennia. Such a
facility will of necessity be large and expensive but will serve the purpose
of rendering the long-lived nuclear waste generated by large numbers of
conventional fission reactors to be manageable. Thus, the existence of such
a facility, will finally render the fission fuel cycle essentially closed.
Figure 2. A hybrid reactor designed to transmute high level fission waste into a safe
spectrum of isotopes.
The second type of hybrid reactor is purely for purposes of making

power. It is the simplest reactor of the hybrid type. Since the vast majority
of power is generated in the fissile blanket with a thermal neutron spectrum,
the amount of fusion needs to be only the minimum required to control the
fission blanket. It is this second type for which analysis should be achieved
to understand what are the minimum conditions on the fusion plasma for it
to be part of a power producing hybrid power reactor. This is the simplest
and easiest to build of hybrid reactors. Since only enough 14MeV neutrons
to achieve criticality need be supplied by a compact fusion reactor, a fusion
core for hybrid reactor can itself be compact and operate at far below Q = 1.
The “Hybrid Breakeven” Criterion for Power Production
In fusion-fission hybrid power reactor, fusion supplies the neutrons to

make the fission blanket critical. Such a device would be an early application
of fusion technology and a milestone on the road to pure fusion power. In
such a “fusion-critical” hybrid reactor, whose sole purpose is power
production, we want only as enough fusion as is necessary to supply the
“critical neutrons” for the fission reaction to be self-sustaining. This is a
complete reverse of the mentality for the normal fusion research philosophy.
Instead of creating as many fusions as possible, the usual goal of the fusion
researcher, we only want to create enough fusions to make the fission reactor
critical. The question then, is how many neutrons is “enough?” In a normal
pure fission reactor, the criticality, and the whole reactor operation, is
controlled by the “delayed neutrons” [4], which are approximately 1/200 of
the neutron population. These neutrons are used because they lag one second
or longer in time behind the rest of the neutrons and thus allows the reactor
operation to be easily controlled by movement of control rods. That is, in a
normal fission reactor, one delayed neutron can control 200 neutrons that
operate the reactor. Since we always want a hybrid power reactor to be safe
to shutdown by mechanical control rods, we will use the 1/200 = f c delayed
neutron fraction as the critical neutron fraction to supply the necessary
fusion reactions.
Following the original analysis by Lawson [5], we solve for the amount
of power density released by a fusion plasma surrounded by a nearly critical
fusion blanket, where the power output by the blanket can generate
electricity to supply sufficient heating to the plasma to sustain the supply of
neutrons to the blanket.
1 2 3nkT
n  v  Etot  (1)
4 E
12kT
n E  (2)
 v  Etot
Where <v> is the Maxwellian averaged fusion cross section times

nuclei velocity in the plasma, and Etot is the total energy release controlled
by one fusion neutron in the whole system:
1
Etot  Th K n E fission  200(0.33)2(250MeV )  3.3x104 MeV (3)
fc
where fc is the delayed neutron fraction in a fission reactor (fc ~ 1/200), which
is also the control neutron fraction, Th, is the thermodynamic efficiency of
a fission reactor ~33%, Kn ~ 2.5 is the neutron multiplication of a material
layer around the fusion neutron generator. We obtain as our “Hybrid
Breakeven Criterion” for a fusion plasma:
n E  1.5x1010 sec cm3 , (4)
which is 1/10,000 of the Lawson Criterion of 1.5 × 1014 sec-cm-3. Hybrid

Breakeven is thus much easier to achieve than pure fusion breakeven
because the fission blanket acts as an energy amplifier.
This can be seen by expressing this as a Lawson Criterion calculation
for pure fusion breakeven where Etot = Ec is the charged particle heating into
the plasma as a result of the fusion reaction only. For DT reactions
Ec = 3.5 MeV. The hybrid breakeven criterion is then written:
12kT
n E  (5)
 v  Ec FE
Where the energy amplification factor FE ~10,000:
Etot
FE   200(0.33)2.3(250MeV ) / 3.5MeV  104 (6)
Ec
Therefore, the Hybrid Breakeven in terms of Lawson nE is 1/10,000 of

Lawson. This means many magnetic confinement concepts that were
abandoned in the pursuit of pure fusion are perfectly acceptable for hybrid
reactor concepts.
In terms of the experimental QFusion the Hybrid breakeven where we
define QFusion:
Fusion power
QFusion  (7)
Heating power
For DT we can define for QFusion following the Lawson Criterion

analysis:
1 2
n  v  EFusion
QFusion 4 (8)
3nkT
E
We define Fc, the fraction of total fusion energy in charged particles,

which for DT is:
3.5MeV (9)
Fc  1
17.6MeV 5
For QHybrid we have then,
1 2 
 4 n  v  EFusion Fc FE 
QHybrid   2000QFusion (10)
3nkT
E
Therefore, a device with experimental QFusion ~1/2000 can form the core
of a Fusion-Fission Hybrid that will produce enough electricity to run the
fusion neutron generator in its core. We wish to exceed this number by an
order of magnitude, or more, to ensure net power production by the hybrid,
but this small and very achievable number is the threshold the fusion device
must cross.
CONCLUSION
Thus, fusion technology is mature and has arrived at a crucial threshold

where it can play a vital role in the development of nuclear power. Present
fusion technologies can now form the core of a new form of nuclear energy.
Fission, by itself, is an unfinished problem, however, with fusion added to
the process of releasing nuclear energy, a form of cosmic balance of nuclear
energies can be made, with the resulting power being safe, clean and
limitless.
Safety comes from the control of fission energy by a fusion core, which
will provide the neutrons to make the fission blanket critical. This will allow
the fission chain reactions to be shut down instantly with the shutdown of
the fusion core. The fission blanket can be a more open structure than
conventional pure fission reactor core, having more surface area, and thus
being easier to cool in the event of a shutdown. Therefore, fission fragment
decay afterheat can be more easily removed from the inherently higher
surface area fission blanket, resulting in a much higher safety margin for
avoiding meltdowns
A cleaner form of power than present existing nuclear power can result
from a balance of the nuclear processes inherent within the fusion fission
hybrid system. This occurs since high level, long-lived nuclear fission waste
can be transmuted by fusion neutrons into safer, shorter-lived isotopes that
can be isolated and stored more easily.
A limitless form of power comes from the hybrid system because the
fusion neutrons can safely breed nuclear fuel from U-238 or the even more
abundant Thorium, that ensures limitless energy with reduced danger of
nuclear proliferation. Numerous advantages are obtained from using

Thorium as a fuel instead of Uranium because of its lower atomic weight,
both in terms of proliferation protection and reduction in high-level nuclear
waste.
Finally, the technological and engineering knowledge to build a hybrid
power reactor already exists. The technical requirements for a fusion-fission
hybrid reactor are less challenging than that of pure fusion reactor by a factor
of 10,000 or even more, and there is general agreement that the fission
portion of such a reactor can be built using present light-water fission reactor
technology2. Therefore, the energy crisis, that specter that has so long hung
over the human future, forcing a choice between economic stagnation or
potentially disastrous climate change, is now solved. Fusion power has now
arrived in sufficient strength to cure the problems of fission and allow the
creation of the fusion-fission hybrid reactors in several forms. This hybrid
solution is not perfect, will require much hard work and investment, and
several years of development and demonstration, but it will result in a much
cleaner, safer, and more abundant form of power than humanity has ever
known, and has the potential to supply all our energy needs.
REFERENCES
[1] Bethe, Hans A., “The Fusion Hybrid,” Physics Today 32, 5, 44-51
(1979).
[2] Gerstner, E. “Nuclear energy: The hybrid returns.” Nature 460 (7251):
25–8 (2009).
[3] Takibayev A., Saito M., Artisyuk V., and Sagara H.(2005) “Fusion-
driven transmutation of selected long-lived fission products,”
Progress in Nuclear energy, Vol. 47, (2005).
[4] Schultz, M. A. “Control of Nuclear Reactors and Power Plants”,
second edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. (New York,
Toronto, London) p 18 (1962).
[5] Lawson, J. D. (1957) “Some Criteria for a Power Producing

Thermonuclear Reactor,” Proceedings of the Physical Society B,
Volume 70, p. 6 (1957).
Chapter 6
LOW ENERGY NUCLEAR REACTIONS:

DOCUMENTATION OF RESEARCH RECORDS
Thomas Grimshaw*, PhD

LENRGY LLC, Austin, Texas, US
ABSTRACT
Cold fusion (low energy nuclear reaction, LENR) was rejected by

mainstream science within a year or so of its announcement in 1989.
Despite the rejection, LENR continued to be investigated by many
researchers worldwide. The LENR Research Documentation Initiative
(LRDI) is underway to mitigate the loss of records of investigators who
began their work shortly after the announcement and are now leaving the
field. The LRDI began with a pilot project with Edmund Storms. Projects
typically include publications, unpublished reports, electronic and
hardcopy files, lab descriptions and notebooks, publications by others
(LENR library), and photos, recordings and other media. The records
found in an LRDI project are supplemented with one or more rounds of
recorded and transcribed interviews. Where possible, timelines of LENR
research are prepared. Each project is documented with memos for each
component followed by a report of the investigator’s research
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: thomaswgrimshaw@gmail.com.
152 Thomas Grimshaw
contributions. Preservation of these records for additional review and

analysis as progress is made in the field may contribute to the realization
of LENR and its energy benefits. The long-term prospects of humankind
will be improved greatly with new sources of abundant, inexpensive and
clean energy like LENR.
Keywords: low energy nuclear reaction, LENR, cold fusion, LENR records
preservation, LENR Research Documentation
INTRODUCTION
Humankind has an urgent requirement for abundant, inexpensive and

clean energy. New sources are needed not only to secure energy supplies for
the future, but also to reduce impacts of current sources, including global
climate change and degradation of water supplies. Cold fusion (now widely
referred to as low energy nuclear reaction, LENR) would, if its benefits
could be realized, meet human needs for a secure and clean energy source
for the foreseeable future.
LENR was announced in March 1989 by Dr. Martin Fleischmann and
Dr. Stanley Pons. Although it was rejected by mainstream science within a
year, it continued to be pursued by many researchers worldwide. But
because it is a pariah science, few new scientists have been attracted to the
field. Many of the researchers who began their work soon after the
announcement are now leaving the field because of retirement or health
issues. The large volume of research records developed over the past 30
years is at risk of being lost.
The LENR Research Documentation Initiative (LRDI) is underway to
mitigate this potential loss. Its main objective is to help researchers make
sure that their records are preserved and kept available for additional
analysis and interpretation as the LENR field continues to progress. The
LRDI began as a pilot project with Dr. Edmund Storms and now includes 18
participants. Because the records have promise of helping realize the
benefits of LENR, they represent a vital asset for humankind.
Low Energy Nuclear Reactions 153
RECORDS DOCUMENTATION PROCEDURE
Projects are set up under the LRDI umbrella for participating

investigators. A procedure has been developed to capture, document and
preserve the records (Figure 1). An LRDI project is initiated by making
contact with the researcher, reviewing the objectives and procedure,
encouraging participation, establishing communications and arranging a site
visit.
Figure 1. LRDI procedure.
A professional resume (CV) is an important source of information and

is requested during the initial contact. Research records are collected and
interviews are conducted during the site visit. Photos are also taken of the
participant and of the various records, which are also described individually
154 Thomas Grimshaw
with a cover memo. The interviews are recorded, transcribed and similarly
documented with a cover memo.
Arrangements are also made during the visit for organizing and
preserving the records. After the visit, the documented records and interview
transcripts are reviewed, and a research timeline is usually developed. A
draft report is prepared based on the memos and is submitted to the
researcher for review. It includes additional work that may be performed
after the report is submitted.
Projects are conducted on an informal basis. Confidentiality is assured,
and any results of a project are reviewed with the researcher before being
released in public venues. Information covered by any nondisclosure
agreements is not included unless permission is obtained. Early
documentation typically addresses the entire record in a general way.
Subsequent efforts may include more in-depth characterization.
Components
For most long-term LENR researchers, a large record consisting of

several components is available. The components are identified, described
and collected during the site visit. They are different for each participant,
depending on the type and amount of investigations, how the results were
recorded and the methods of storage. Most researchers have six types of
records.
Publications and Unpublished Reports

Investigators often include a comprehensive list of their LENR
publications in their professional resumes. Publicly-available reports, papers
and presentations in several venues, including journals (e.g., Journal of
Condensed Matter Nuclear Science) and magazines (e.g., Infinite Energy)
are obtained. Many of the publications for the LENR field have been
assembled in the LENR-CANR.org website [1]. ResearchGate [2] is another
source of participants’ LENR publications. Items not found in public sources
are usually available from the participant’s files. Unpublished reports
typically include analysis of lab results, progress summaries (e.g., to

sponsors) and communications with other LENR researchers. A memo is
prepared with a list of the publications found, and copies are collected and
included in the project where possible.
Electronic Files
Nearly all researchers have a large assemblage of electronic files in
different formats created by various kinds of software. The files are
generally of two types - documents and data files from experiments. The
initial emphasis in a project is collection and description of the documents
followed by the data files. The electronic files are found on current
computers and external storage, such as hard drives, flash memory, servers
or the Cloud. Long-term researchers often have files on legacy media, such
as CDs, ZIP discs, retired hard drives and floppy disks. The files are included
or referenced in the project. Their location and the storage media on which
they were found are recorded in a series of memos.
Hardcopy Files
LENR research began in the early years of the digital age, so paper files
often comprise a major component, particularly for long-term investigators.
These records are often found in file cabinets and in boxes or storage tubs.
Memos are used to document the records, including an inventory,
organization, type of storage and location. The storage containers are also
photographed. The materials are prioritized for scanning, and PDF files are
created as needed using an LRDI scanner. Scanning may be accomplished
on site, or the materials may be borrowed, scanned at the LRDI location and
returned to the participant.
Laboratory and Experiments

The participant’s lab is characterized using any existing descriptions,
including experimental methods, apparatus and equipment, materials, and
data collection and analysis methods. Additional descriptions, including
previous or legacy methods and equipment, are also prepared for the project
as required. Photos of the lab and equipment are acquired - or new ones are
156 Thomas Grimshaw
taken - during the visit. Lab notebooks are described when they are
available, and electronic lab files are identified for inclusion in the project.
Memos are prepared for the descriptions and photos of the lab, equipment
and notebooks.
Photos, Recordings and Other Media

Most participants have a collection of other types of media, such as
photographs and images, audio and video recordings, and correspondence
(e.g., emails, letters). The photos often include lab equipment and
experiments as well as events like meetings and conferences. Many
participants, for example, have pictures or video recordings of presentations
and attendees taken at International Conferences on Cold Fusion (ICCFs).
Video recordings typically consist of purchased items (e.g., produced to
describe or promote LENR), recorded television programs (e.g., news
broadcasts covering the field) and self-made recordings of conferences and
related events.
LENR Library
Nearly all participants have a collection not only of their own work, but
also items prepared by other LENR researchers. These items include books,
published papers, conference proceedings (e.g., ICCFs), magazines (e.g.,
Infinite Energy)1, reports (e.g., SRI International) and related materials.
They are found in both hardcopy and electronic (e.g., PDF) form. Some
participants have reference management software such as Endnote for their
collection of references. Copies of the electronic versions are obtained for
the project, and photos are taken of the books and other hardcopy items.
Memos are prepared listing the materials found and including the
photographs taken.
1
Ed. Note: Infinite Energy magazine, quarterly, PDF downloads, www.infinite-energy.com.
Interviews
Personal interviews with the participant are essential for LRDI projects.
They provide the context for the research records and are principal sources
for the timelines of investigation. The interviews are recorded using a hand-
held device, such as a multi-function phone with a suitable app. The audio
files are submitted to an online transcription service. When the transcripts
are received, usually within 24 to 48 hours, a cover memo describing the
date, participants and location is added. The interviews may be done in
person or by phone using another app that records the call and produces the
audio files.
Generally two or more rounds of interviews are accomplished covering
the full range of LENR research as well as a summary of the investigator’s
pre-LENR background. They are conducted free-form to encourage the
researcher to relate what he or she feels is most memorable. Emphasis is
placed on making the recollection an enjoyable experience. More than one
round of interviews has the advantage that the descriptions of events may
vary, resulting in a more complete yet consistent description of the research
trajectory.
Timeline
Documentation of an investigator’s research record is most complete

when a timeline of experiments and results can be constructed. The timeline
is determined by examining the records and, particularly, by reviewing the
interview transcripts as well as conducting follow-up conversations. A
researcher’s timeline consists of phases and milestones that reflect his or her
journey of LENR investigations. The basis of the milestones or turning
points varies for different investigators and typically consists of his or her
own experimental findings and progress, new ideas or insights, changes in
sponsors and events in the LENR field. A major goal of the research timeline
is to integrate the interview transcripts with the research record.
158 Thomas Grimshaw
Preservation
A researcher’s records are secured after they have been obtained and
documented. Keeping the records available for more analysis and
interpretation based on progress by the researcher or by new developments
in the LENR field (and with concurrence of the researcher) is a principal
objective of the LRDI. Both the participant’s records and the project
documents (memos and reports) are shared between the LRDI and the
participant. This sharing is accomplished by highcapacity flash memory
(thumb drive) or in the Cloud using commercially available storage such as
Google Drive or Dropbox. In both cases the files are backed up on a high-
capacity external hard drive for the LRDI.
Reporting
As noted, memos are used to document each component of the research

record as well as with the interviews of the investigator. Attachments, such
as photos or long tables, are included in the memos as required to document
the materials found. Project reports are prepared based on the memos, and
are typically organized as follows: 1) introduction; 2) research record
components; 3) interviews; 4) timeline; 5) future opportunities; and 6)
project methods. Future opportunities set forth actions to obtain additional
information and conduct more in-depth analysis, such as more extensive
descriptions of the records or additional detail in the timeline. The methods
section describes the LRDI procedure and a list of the memos prepared
during the project.
The project report is submitted to the participant for review and
approval. The report and memos are added to the other project files in the
selected storage medium. Where needed, the report is prepared in stages,
such as information collection, organization (timeline) and documentation.
Appendices are used in the reports for interview transcripts and voluminous
descriptions of records, such as long lists of publications.
Future Opportunities
Nearly all LRDI projects are documented with suggestions of more that
can be accomplished. As noted, the initial focus of a project is on a general
description of the entire research record. The information can then be
characterized more completely and in more detail in subsequent work. More
interviews may also be conducted, such as for particularly significant events
or findings. Additional visits to the participant may be necessary for the
added records and interviews. The reports and other accomplishments of the
projects may be presented or published, with concurrence by the
participants, under LRDI sponsorship at conferences.
PILOT PROJECT: EDMUND STORMS’ LENR CAREER
The LRDI began with a pilot project for Edmund Storms2, who was one
of the earliest researchers to follow up on the 1989 announcement. He began
his LENR investigations while at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL),
where he already had a 35-year research career (since the mid-1950s) at the
time of the LENR announcement. He had worked on high-temperature
materials primarily for the nuclear rocket [3] (Rover) and space reactor [4]
(SP-100) programs. This work led to his report on the refractory nitrides and
carbides [5] as well as his book on refractory carbides [6].
Dr. Storms has conducted investigations and developed explanations for
the phenomenon in the 30 years since the announcement. His most
prominent publications are his two books, published in 2007 [7] and 2014
[8]. He was honored (along with Michael McKubre) by Wired Magazine [9]
in 1998 as one of the 25 people in the US making a significant contribution
to new ideas. He was awarded the Preparata Medal, the most prestigious
award in the LENR field, in 2005. He has also co-authored a report
demonstrating that LENR is science and not pseudoscience [10].
2
Ed. Note: Dr. Ed Storms was a speaker at COFE1 (1999) and his paper, DVD, and Collected
Works are available from https://www.integrityresearchinstitute.org/catalog/cofe1.html.
160 Thomas Grimshaw
Dr. Storms has developed a novel explanation for LENR, referred to as

the “nanocrack and hydroton” hypothesis, which is explained at length in his
2014 book. He proposes that numerous narrow - approximately one
nanometer - cracks are formed by stress in the host material, such as
palladium. The cracks become occupied by deuterium or protium nuclei
(hydrogen nuclei with or without a neutron) that are held in the crack by
negative charges on the walls of the crack. The hydrogen nuclei become
arranged in linear structures termed hydrotons and vibrate at high frequency.
During the cycles of the vibration, the nuclei approach each other closely
- so closely that fusion occurs and some of their mass is converted to energy
in each cycle. The energy is conveyed from the hydroton to the host material
as photons and causes the lattice to increase in temperature. The fusion
energy, detected by the temperature increase, is referred to as “excess heat”
- energy above (sometimes far above) what can reasonably be attributed to
chemical reactions.
This hypothesis, like others in the LENR field, has not yet been verified
by reproducible experiments.
Dr. Storms’ LENR research record is extensive and goes back to his
earliest work at LANL. He has produced about 125 publications and over
110 unpublished reports. He has thousands of electronic files on his current
computer, CDs and DVDs, ZIP discs, VHS tapes, a retired external hard
drive and 3.5-inch floppy disks. His hardcopy records are in 14 hanging-file
storage tubs.
Dr. Storms’ lab was set up to perform LENR experiments using the
electrolytic cell, gas loading and gas discharge methods. Most of the
experiments are described in ten lab notebooks. He reviewed the notebooks
and prepared a “Work History” summary in a spreadsheet that has 2,750
entries. His LENR library has 150 books on the subject and over 6,000
electronic and hardcopy papers authored by himself and nearly all of the
other researchers in the LENR field. He has a website, LENR Explained
[11], to present his books and other works, and he helped Jed Rothwell
establish the LENR-CANR.org website [12] based initially on his private
collection of publications.
Three rounds of interviews totaling more than 22 hours were conducted

and transcribed covering Dr. Storms’ entire range of LENR investigations.
He attended nearly all of the ICCF conferences from ICCF1 to ICCF18, and
he has a nearly complete collection of their proceedings as well as a large
number of photos of the conference attendees and events.
A timeline has been prepared for Dr. Storms’ LENR research career
based on the records and interviews. It has eight phases consisting of periods
of support from sponsors interspersed with self-supported investigations:
1. LENR Work at Los Alamos National Laboratory (3/19898/1991)

2. Independent Investigation 1 (9/1991-12/1993)
3. ENECO Support (1/1994-2/1998)
5. Lattice Energy Support (7/2000-2/2006)
7. Kiva Labs (3/2007-3/2012)
Four reports have been prepared for the Storms pilot project: 1)
information collection; [13] 2) organization (timeline) [14]; 3)
documentation; [15] and 4) summary report [16]. The project was reported
at ICCF21 in 2018 as a poster [17]. The Storms LENR Research
Documentation Project has also been described on his LENR Explained
website. The project reported Dr. Storms’ work through 2015, so a
supplemental project is underway to extend the coverage for 2016 to 2018.
PARTICIPANTS AND PROJECTS
Participants in the LRDI vary greatly in their LENR research experience

and types and quantity of records. Other variables are the methods of
recording experiments, kinds of storage media and accessibility of the
records. The LRDI procedure is flexible and is readily adapted to the various
162 Thomas Grimshaw
researcher situations. As noted, a project is set up under the LRDI umbrella

for each participant or organization.
Candidates for participation are identified based on contributions to the
LENR research, level of interest in the LRDI, proximity to leaving the field
and potential risks of loss of the records. The 14 projects with 18 participants
to date, in addition to the Storms pilot project, are shown below.
 Tom Claytor and Malcolm Fowler (Los Alamos National

Laboratory, retired)
 Sidney Kimmel Institute for Nuclear Renaissance (SKINR): Dennis
Pease, Arik El-Boher, Graham Hubler
 David Nagel (The George Washington University; Naval Research
Lab, retired)
 Mahadeva Srinivasan (Bhabha Atomic Research Center, retired)
 Dennis Letts (LettsLab)
 Melvin Miles (Naval Air Warfare Center, China Lake, retired)
 Naval Research Lab: David Nagel, Graham Hubler, Ashraf Imam
(all retired)
 George Miley (University of Illinois, professor emeritus)
 Fran Tanzella (SRI International, retired)
 Scott Little and Marissa Little (formerly with EarthTech
International)
 Lawrence Forsley (Global Energy Corporation, US NASA, The
University of Texas at Austin)
 Tom Passel (Electric Power Research Institute, retired)
 Peter Gluck Ego Out Blogsite
 Charles Beaudette, author, C”Excess Heat: Why Cold Fusion
Prevailed”
As noted, a supplemental project to extend the coverage of the Storms

Pilot Project for 2016 to 2018 is also being performed. The other 11 projects
are in various stages of the LRDI procedure, from initial site visit to draft
versions of the report. Records have been collected, and interviews have
been accomplished with each of the participants. Nearly all of the
investigators have published reports, electronic and hardcopy files, and a

LENR library, and most of them have labs and associated experimental
records.
SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Realization of LENR and its benefits may be critical for the future of
humankind. Now 30 years after the LENR announcement, prominent
researchers are leaving the field. Given the importance of LENR, loss of
their research would be a tragedy both to the field and to humanity. The
LRDI is underway to mitigate this loss. A sound procedure has been
developed and has been proven many times. The records of 18 researchers
are being documented. An LRDI status report was presented at ICCF22 [18].
A number of candidates have been identified for future LRDI participation.
Future possibilities for the LRDI include presentations, reports, website
preparation and other outreach initiatives to help make the case for LENR.
More in-depth analysis of the records of current investigators, such as more
detailed timelines, may also be accomplished. A central repository could be
developed for improved protection of the LENR research records. It would
need to be secured from outside penetration (hacking), protect researcher
interests with confidentiality and be readily accessible by the researcher and
others whom he or she designates.
Most importantly, the records of the investigators need to be
systematically reviewed and analyzed to help understand LENR, achieve
consistent reproducibility and realize its energy and other benefits.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks go to the LRDI participants for their willingness to be a part of

the effort and for their full support in making their projects a success.
Gratitude is expressed to the Anthropocene Institute [19] for support for
LRDI expenses. The Energy Institute [20] at The University of Texas at
Austin has provided facilities and administrative support.
164 Thomas Grimshaw
Ed Storms not only provided information, advice and resources for the
pilot project, but also has been a supporter and collaborator for several years
before and after the pilot. David Nagel has given generously in both moral
and material support. Thanks also go to Chip Groat, formerly of the Energy
Institute, for being a mentor and helping advance the cause of LENR
research. Jed Rothwell’s LENR-CANR.org website of references for the
field has been invaluable for the LRDI projects.
REFERENCES
[1] https://lenr-canr.org/.
[2] https://www.researchgate.net/.
[3] Fishbine, B. et al. 2011. “Nuclear Rockets: To Mars and Beyond,” Los
Alamos National Laboratory, National Security Science, Space
Science Special Edition.
[4] DeMuth, S. and Parker, M. 2000. “SP-100 Space Reactor Pictorial
Design Introduction,” Rev. 0. Los Alamos National Laboratory Report
LA-KUR-00-6011, December.
[5] Storms, E. 1964. “A Critical Review of Refractories,” Los Alamos
National Laboratory, LA-2942, March.
[6] Storms, E. 1967. The Refractory Carbides, Academic Press.
[7] Storms, E. 2007. The Science of Low Energy Nuclear Reaction: A
Comprehensive Compilation of Evidence and Explanations about
Cold Fusion, World Scientific Publishing.
[8] Storms, E. 2014. The Explanation of Low Energy Nuclear Reaction:
An Examination of the Relationship Between Observation and
Explanation, Infinite Energy Press.
[9] Wired Staff. 1998. “The Wired 25,” Wired Magazine, November.
[10] Storms, E. and Grimshaw, T. 2010. “Judging the Validity of the
Fleischmann-Pons Effect,” Journal of Condensed Matter Nuclear
Science, 3, 9-30.
[11] https://lenrexplained.com.
[12] Rothwell, J. and Storms, E. 2003. “The LENR-CANR Website, Its

Past and Future,” Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on
Cold Fusion, August 24-29, Cambridge, MA, 939-942.
[13] Grimshaw, T. and Storms, E. 2017. “Cold Fusion Experiments and
Theory Development: Documentation of Dr. Edmund Storms’ LENR
Research Career, Stage 1 (Information Collection) Report,” April 18,
http://lenrexplained.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/01/Storms_Stage1
_2ndDraft_170418.pdf.
Research Career, Stage 2 (Organization) Report,” June 3, http://
lenrexplained.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/01/Storms_Stage2_2ndD
raft_170603.pdf.
Research Career, Stage 3 (Documentation) Report,” February 18,
http://lenrexplained.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Storms_Stage3
_2ndDraft_180218.pdf.
[16] Grimshaw, T. and Storms, E. 2018. “Documentation of Dr. Edmund
Storms’ 29 Years of Cold Fusion Research: Experiments,
Explanations, and Related Scientific Contributions. Draft Summary
Report,” May 2, http://lenrexplained.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/
01/ Storms_LRDP_Summary_180502.pdf.
[17] Grimshaw, T. 2018. “Documentation of Dr. Edmund Storms’ 29 Years
of CF Research: Lessons Learned for LongTerm LENR Researchers,”
Poster at the 21st International Conference on Cold Fusion, June 3-8,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.
[18] Grimshaw, T. 2019. “LENR Research Documentation Initiative:
Progress in Methods and Participants,” Presentation at the 22nd
International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science
(ICCF22), September 813, Assisi, Italy.
[19] https://www.anthropoceneinstitute.com/.
[20] https://energy.utexas.edu/.
Chapter 7
ELECTRIC VEHICLE
DEVELOPMENT BY ARTHUR MANELAS
WITH ANOMALOUS RESULTS
Bill Zebuhr*
Chairman of the New Energy Foundation
ABSTRACT
A wired ferrite billet designed by Arthur Manelas has been tested and
exhaustively examined by several scientists while installed in 1997
Solectria modeled on the Geo Metro. The Manelas billet circuit had high
voltage pulses traveling through it, creating excess electricity. All
investigators were skeptical, but observed and tested the device for a full
week. Manelas and three scientists drove the car for 25 miles. Then the car
was stored for one week under controlled conditions. One of the scientists
placed tamper tape over the doors, trunk, hood, etc. The vehicle’s battery
capacity increased from 69.6% (at time of storage) to 89.4% (at the end of
one week of non-use).
Keywords: electric car; voltage variation; controlled conditions; energy

anomaly; excess energy; power surplus; battery recharging
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: bzebuhr@aol.com.
168 Bill Zebuhr
INTRODUCTION
One of the most interesting and potentially important over-unity devices

recently developed and tested is the electric power generating system of
Arthur Manelas. Manelas, who died in 2014, worked as an engineer in the
U.S. space program during the Apollo mission and was an inventor with 17
patents in the solar energy field. Manelas lived in Pelham, New Hampshire,
only a few miles from our New Energy Foundation/Infinite Energy office.
He developed the system at his home over a period of years, about 1990
through 2013, and installed one in his house to reduce electricity
consumption from the utility. He also installed another in an electric car.
Local experts were involved in the testing and analysis of the Manelas
device and other interesting devices. (I had the privilege of meeting Manelas
and seeing the device hardware.) A recent article [1] in the Lowell Sun
(Massachusetts) featured some of the history regarding Dr. Brian Ahern’s
testing and evaluation of the Manelas device.
Figure 1. Arthur Manelas’ 1997 Solectria.
Ahern, an MIT-trained physicist and founder of Vibronic Energy

Technologies Corp. (Acton, Massachusetts), was introduced to Manelas in
2011 by Ivan Kruglak, who has been involved in the exotic energy field for
years. As reported by Editor Christy Frazier in an Infinite Energy article
summary of the 2014 Cold Fusion/Lattice-Assisted Nuclear Reactions
Electric Vehicle Development by Arthur Manelas … 169
Colloquium held at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, [2] in

September 2011 Ahern “visited Manelas’ home and tested a strontium ferrite
power supply that was running a 1997 Solectria.” The Solectria Corporation
produced about 400 of these electric cars modeled on the Geo Metro (see
Figure 1). In the Lowell Sun story, Ahern noted that the Solectria car “was
all battery and in the trunk was a power supply that was powering the car
and was recharging it.” Manelas had replaced 1,000 lbs. of lead acid batteries
with 350 lbs. of Thunder Sky lithium ion batteries to power the 57 Hp
electric motor.
Ahern reported at the colloquium that “the ferrite billet had high voltage
pulses traveling through it, creating excess electricity.” He was skeptical,
but observed and tested the device for a full week. Manelas, Ahern and two
other passengers drove the car for 25 miles. Then the car was stored for one
week. Ahern himself placed tamper tape over the doors, trunk, hood, etc.
The battery capacity increased from 69.6% (at time of storage) to 89.4% (at
the end of one week of non-use), using a dashboard Xantrex LinkLITE
battery monitor. Ahern further reported that the battery voltage had actually
increased from 168V to 172VDC.
Ahern stated in 2014, “I believe in the measurements as much as
anything that I have ever done, but I don’t know why it worked.” Ahern
presented on the Manelas technology at the August 2018 Conference on
Future Energy (COFE10 is part of TeslaTech’s ExtraOrdinary Technology
Conference in Albuquerque, New Mexico1). His slides indicate the device
“inputs 11 watts and outputs 78 watts...The bulb consumed 57 watts of
power over a four-day period. Nearly 20 megajoules were extracted from
the battery and the voltage did not decrease; in fact, it increased
approximately half a percent.” Ahern noted, “This is not a violation of the
First Law of Thermodynamics. The energy is believed to be extractions from
the magnetic field in other dimensions predicted by String Theory.” Ahern
further explained, “An oscillating current is impressed on the battery, a super
1
Ed. Note: Dr. Ahern’s DVD presentation contains a number of detailed anomalies and two
separate slideshows. It is available from https://www.integrityresearchinstitute.org/catalog/
newcds.html.
170 Bill Zebuhr
important point. The billet has a natural frequency of magneto-elastic origin

when it is properly conditioned. We try to resonate with that frequency.”
Ahern’s preliminary investigation of the Manelas device convinced him
that it was actually collecting energy from the “aether” and felt that his solid
conventional scientific background was not sufficient to evaluate it. Infinite
Energy had featured three articles by Don Hotson over a period of several
years, [3-5] and Ahern became convinced that Hotson’s view of the universe
might explain the Manelas device and others like it that apparently produced
more energy than was put into it by conventional means. After studying
Hotson’s papers and discussing the ideas with Hotson and myself, Ahern
concluded that Hotson’s description of the universe, although far from
complete and verified, was better than the conventional view. Ahern also
cited Yoshiaki Arata, Japan’s most decorated scientist, who found
spontaneous heat production from 5 to 10 nm nickel powders. Ahern also
reported that another Japan scientist named Takahashi, as well as Ahern
himself, both reproduced this effect, which had no excess heat with 20 to
100 nm nickel powder, as explained with a theory of “energy localization”
in February to March, 2009, which may have some significance to the
structure of the ferrite billet perhaps. It should be noted that Arata and
Takahashi are noted for their work in the field of Low Energy Nuclear
Reactions (LENR), also called cold fusion.
Dr. Ahern was also amazed that his thermistor, located six inches from
the ferrite billet, measured a drop of 5 degrees C during operation. Ahern’s
comments to the Lowell Sun and slides from the conference indicate a
certain degree of skepticism, but mostly enthusiasm and confidence that the
Manelas device works. He put forth the following questions and statements:
• In what other experiments would or should this effect show up over

the years?
• Are there anomalies in other magnetic devices that support
something interesting going on?
• On the surface the effect seems to be related to cosmology.
• Cooling could be a result of a cooling pipe action from the core to

the outside induced by directional phonon transport caused by the
resonance.
Figure 2. Continuous record of voltage increase with three anomalous dips.
So cooling could be an important clue. The battery does not cool. The
billet cools.
• 135 kHz is way too low a frequency to be related to particle physics

ideas, but 135 kHz could be resonance that excites much higher
frequencies in the nano-ferrite so 135 kHz is a red herring regarding
an explanation. Nanoparticles resonate in the THz range, or meV to
an eV energy.
• Don’t know what to make of the solar flares and supernova. The
flares can interact in real time. The nova takes years to reach earth
at the speed of light. (See Figure 2, where a similar effect is noted
from an aurora.)
172 Bill Zebuhr
Before Manelas died, he left the device for Ahern to continue

experimentation. However, the device had been disassembled by Manelas to
“make improvements” and no diagrams were left behind for its reassembly.
Ahern told the Lowell Sun he is “hoping to resurrect the device.” Figure 3 is
an approximation of the circuit.
To me, the overall results of the testing seem fairly straightforward and
clear, but Ahern’s comments above are a good summary of where we stand
regarding true understanding of the issues. This could be the closest anyone
has come to defining a mechanism by which energy from the aether can be
collected by a device. (See Figure 2.) It also can help explain why this kind
of device is so hard to duplicate. The actual details of the mechanism are not
understood and the need for precise values of particular dimensions and
parameters has not been met or maybe even recognized.
Figure 3. A generalized circuit diagram of the Manelas generator.
The Manelas system and similar ones have two major advantages over
LENR systems that produce heat from nuclear reactions of a fuel. The fuel
in LENR is used in very low quantities due to the high energy per unit of
fuel but it is still a fuel that must be obtained and installed, often in very
particular ways. The first advantage is that the Manelas system needs no fuel
and the second is that it produces electrical energy directly instead of only
heat which then must be converted to kinetic (mechanical) energy of some

kind to be useful for anything other than heating. That conversion is often
only about 30% efficient or less due to the Second Law of Thermodynamics
and it involves fairly complex devices, such as a steam engine.
There are a few significant direct conversion systems that are known in
the past 100 years or so. A good summary of these has recently been
presented by Infinite Energy editor George Egely [6-9]. He points out that
the information about these systems is sparse, and uncertain, and the
hardware essentially nonexistent. Of the small group with credible evidence,
the one that in general appears most like the Manelas system in net result is
the one developed by T. Henry Moray. They are quite different in design,
but both seem to depend on a resonant interaction with the surroundings in
some way. The Moray system2 built in the 1930s utilized an array of custom
designed high frequency electronic tubes that if everything went right would
produce kilowatts of power with no apparent input. The Manelas system
used a ferrite billet wound with a very specific spiral wound wire. It was a
smaller system that put out about 70 watts. It produced power over a period
of months and was well suited to keeping a battery charged, which then
could produce a desired higher power for various uses.
A very significant similarity may exist between the two systems—both
apparently had key parts that ran cooler than the ambient temperature. Tom
Bearden [10] made this statement regarding the Moray system:
In one experiment Moray ran his device for 157 hours without any
connection to external power sources and produced over 50 kilowatts of
power during the test. He also found that an additional 50 kilowatts could
be added by simply providing another tap further back in the circuit. When
he shut the device off from this test, he had proven once and for all that the
device was generating electrical energy from free and natural sources
without batteries or external power. During this test nothing in the machine
heated up; instead, all parts of the circuit ran absolutely cold. This alone is
2
Ed. Note: See The Sea of Energy in Which the Earth Floats by T. Henry Moray, 1945. Available
online in original, unedited versions and later, edited versions with the term “radium”
removed from most of the text. His son John Moray edited all of the later versions:
http://thehouseofmoray.org.
174 Bill Zebuhr
totally unexplainable by ordinary electromagnetic theory, and it strongly

implies the truth of Moray’s assertion that the device simply collects the
energy in each of its stages in a subharmonically resonant manner, in
synchronization with the extremely high frequency cosmic oscillations. In
other words, since the parts of the machine ran cold, it is clear that the
energy was being simultaneously collected at each stage rather than being
processed through the individual stages in serial order, since serial
processing in the conventional electrical sense would lead to resistance
heating of the circuit elements.
While I question some statements and explanations made by Bearden,

his statement about Moray is in line with other observations and the
consequence of cold running is logical and consistent with the observations
regarding the Manelas system observations. Probably the most significant
practical difference between the Moray system and Manelas is that the
Moray facts are mostly lost in history, whereas the Manelas hardware still
exists and the evaluators of the system are still pursuing it, at least as time
permits. It is very unfortunate that Manelas disassembled his system just
before he died and his documentation was such that it so far has not been
able to be reassembled to make it work. We have heard that story so many
times that it casts a lot of suspicion on the whole project, but the process and
documentation of the tests was of high quality and the test data still exists.
LENR devices can operate in solids, liquids or gases and have developed
to the point where operation is repeatable. They have not been
commercialized because the output is usually low and in the form of heat,
often not at a high temperature so the useful kinetic energy that can be
extracted is very low and ultimately expensive due to the complexities
involved even if the fuel is essentially “free.” The direct conversion devices
such as Moray and Manelas have not been repeatable and apparently have a
very critical resonant connection to the aether. Since the aether is not
understood or even accepted by mainstream science, the connection problem
is not currently solvable except by “luck” or accident, which has
occasionally occurred, but the dots were not connected sufficiently to
facilitate repeatability.
This is the problem now faced by Ahern and others working on the
solution. The electron-positron pairs (epos) that make up the aether proposed
by Don Hotson oscillate at 6.26x1024 times per second. It seems then that
any device that is synchronized with this oscillation must operate in the
subharmonically resonant matter that Bearden mentions, but this still seems
like a formidable task. The extremely high frequency of the epos is enabled
because they are massless, so no particle with mass will be in resonance.
Figure 4. Closeup of the Manelas circuit and billet (under paper).
Fundamentally new technologies can take a long time to be developed

to the point of commercialization. This is especially true of power generation
systems that span a wide range of physical principles in their operation. The
steam engine took decades to get to acceptable operation. The internal
combustion engine is still in active improvement after more than 120 years.
Hot fusion has been pursued without success for over 50 years and is still
decades or more from even a viable demonstration. LENR has been in active
development by some of the best minds on earth for almost 30 years and
176 Bill Zebuhr
repeatability is still considered a success. Commercialization may be still

many years away.
Figure 5. Summary slide from Brian Ahern’s slideshow at COFE10.
Devices like the Manelas device are radically different from any of these
because they “magically” seem to get energy from somewhere and by some
means that is still not remotely understood so assuming that the Manelas
device and the few other similar ones actually performed as observed by
well qualified scientists, they are a major breakthrough. Knowledge of this
type of technology is almost certainly known somewhere in the universe and
maybe even on earth, but so far is not known by researchers in this field.
This implies that from what is known, these technologies may stay in the
experimental development stage for a long time, but now they are a strong
indication of people’s lack of understanding of the basics of the physical
universe. This has been well pointed out by Don Hotson and the very few
others like him. We thank Arthur Manelas and Brian Ahern, for adding to
this knowledge.
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.lowellsun.com/news/ci_32041915/clean-energy-drives-
ahern.
[2] Frazier, C. 2014. “Historic 25th Anniversary Cold Fusion Meeting at
MIT,” Infinite Energy, 20 115, 15-24. See pages 17-18 of
http://www.infinite-energy.com/images/pdfs/MIT2014Colloq.pdf.
[3] Hotson, D. 2002. “Dirac’s Equation and the Sea of Negative Energy,
Part 1,” Infinite Energy, 8, 43, 43-65.
Part 2,” Infinite Energy, 8, 44, 14-38.
Part 3” Infinite Energy, 15, 86, 20-29.
[6] Egely, G. 2017. “Forgotten Inventions of LENR, Part 1: Electric
Energy-Producing Effects and Inventions Driven by LENR,” Infinite
Energy, 23, 133, 7-13.
[7] Egely, G. 2017. “Forgotten Inventions of LENR, Part 2: The Four-and-
a-Half Heresies,” Infinite Energy, 23, 135, 7-22.
[8] Egely, G. 2017. “Forgotten Inventions of LENR, Part 3: Recent
Inventions,” Infinite Energy, 23, 136, 8-22.
[9] Egely, G. 2018. “Forgotten Inventions of LENR, Part 4: Appendix,”
Infinite Energy, 23, 137, 7-12.
[10] http://www.cheniere.org/books/excalibur/moray.htm.
Chapter 8
QUESTIONING THE FUTURE

OF SOLAR ENERGY
Judy Kosovich*
Consultant, Washington, DC, US
ABSTRACT
The activity that will lead society to the best future use of solar energy
is asking the right questions with the right goals in mind. Energy
technologies, costs, incentives, and politics have been changing quickly for
the last several decades and can be expected to continue to change. While
the answers may change dramatically, the questions society should be
asking won’t change much. How “clean” is solar energy overall? What are
its best uses? What are the most appropriate incentives? How should
governments respond to people going off the grid? Who should be
responsible for recycling and safe disposal of panels? What are the indirect
costs and benefits of solar policies and technologies? What technologies
and policies are needed to make better use of solar systems that already
exist? Are there things the public can do to reduce combustion that are
more cost-effective than installing solar systems? How can solar be better
integrated into energy policies?
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: judy.kosovich@gmail.com.
180 Judy Kosovich
Keywords: solar, solar incentives, grid, energy storage, clean energy,

renewable energy, photovoltaic, PV, microgrid, disposal of solar panels,
agrivoltaics, concentrated solar power
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
The sun provides far more energy to the earth than humanity can
possibly use for eletricity. However, photovoltaic solar energy that relies
primarily on visible light will never be the earth’s sole energy source
because output varies so much with time of day, location, and season.
Further, there are places that are much better suited to wind power (for
example, Alaska) or hydro (for example, Hoover Dam). It is also hard to
imagine a world without combustion. It is even harder to imagine what
technologies are going to make solar obsolete or the best option.
Figure 1. Large solar photovoltaic installation in India (credit: The Economic Times).
Some readers may want more background information than is provided

below. The purpose of this chapter is to raise issues and provide a broad
overview. Information about technologies and companies mentioned here is
easily available on the internet as well as in publications. Sources include
Questioning the Future of Solar Energy 181
manufacturers, installers, government, academia, and non-profits. Each

source has its own perspective, so information-gathering will be more
balanced if it is from more than one source.
The fast rate at which solar and companion technologies, as well as
politics, are changing makes most references of limited value, except
perhaps to historians. The references provided here are to links that will
likely be updated from time to time and articles that are expected to be useful
for several years or that prompted important questions. Browser searches are
recommended for additional information, not only for the latest information,
but for the news that will appear each time the browser is opened. Google
also offers scholarly searches of publications on https://scholar.google.com.
In brief, voltage and direct current are generated when sunshine hits
photovoltaic (PV) panels. There are three kinds of PV panels, depending on
the manufacturing process – monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and
amorphous. Monocrystalline are the most efficient at producing voltage and
current, amorphous the least efficient. Amorphous are the least expensive to
produce and the least impaired by cloudy weather and hot weather. All
produce direct (DC) current and voltage that must be converted to alternating
current (AC) before it can be added to the grid. Technologies still in early
stages of development as of this writing include paint that produces voltage
in the sun and adding perovskite to PV panels to improve performance,
perhaps as much as double.
As the price of PV panels comes down, the cost of labor and auxilliary
equipment becomes more important. The market for amorphous panels is
declining because installation is an ever increasing proportion of costs.
There have been modest improvements in the energy collection
efficiency of PV panels in the last decade, though what is collected is still
meager compared to what the sun provides. Obtaining more than 20% of the
sun’s energy during daylight hours with current PV technology requires the
optimum angle of the sun relative to the panel, cool temperatures, a high
degree of cleanliness, and well-designed panels. Tracking (having panels
aimed at the sun) prolongs the period of maximum efficiency. However,
most panels already installed are operating under 20% efficiency (as
measured by a standardized protocol) most of the time and peak performance
182 Judy Kosovich
declines gradually over their useful life. The maximum efficiency of PV

panels has only improved 20 to 30% in the last 15 years. However, it may
soon as much as double based on preliminary results from adding perovskite
to PV panels. PV has also been incorporated into windows by at least 2
pioneering companies, SolarWindow Technologies, Inc. and Ubiquitous
Energy, Inc. In cities with high-rise building construction, this is an
important advance.
Figure 2. Concentrated solar varieties. “Nanofluid Types, Their Synthesis, Properties

and Incorporation in Direct Solar Thermal Collectors: A Review”, Nanomaterials,
2017, 7, 131.
In contrast to PV panels, if the solar energy is concentrated and collected

as heat, collection efficiencies of energy, called concentrated solar power
(“CSP’), are significantly higher than for PV. Similar to PV, CSP systems
capture UV, visible, and a small portion of the infrared part of the spectrum
during daylight hours. They have been installed in sunny places and operate
during daylight hours. If electricity is their only purpose, overall efficiency
is comparable to PV arrays. However, if heating or cooling (using absorption
cycle refrigeration) is added, overall efficiency can be more than doubled.
CSP has not grown as rapidly as PV in recent years. Some CSP systems store
energy,usually in the form of molten salt. As always, cost is an important
part of the choices, yet difficult to predict, especially in a world of ever-
changing government-created incentives [1]. The world leader in CSP is
Abengoa, with its world headquarters in Spain and subsidiaries in the US

and several other countries.
Full spectrum concentrators that add infrared radiation to the traditional
CSP energy collected have recently entered the market through the affiliated
companies Perryman Technologies, Solchill Trading, Earth Power
Solutions, and Alye International, operating out of the US, United Arab
Emirates, Singapore, and Costa Rica. Full spectrum CSP is able to collect
energy 24/7 because infrared radition is radiated toward the earth 24/7. The
water vapor, CO2 and other gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit
radiation, making the infrared part of the spectrum an important source of
energy [2]. In other words, the atmosphere is a “heat sink”, Unlike the visible
spectrum, the amount of collectable infrared radiation increases in cloudy
weather. There are still fluctuations in output with season, weather, and
location, but they are much smaller than the fluctuations in the visible and
UV parts of the spectrum.
Existing CSP equipment can have an infrared-reflective layer added to
become full spectrum. Because gold is currently the only known substance
that reflects infrared radiation and because it is challenging to move and
store heat well, proprietary technologies developed by Perryman
Technologies and its affiliates will be needed in order to be cost-effective
[3].
Collection efficiency is important, but cost can be even more important.
The cost of PV panels is about 1/3 of what it was 15 years ago. This is partly
because of improvements in the manufacturing processes and economies of
scale, but also because of increased competition for sales, especially from
Asia. Since solar systems are usually installed on new roofs, some
companies have merged solar collectors and roofing. While this approach
has been available for more than a decade, Tesla, Inc. is taking hybrid solar
roofing to a new level of performance and aesthetics. PV panels can also be
modified on the back with products made by SunDrum Solar, Inc. to heat
water without combustion, to cool panels to prolong their life and improve
their performance, and to melt ice.
PV panels vary in their useful life. There is currently no requirement for
the longevity of a panel, nor that panels be used for their full useful life,
184 Judy Kosovich
though some incentives require that a system be used for a minimum number
of years. Some brands perform well for more than 20 years, others less than
5 years. In contrast, CSP collectors can last as long as a coal-fired power
plant. Per unit of energy collected, they are often the best investment,
especially for large systems. The US has been a primary backer of CSP
development. International development has grown greatly in the last 10
years though huge CSP deployments in Morocco, China, South Africa, and
Spain that are changing the face of CSP and reducing costs.
Auxilliary equipment has improved as well. Conversion from direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC) has become more energy efficient,
with fewer losses as heat and high frequency electrical noise.
Energy storage has also improved. Technologies include a wide variety
of batteries as well as super-capacitors, mechanical devices, elevated water,
hydrogen generation, and storage as heat. Of these, battery technology will
probably change the fastest and the most.
Of these energy storage technologies, storage as heat is the most
compatible with the high collection efficiency of CSP because the energy is
already in the form of heat. There are at leasr 2 companies that make heat
energy storage systems. The company 247Solar.com uses fire bricks to store
heat for utility-scale systems. Perryman Technologies and its affiliates is
another that uses molten metal or glass and a variety of container sizes
smaller than a utility would use. These containers can store enough energy
to power a factory or small town when as big as a railway car, a home when
the size of a small refrigerator, or a car with 2 containers a little larger than
basketballs. The heat can be supplied by CSP, full spectrum CSP, or
induction heating with AC or DC power that would have otherwise been
wasted. Energy losses when converting heat to AC power are inevitable and
the storage system chosen will require a balancing of cost, rate of heat loss,
availability of space, and reliability. Depending on the heat storage system
used, storage losses can be less than 2% per month. The heat can be
converted to AC power or DC power as needed and “waste heat” can be used
for heating or absorption cycle cooling, a non-combustion version of
combined heat and power. Making use of waste heat can raise overall energy
efficiency from about 60% to over 90%. The conversion of high temperature
(molten metal) heat to DC power has a maximum yield of DC current energy

of about 30% and AC current of about 60% using steam. Using only air and
Brayton cycle engines for conversion, the yield is about 30%. Either can be
combined with other uses of heat to boost efficiency [3].
What is best for PV systems that are already installed? Especially for
small systems, PV systems that are already installed usually are the cheapest
resource for charging new DC power storage systems. New PV systems may
also be the best alternative for small, localized uses. However, when heating
and cooling are also needed, the design decisions are complex.
Game-changing advances in technology are announced almost weekly.
While the world could not have gotten to where it is so quickly without
government-created incentives, has the world reached the point at which the
market can now drive progress?
There are at least five parties involved in the decisions that will drive
the future of solar energy – government(s), utilities, industry, installers, and
the public. How will these various perspectives be taken into account?
INCENTIVES
The incentives that have caused the solar industry to grow the most in
the US are those created by the federal government. There may also be state
or local incentives. Savings on electricity are rarely great enough to justify
installing PV systems without government incentives.
Though the installation of PV systems was initially led by the US, it
grew much faster in some other countries, especially countries endowed with
plenty of sun (Western Australia), countries deeply committed to avoiding
combustion for the sake of the environment (Denmark), or countries seeking
greater energy independence (Germany). Western Australia has modified
net metering incentives because there are times when the PV contribution is
so great that it has little value and causes safety problems [4]. Germany is
exploring energy storage on a large scale [5].
There are some uses of solar energy that are cheaper than grid-tied
power from the moment they are installed. For example, some hardware
186 Judy Kosovich
stores sell a $20 outdoor lighting fixture with a motion detector and battery,
powered only by solar. It can be installed in less than 5 minutes without
special tools or skills. PV-powered illuminated road signs are used routinely.
Solar power is often used in camping and recreational vehicles and is a
wonderful replacement for generators that require fuel, for example, for
military use or irrigation in remote areas. “Solar thermal” (energy collected
as heat) is usually significantly cheaper than heating with electrical
resistance and sometimes cheaper than heating with fossil fuels. Solar
thermal is quite common and in some countries, mandated, for heating
water. Solar heating of air can often be integrated into building design
through windows and facades.
Thanks to incentives created by governments, payback periods for PV
systems typically range from about 2 to 10 years, depending largely on local
electricity prices per kilowatt hour and the local incentives, as well as on
design factors. If there were no mandated incentives, at current prices for
electricity, payback might not be possible within the lifetime of a system.
The most important incentive in the US is a federal tax credit, which was
30% for the past decade, diminishing 4% per year in 2020 and 2021, and
ending altogether in 2022 under current law. There was a solar tax credit of
40% in the 1970’s. When it was eliminated by President Reagan, the solar
energy industry went from boom to bust and very few US solar companies
survived. Many incentives will remain and prices may continue to drop. It is
not possible to predict what will happen.
State and local incentives vary greatly and can change as local politics
change. The most common incentive that is applied at the local level is the
requirement of net metering, which gives credit on one’s electric bill for
electricity fed to the grid. As the popularity of PV systems has increased, at
least one state (Hawaii) has limited new access to net metering. However, it
is still possible there to use solar to generate power for one’s own uses off
the grid. Florida, on the other hand, has made it illegal to go off the grid.
California recently passed a law requiring new homes to have PV systems.
While most citizens support solar, many home owners associations forbid it.
In upstate New York, some citizens groups have protested against large solar
arrays. In short, at the local level, considerations vary greatly.
Some incentives for small systems are based on rated output rather than
measured output because measuring adds to the cost of the system as well
as the cost of administering the incentive. Net metering as an incentive
ensures greatest fairness as because people can only get credit on their
electric bill for the net annual output of their solar system.
While net metering seems fair, it is not clear to what extent grid-tied
systems are reducing the amount of power that must be generated by utilities.
It is likely that, in most places, net metering burdens ratepayers who do not
have PV systems more than it reduces the costs to utilities of providing
power. If there is a significant social or environmental benefit for
encouraging installation of PV systems, then perhaps this burden is justified,
but if very little combustion is avoided, then the most useful contribution of
solar systems is to raise prices so that people are more likely to conserve
electricity.
Utilities are guaranteed a profit through ratemaking procedures so all
costs are ultimately passed on to their customers. What if everyone had a
solar system? What would electric bills look like? How would the grid
handle such erratic influx of energy?
Solar Renewable Energy Credits (SREC) used to meet Renewable
Portfolio Standards (RPS) are another incentive. Washington, DC has one
of the more generous SREC prices, causing some installers to offer solar
systems at no cost to the homeowner. The installer owns the system and sells
the SRECs and can take accelerated depreciation as a deduction for federal
income taxes, a benefit not available to homeowners. The homeowner has
some savings, but if the house is sold, the solar system must remain for the
period originally agreed.
Grants have also been used as an incentive. Unless the grants are so
small as to have little impact on citizens’ decisionmaking, grants effectively
place a limit on the number of solar installations. However, they do
encourage solar installations and make the market for solar installations
much more predictable. Grants are more complicated to administer because
they usually involve at least 4 stages – application, evaluation and award,
installation, and verification of installation.
188 Judy Kosovich
Regardless of whether utilities are able use the PV energy they own to
reduce their fossil fuel consumption, they sell “clean energy” or “pollution-
free energy” at a higher price to customers who would like to feel good about
their electricity consumption. The sale may be through another entity that
purchases the power from the utility. Utilities own the electricity because
they pay for it through net metering and RECs. There can also be indirect or
unanticipated incentives for PV systems. For example, when PV panels are
installed over certain crops in certain conditions, the crops need less
irrigation and have higher yields. The crops lower the temeprature of the
panels, making them more efficient and extending their useful life. A quick
internet search of “agriculture solar synergy” or “agrivoltaics” will show an
ever increasing body of promising agricultural practices [6, 7]. How will
something as complex as farming be integrated with PV, especially if the
payback period is more than 5 years? What will happen to ecosystems over
time?
One of the better uses of solar, still in its infancy, is large off grid
applications or microgrids (Figure 3) in remote areas to replace diesel
equipment such as irrigation pumps and electricity generators. Such uses
could be powered by PV systems or with CSP, with or without heat storage.
Who will help those who would benefit make good decisions? Installers?
Figure 3. Microgrids evolve to offer stability in regions subject to power disruption.

Another growth area is used PV panels. This market will boom once the
solar tax credit expires because used panels are not eligible for the tax credit
(so there will be less incentive to buy new panels and significant incentive
to cut costs by buying used panels). Charitable giving, the value of used
panels, is currently an incentive so long as charitable giving results in a tax
deduction.
While still in the early stages of commercialization, the most promising
technology at the moment is the Perryman full spectrum CSP combined with
heat storage. At the very least, the following claims need to be given serious
consideration. “Perryman collects a broad spectrum of direct and diffuse
infrared radiation (“IR” to 10,000 nM) in addition to UV, visible and near
infrared. The addition represents an approximately 200% increase.
Perryman Full Spectrum Solar™ collects IR in almost any
atmospheric/dust/weather condition, and diffuse portions of the IR are
collected 24x7. This patented advance is made possible by the simple
addition of an IR-only gold reflecting layer to the silver layer used today.
Due to innovation in the black body collector and light trap, IR
collection is >98% efficient. Importantly, the full spectrum is concentrated
to a temperature of up to 1,750°C leaving the black body; this thermal energy
is conducted by a high velocity (2,000 W/m2) solid state SiC or carbon
nanotube “heat pipe”. This energy is carried to point of use or stored in a
Perryman Thermal Battery™. Reflecting surfaces are composed of
replaceable tiles, protected by a very hard and hydrophobic top layer that
minimizes damage, water droplet or dust adherence, etc.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
While solar systems do not generate combustion emissions while in use,

there is pollution, both in the manufacturing and disposal of solar systems,
especially PV. The growing market for used panels, especially when the tax
credit ends, will increase the likelihood that panels will be used for their full
useful life. At some point, recycling or disposal will be the only option. The
challenge of recycling panels has been identified and there are a small but
190 Judy Kosovich
increasing number of companies offering this service. Washington state was

the first to pass a solar product stewardship law in 2018 and others states are
likely to follow [8].
There is also the problem of “dirty electricity”. Currently, the conversion
from DC power to AC power includes “noise” at high frequencies. This
noise is carried in the current onsite as well as into the grid and serves no
useful purpose. That are many citizens groups and scientists around the
world that allege that some people are sensitive to high frequencies, be they
broadcast from cell towers, smart meters, various wifi technologies, or PV
systems. Populations identified as especially vulnerable are the unborn and
young, as well as the elderly. Some claim that sensitivity can increase with
prolonged exposure. While there is still debate over the science, the political
aspects can be important. These high frequencies can be filtered out at a cost
of about $3,000 per PV system.
While there have been challenges to fully utilizing solar power, there are
also unexpected incentives. For example, it is nearly impossible to build a
new coal power plant. Even though they would be more efficient than
existing coal plants, lenders and investors are hesitant to make the
commitment until climate change policies are certain. Will there be a carbon
tax? If so, how much will it affect costs? Nuclear is not currently a promising
alternative for different reasons. There are at least 2 nuclear plants that have
had permits issues, been built, and were not able to operate because of
impassioned citizens protests. For now, the options for more energy
production are wind, hydro, and solar. Energy storage seems to be the best
approach to making them effective. Should governments create incentives,
or is the incentive great enough already? Either way, the costs will be borne
by ratepayers, i.e., the populace.
PV panels can most easily replace combustion if the electricity is needed
mainly while the sun is shining. However, there are many situations that
require power 24/7. If unmet demand justifies running a peaker, the solar
power still avoids some combustion.
When 24/7 electricity is needed and energy demand can be combined
with heating or cooling needs, the greatest energy efficiency is possible
when the energy is collected and stored as well-insulated heat. In many
ways, this is a subcategory of “combined heat and power”, which originally

relied on combustion. The technologies that make combustion-free
combined heat and power possible are all commercially available.
There are many energy needs that are currently being met with diesel
engines. Engines that rely on combustion are mainly relying on the
expansion of gases as a means of propulsion. The primary role of
combustion is to heat the gases, thereby causing expansion. Seimens offers
a wide range of gas turbines, some that use heat generated exernally rather
than internal combustion, to generate power. This can be combined with
CSP or full spectrum CSP, burning of waste, or the waste stream of many
conventional power sources. A lesser known company that specializes in
using “waste heat” is Echogen [9].
INTEGRATING SOLAR ENERGY WITH THE GRID
The grid is more like a river than a reservoir. It operates in the moment.
Energy that is flowing can be used when it is available and if it is not used,
it keeps flowing until it is dissipated as heat. By connecting many local
power systems, the grid becomes more stable. The location of power sources
and users affects transmission losses provided that the PV contribution is
offset by reductions in combustion. Transmission losses must be balanced
with installation costs in choosing between “solar farms” vs. scattered,
smaller systems.
The biggest challenge in operating the grid is that it must operate with
enough excess power to accommodate peaks in demand because demand
that exceeds supply can cause the grid to crash. Excess supply can also cause
the grid to crash. The percentage contribution of PV in most parts of the US,
as of this writing, is ordinarily far less than it would take to crash the grid
from too much or too little input. However, the problems caused by excess
solar power already exists in Western Australia, where net metering is being
changed to reflect the true value of solar power to the grid.[4]
If solar is to be fully utilized in all parts of the grid in the future, it will
likely be through a combination of energy storage and energy generation
192 Judy Kosovich
managed by artificial intelligence that can respond quickly to changing

demand. Adding “smart” technologies that delay demand also helps to meet
demand without oversupplying power.
The biggest financial incentives a utility has to grid-tie PV are; 1) it can
sell “clean” power at a higher price than its other power because it owns it
through net metering and SRECs and 2) it can use the ratemaking process to
be reimbursed, with a profit margin, for any expenses incurred in
accommodating solar. While utilities can own solar arrays, opinions vary as
to whether this is best left to investors, communities, or utilities. Large arrays
exist. Ownership varies. The future is uncertain.
Hydroelectric power, another “clean” energy, is quite different from
solar in its operating characteristics. It can respond fairly quickly to changes
in demand because the energy is held (as elevated water) in a dam, released
to generators as needed. With the right control technologies and in certain
locations, hydroelectric energy storage can adapt to fluctuations in solar
output so that solar power is well-utilized.
However, hydropower is not without environmental impacts. Fish and
other aquatic lifeforms are affected the most. Over time, nearby soil will also
be affected adversely and the land area that must be submerged to store the
water can be substantial. More importantly, there are many places in which
hydropower as a companion to or replacement for solar power is not an
option.
The amount of margin a utility must carry depends on how variable local
demand is. Some of the cost of this margin is passed on to heavy users,
typically industrial users, in the form of higher rates for those who have at
least one large peak in their consumption in the preceeding month. These
higher rates for those with large peaks create an incentive for off grid energy
storage and other methods of keeping the energy demand fairly constant. If
peak demand can be managed to coincide with peak PV output, heavy users
would benefit from PV or from stored energy.
Coal-fired power plants must be run with fairly constant output because
the process of changing operating conditions increases wear and tear on
equipment, requires additional labor, and usually lowers the energy
efficiency of the plant. However, the rotating parts can store kimetic energy
to respond to short peaks in demand [10]. This allows peakers to come online
or for other adjustments to be made.
While burning of coal is a major source of carbon dioxide emissions, the
answer is not necessarily to get rid of coal power plants. As it turns out, the
production of natural gas from shale appears to be the source of the increased
methane in the atmosphere. Evidence includes increasing presence of the
contaminants of methane in the atmosphere and the correlation of the
increase in emissions and increased methane produced from shale.[11]
Though the methane will eventually oxidize, most of it remains in the
atmosphere for decades and is estimated to be as much as eighty times worse
than carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas. Thus, peakers that run on
inexpensive natural gas may not be the best approach to integrating solar
energy into the grid.
Research and commercialization of prototypes are providing alternative
uses for the carbon in coal and for modifications to existing coal-fired power
plants to make them less polluting and more energy efficient. While it is not
possible to share details at this time, it is likely that the world of coal-fired
power plants will change greatly in the next decade.
Fortunately, even though there have been many reasons to abandon coal
as a source of electricity, in many cases, it has been more expensive to close
down a coal-fired plant than to keep it running. Further, as it turns out, the
power has been needed because of the political challenges of bringing more
nuclear plants online. It has been difficult to find investors for new, cleaner
coal-fired plants because the future of carbon taxes is uncertain. This leaves
old plants ripe for modernization.
When new processes for and new uses of the carbon and minerals in coal
are adopted, there may be no need for smoke stacks that can be as high as
1000 feet. These could be a valuable resource for energy storage. Weights
can be lifted inside of the stacks, similar to the storage of water in dams. The
lowering of weights can be an inexpensive and convenient method for
storing power [12].
“Peakers” that run on natural gas are currently used to meet significant
variations in demand and can complement solar power much better than can
coal plants for large variations in demand. While it is still to early to say for
194 Judy Kosovich
certain, the next generation of peakers may be combustion that uses

nanotechnology to harvest electrons directly from a flame at roughly double
the energy efficiency of current combustion sources [13].
As described above, energy can be stored in a variety of other ways:
synthesis of chemicals, either in batteries or as stored chemicals (e.g.,
hydrogen), high heat or extreme cold (which can be used to run a generator
based on expansion of gases), mechanical storage (pressure, flywheels,
weight that moves vertically, such as water or heavy objects), and electrical
charge in capacitors. The challenge is to find combinations of energy
management techniques that are responsive, reliable, and less expensive and
less harmful than wasting energy.
CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER
Concentrated solar power (CSP) uses parabolic troughs to concentrate

solar energy and collect it as heat at the focal point of the trough (see Figure
2). The heat collected then runs steam generators that produce electricity.
Abengoa has been a pioneer in large systems that deliver heat-based
electricity to the grid. Abengoa systems can also store energy as hydrogen
for fuel cells, as chemicals in batteries of various kinds, or as electrical
charge in super capacitors. The Abengoa systems are competitive with large
PV arrays. They use energy storage in batteries or generating hydrogen for
fuel cells as part of their systems [12].
While CSP has a similar heat-to-steam-to–electricity conversion as
conventional power plants, the land a solar concentrator needs is larger and
more dependent on climate than a combustion-based plant. To be more
widely adopted, the industry would need to become more competitive with
coal, for example, through tax incentives or a carbon tax. As the industry
scales up, it is likely to follow the PV model. Economies of scale and
improvements in technology are likely. As acceptance grows, financing will
become easier. Storage of heat for 24/7 generation will become more
important, as will combined heat and power.
CSP should grow greatly mostly because its enormous environmental

and energy benefits. If combined with geo-heat storage for reuse of heat for
district heating, the renewable benefit dramatically increases, easily more
than 50% conversion with current commercially available technologies.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) began when parabolic troughs were
used to concentrate solar energy and collect it as heat at the focal point of
the trough. The heat is then used to run steam generators. Abengoa has been
a pioneer in large systems that can deliver electricity to the grid or can store
it as hydrogen for fuel cells, in batteries of various kinds, or in super
capacitors. The Abengoa systems compete with large PV arrays. They use
energy storage in batteries or generating hydrogen for fuel cells as part of
their systems.
While CSP (concentrating solar power) has a similar power block (heat-
to-steam-to-electricity) as conventional power plants, the land a solar
concentrator needs are very different. The overall effort to design, build, and
operate a CSP plant is unique. For the industry to scale up, the industry needs
support through market-based incentives, the utility industry, and
government. As the industry scales up, it will reduce the costs and utility and
industrial experience will increase. Solar thermal storage for 24x7
generation, which is a necessary component for economic viability and
utility usefulness, is unique and needs special skill sets and commitment.
Utilities are big institutions that like standardization of technology and
financing.
CSP should grow greatly mostly because its enormous environmental
and energy benefits. If combined with geo-heat storage for reuse of heat for
district heating, the renewable benefit dramatically increases – to greater
than 50% conversion.
Currently CSP is deployed mostly in dry, hot climates, where it is the
most economical today. But as costs are reduced and technology improves
the technology will be deployable in a wider range of areas. CSP financing
can move from 20 years and be compressed to 10 years.
In more moderate solar intensity regions, contrary to industry
observations, CSP could gain more a of foothold when combined with use
of the waste heat (via geological storage and use of heat for district heating).
196 Judy Kosovich
The CSP facility needs to be within several miles of the district heating
customers. Where the heat is captured, the need for water use for cooling
towers is greatly reduced. Institutional support of PV helped to accelerate its
deployment. CSP needs the same support.
The next phase of CSP is the expansion of the spectrum from which
energy is being collected so that collection can occur 24/7. Although it is
known that cloudy nights tend to be warmer than clear nights and that the
atmosphere emits copious infrared energy, the nighttime sky has not been
used as a source of energy and it has been ignored when people calculate the
efficiency of CSP.
There are also technologies that can delay surges in demand while more
energy is accessed. So-called “smart” technologies are intended to
communicate with the grid to make certain there is or will be enough margin
to accommodate their load. Most modern appliances that would create a
significant surge in demand (e.g., large air conditioning systems) are now
made with this feature.
Snow is an important consideration in some areas. Solar panels d`o not
collect any energy when covered with snow and collect very little energy
when covered with dust, pollen, or bird droppings. Heat is also an important
consideration in designing PV systems. Collection efficiency and panel
longevity decline as temperature of the panels rises. Water circulating on the
back of panels can be used to cool panels as well as to heat water or to melt
snow. While the heat collected is not at a high enough temperature to run
generators, it can be used for other purposes. Cooling the panels might be
enough to merit the investment. Some small robotic dusters are also coming
online.
There are some industries in which having the grid go down is so
catostrophic that energy storage is vital. Shrimp farms and hospitals are
examples. They may be among the first to use PV systems combined with
energy storage.
POSSIBLE NEXT STEPS
6. Evaluate possible incentives for energy storage and other

technologies that will allow existing solar systems to be used to their
full potention.
7. Reevaluate the laws governing public utilities to find better ways to
adopt new technologies.
8. Evaluate ways in which electric vehicles can contribute to energy
storage and how this could be achieved.
9. Educate the public on how to save energy.
10. Take a closer look at fracking and how emissions might be reduced.
11. Evaluate evidence submitted in ratemaking hearings to determine
how solar power is being used to reduce combustion.
12. Find out why utilities seldom invest in solar power themselves.
APPLYING SOLAR EXPERIENCES

TO OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
A new industry generally starts with a new technology. Growth of the

industry is determined by a variety of factors, but especially by advances in
technology that improve profitability of the new technology. The growth of
a new industry can be accelerated and its potential failure prevented when
governments provide incentives to encourage its adoption. How should
governments determine when to offer incentives to adopt a new technology
and how much to offer? What kinds of incentives are the best?
The more complex the relationships among the various parties affected
by an incentive and the greater the number of categories of parties, the more
complex the analysis. Adding to the complexity are the unknown
technologies and unknown politics of the future. It is difficult to imagine a
situation more complex than solar power in 2020.
The commercial sector includes utilities, the solar panel industry,
manufacturers of auxilliary equipment, installers of solar power, and several
198 Judy Kosovich
competing energy industries. In the government sector are those responsible

for implementing incentives as well as those in charge of regulating (issuing
building permits, development of safety standards, management of
incentives such as grants, taxes, rebates), as well as policy analysts. The
following are policy one might draw from the solar experience.
1. Don’t expect to accurately predict the consequences of a policy

when it is adopted.
2. Start with modest goals. Articulate them and evaluate progress
frequently.
3. Encourage a variety of technologies that have similar goals. Some
will be successful.
4. Don’t be too generous. It attracts profiteers more than it attracts
pioneers.
5. Don’t be too stingy if you want to realize the possibilities.
6. Analyze problems as well as progress.
7. Look at the big picture. Do cradle to cradle analysis for things like
net energy production, pollution, safety, and costs. Consider the
perspectives of all parties, including future generations.
8. Pay attention to what other countries are doing. Learn from their
experiences.
9. Be ready to accept new “game-changers”. Doubtlessly, there are
some very interesting technologies in the works.
10. Consider the possibility that the current regulatory structure will
hamper progress.
REFERENCES
[1] https://www.utilitydive.com/news/cheapest-is-not-always-best-
concentrated-solar-power-could-beat-lower-pric/574154/ republished
March 26, 2020 with corrections, last accessed March 28, 2020.
(Utility Dive 2020).
[2] Electromagnetic Spectrum – Introduction, https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.

gov/science/toolbox/emspectrum1.htm, updated March 2013, last
accessed March 28, 2020 (Imagine the Universe 2020).
[3] https://www.perrymantechnologies.com/
[4] The Rise of Solar Power Is Jeopardizing the WA Energy Grid, and It’s
a Lesson for All of Australia, Daniel Mercer, https://www.abc.
net.au/news/2019-12-01/rise-of-rooftop-solar-power-jeopardizing-
wa-energy-grid/11731452, posted November 30, 2019, updated
December 4, 2019, last accessed, March 28, 2020 (News Home 2020).
[5] Germany Plans to Convert Coal Plants into Renewable Energy
Storage Sites, L. Michael Burchshaum, https://energytransition.org/
2019/05/coal-plants-into-renewable-energy-storage-sites/ May 15,
2019, last accessed March 28, 2020 (energytransition.org 2020).
[6] Farming under Solar Panels Saves Water and Creates Energy,
University of Arizona https://www.futurity.org/agrivoltaics-farming-
solar-panels-2152772/ posted September 6, 2019, last accessed,
March 28, 2020 (futurity.org 2020).
[7] Blend Solar Panels with Agriculture, New Study Recommends, Mihai
Andrei, https://www.zmescience.com/science/agriculture-science/
solar-panels-agriculture-agrivoltaics-06092019/amp/, Sep-tember 6,
2019, last accessed March 28, 2020 (ZME Science 2020).
[8] Can Solar Panels Be Recycled? Tom Schoder, https://www.
civicsolar.com/article/can-solar-panels-be-recycled February 2020,
last accessed March 28, 2020 (CED Greentech 2020).
[9] Waste Heat Recovery Power Genereation, Echogen Power Systems,
https://www.echogen.com/, last accessed March 29, 2020.
[10] Fully Renewable Electricity Could Destabilize the Grid- But Old Coal
Plants May Have a Solution, Seamus Garvey Adam Hoskin, James
Rouse, https://theconversation.com/fully-renewable-electricity-
could-destabilized-the-grid-but-old-coal-plants-may-have-a-solution-
133385, posted March 23, 2020, last accessed March 29, 2020 (The
Conversation, 2020).
[11] More Methane in Atmosphere Linked to More Fracking, Stephen
Leahy, https://api.nationalgeographic.com/distribution/public/amp/
200 Judy Kosovich
environment/2019/08’fracking-boom-tied-to-methane-spike-in-
earths-atmosphere, posted August 15, 2019, last accessed March 29,
2020 (api.nationalgeopraphic.com, 2020).
[12] Can These 35-ton Bricks Solve Renewable Energy’s Biggest Problem?
Adele Peters, https://www.fastcompany.com/89261233/can-these-35-
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Chapter 9
NIKOLAI KOZYREV: HIS THEORY OF TIME

AND THE TRUE POSITION OF STARS
Thorsten Ludwig* and Marco Bischof

German Space Power Association (DVR), Berlin, Germany
Institute for Applied Consciousness Research (IACR),
Forschungszentrum Kolberg, Kolberg, Germany
Institute of Future Science & Medicine (IFSM), Dreetz, Germany
ABSTRACT
The life and work of Nikolai Kozyrev is a mystery to most people. A

description of Kozyrev’s theory of time, including a discussion of the
different interpretations of his theory of “Causal Mechanics” is intriguing
as being outside of the Standard Model. For instance, Znykin holds that
Kozyrev’s theory is best explained by reference to the phenomena of noise
and the zero-point fluctuations of the physical vacuum. Zhvirblis and
Korotaev’s group interpret it under the hidden variable theories or theories
of non-locality effects. The experimental work of Kozyrev and the
confirmations of it after Kozyrev’s death make his discoveries worth
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: DrLudwig@thorstenludwig.de.
202 Thorsten Ludwig and Marco Bischof
examining. The astrophysical experiments compare to our own

experimental work, which mainly was an attempt to reproduce the
measurements of true star position as Kozyrev had done [122]. An 8 inch
Schmidt-Cassegrain reflector was used to measure the true position of
nearby stars, maximum distance was 150 light years. A Wheatstone bridge
made of four matched 100 kOhm resistors was used as a detector. Three
resistors were embedded in aluminium to protect them from the purported
Kozyrev time impact and a resistor was placed in the focus of the telescope
and therefore exposed to this influence. The surrounding minutes of arc of
the visible position of nearby stars was scanned. Some promising signals
were detected. No conclusive reproducible result was achieved. The
calibration with possible Kozyrev time impact wave from evaporation of
acetone also showed no clear results with our detector. Also a description
of our reproduction of Kozyrev’s torsion balance is given.
Keywords: Kozyrev, time, star position, torsion, zero-point energy,

aberration, Wheatstone bridge
PACS: 01.65.+g, 81.05.Bx, 95.10-a, 91.45.Bg, 95.10.-a, 95.30.-k,

97.10.Cv, 97.10.-q, 97.10.wn, 98.80.Bp, 98.80.Cq
NOMENCLATURE
μ star velocity V tangential speed component

 parallax c light speed
 angle between true and apparent position of star
c2 velocity of cause and effect
ʘ angle between true position of star and sun
c3 information velocity A aberration
Aʘ aberration from position of sun β liquid thermal expansion coef.
ly light-year (~10 trillion km) α fine structure constant
e elementary charge γ gravitational constant
Nikolai Kozyrev 203
INTRODUCTION
The Russian astrophysicist Nikolai A. Kozyrev occupies a unique place

in the history of science. First of all, his works and writings about him are
only rarely translated into Western languages and even in the original
Russian, there are also not many of them. His main work, the theory of
“Causal Mechanics”, suffers from the terminology he uses for the main
parameters of his theory, particularly “time”. Therefore, it is no surprise that
mainly non-orthodox authors take up his theories, like, for instance,
Ostrander & Schroeder [24] and Wilcock [47].
In addition, the lack of discrimination into different periods of his work
does also not help with the understanding of his work. We suggest that his
work is grouped into the early, middle, and late phases, the first phase
comprising his work on cause and effect, the middle phase his work on the
“Causal Mechanics”, and the last phase his experiments with entropy and
stars. For these reasons, he belongs to the neglected scientists that have not
been adequately appreciated by the history of science.
The initial reason why we took up this work was Kozyrev’s belief that
the sun derived its energy by another process than by the Bethe-Weizsäcker
cycle. All Planets, Suns and celestial objects function differently according
to Kozyrev. Confirmation was his famous prediction and discovery of lunar
volcanism.
NIKOLAI A. KOZYREV
The Russian astrophysicist Nikolai A. Kozyrev (1908-1983) was the

discoverer of moon volcanism and the originator of the theory of “Causal
Mechanics” which included a new theory of the nature of time.
Kozyrev distinguished himself already in his youth by scientific
achievements. At the age of 17 he published his first scientific work, which
astonished the Russian scientists by its depth and the clarity of its logical
conclusions. His field of inquiry were the atmospheres of the sun and the
stars, sun eclipses, and the radiation equilibrium. At the age of 20 years he
had already a final degree of the University of Leningrad in physics and
mathematics, and with 28 he was widely known as a competent astronomer
and was member of a group of young and very talented astrophysicists at the
Pulkovo observatory in Leningrad, among them Victor A. Ambartsumian
(1908-1996), one of the founders of theoretical astrophysics, and Dmitri I.
Eropkin, and had already taught at several universities throughout the Soviet
Union [1].
In the year of 1936, when Kozyrev was 28 years old, Kozyrev’s life took
an unfortunate turn. He was arrested by Stalin’s henchmen and spent the
nine years from 1937 until 1946 in one of Stalin’s infamous prison camps.
This time he used for fundamentally questioning the basic questions of
nature and its laws.
After his release from the prison camp and his rehabilitation at the end
of the year of 1946, he was able to continue his scientific career at the
Pulkovo observatory. In this time he made a name for himself in his original
field of work, but he also began to elaborate on the insights of his prison
time and to test them experimentally, which led him into a totally novel field
of inquiry.
Figure 1. Nikolai A. Kozyrev (1908-1983).
Concerning the former field, he made a series of predictions about the

moon, Venus, and Mars which were confirmed more than a decade later by
Nikolai Kozyrev 205
Soviet space probes. This made him one of the pioneers of the Soviet venture
into space. 1958 his hypothesis that there was volcanic activity on the moon
in the Alphonsus crater created a worldwide controversy among
astrophysicists [2]. The American Nobel laureate Harold Urey was among a
little group of Western colleagues who believed that Kozyrev’s hypothesis
was correct, and convinced NASA to carry out an investigation. The “Moon
Blink Project” of the NASA, originating from this initiative, continued later
Kozyrev’s conjecture by finding significant gas emission on the moon.
Not all the works of Kozyrev from this time met with such a ready
acceptance by his physicist colleagues. In the winter of 1951-52 Kozyrev
started the work on a new physical theory based on the insights from his
prison time. Today being called “Causal Mechanics” [3, 4, 5, 6, 7], it was
based on a series of experiments which kept Kozyrev and his collaborators
busy for 33 years.
KOZYREV’S THEORY OF TIME
In his area of expertise, Kozyrev was confronted with the question why
the stars and the sun shine, i.e., can emit optical radiation. Obviously they
are in a thermodynamic non-equilibrium with their surroundings; they must
dispose of an energy source in their interior.
In the 1960’s and ‘70’s astrophysics followed to a large extent the view
of Hans Bethe (1906-2005) according to which the energy of the stars
originates from thermonuclear processes in the interior of stars [8]. Bethe
got the Nobel prize in Physics in 1967 for his theory of the energy production
in the sun and other stars published in 1937 (today known as “Bethe-
Weizsäcker cycle”). But already in the 1950’s arose the first doubts about
this dogma, when astrophysicists began to ask the question if in stars the
necessary conditions for the corresponding thermonuclear processes exist at
all.
The thermonuclear stellar energy paradigm got its first appreciable blow
from the first Brookhaven experiments performed by Raymond Davis, Jr.
(1914-2006) and aimed at discovering solar neutrinos, indicators of the
thermonuclear nature of solar energy [6]. In his research at Brookhaven

National Laboratory that spanned from 1967-1985, Davis consistently found
only one third of the neutrinos that Bethe’s theory predicts. His results threw
the field of astrophysics into an uproar, and, for nearly three decades,
physicists tried to resolve the so-called “solar neutrino puzzle”. Experiments
in the 1990’s using different detectors around the world eventually
confirmed the solar neutrino discrepancy.
The researchers had to admit that “we understand worse than we used
to believe even the structure of main-source stars [9] and “that other energy
sources can also exist in stars” [10]. There appeared other suggestions
concerning stellar energy sources, see e.g., papers cited in the article by E.
S. Meksi [11].
Other significant discrepancies in stellar structure and evolution theory
based on thermonuclear reactions became known. They are connected with
many modern data of geology and paleoclimatology and also with the
discovered 160-minute oscillations of the sun [12].
However, the most recent results obtained by the group of Raymond
Davis, jr., although indicating the solar neutrino flux 3 or 4 times smaller
than that predicted by theory, did not encourage the physicists to perform
the necessary revision of the idea of the thermonuclear origin of solar energy
[13, 14, 15].
Now Kozyrev postulated that this energy source in the interior of stars
was the “flow of time” by whose absorption the stars maintained their state
of non-equilibrium and who was responsible for saving them from “entropy
death” [16].
For Kozyrev time is a form of energy, but simultaneously a kind of
substance which connects all objects and processes in the universe.
Sheila Ostrander and Lynn Schroeder who devote a whole chapter of
their famous book “Psychic Discoveries behind the Iron Curtain”1 to
Kozyrev, quote the Russian scientist whom they interviewed in Pulkovo in
the summer of 1968, as follows:
1
Ed. Note: Ostrander, Sheila, et al., Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain, 1971, electronic
download (print-disabled) or to “borrow” available from
https://openlibrary.org/books/OL21237372M/Psychic_discoveries_behind_the_Iron_Curtain.
Nikolai Kozyrev 207
“Time is the most important and most enigmatic property of nature.

Time is not propagated like light waves; it appears immediately
everywhere. The altered properties of a certain second of time will appear
instantly everywhere at once, just as time is everywhere. Time links us all
and all things in the universe” [17].
Time is a “mighty flow which comprises all the material processes in the
universe and which is fed by every process in these systems” [18]. The flow
of time is for Kozyrev also responsible for the causality in physics, because
every physical effect originates through the activity of this flow from its
cause.
Kozyrev assumed that time possesses a series of properties that can be
investigated experimentally.
“Time is a phenomenon of nature which possesses a number of
properties that can be investigated through experiments in laboratories and
astronomical observations” [19]. Time possesses besides its conventional
(passive) property of duration still other, “active” properties, like, e.g.,
density, velocity, or the manner of interaction with different materials.
Kozyrev called the science of these active properties of time “Causal
Mechanics” [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. In his Causal Mechanics he
postulated three physical properties of time [25]:
Postulate 1: Time possesses a specific property which discriminates

causes from effects; it can be called “directionality” or “sequence”. This
property determines the difference between past and future.
Postulate 2: Causes and effects always are separated in space. Therefore
there exists an arbitrarily small spatial difference between them, but not
equaling zero.
Postulate 3: Causes and effects are also separated in time. There exists
always an arbitrarily small time difference between them, but it never equals
zero.
According to Kozyrev, time is a form of energy which is always in

motion and is present at different locations and at different points in time in
varying concentrations (“time density”). The density of time is supposed to

be higher near the receiver of an action and thinner near the sender [17]. The
density of time is supposed to be also geographically different: in the far
north the time density is supposed to be higher than in the south. It is also
supposed to be dependent on the geographical latitude. Gravity is supposed
to have an effect on time density, as well as the density and the composition
of matter.
Time, thus can be conjectured from the statements of Nikolai Kozyrev,
has a negentropic effect – because it feeds the stars energetically which
otherwise strive towards entropy – although to our knowledge Kozyrev
nowhere states it explicitly like this.
The Russian physicist Pavel Aleksandrovich Znykin, today employed at
the Belgorod Technical University in Central Russia, near the Ukrainian
border, has written a contribution to the volume “Time and Stars: for the
100th Birthday of N. A. Kozyrev” [26] in which he looks back on his meeting
with N. A. Kozyrev in February 1972 when he was a student of physics at
the Kuban State University in Krasnodar in the Northern Caucasus region.
On the occasion of a visit of Kozyrev he repeated Kozyrev’s experiments
with torsion balances. After the experiments which he had ample occasion
to discuss with Kozyrev himself, he concluded that the answer for the
questions which arose from the work with the torsion balance, might be best
found in the investigation of the phenomena of noise, i.e., in phenomena in
which the statistical nature of entropy was best observable.
What was it that was observable in the measuring instruments of
Kozyrev? [26]. Was it the entropy flow – did the Kozyrev indicator react in
some way to the change of entropy? The German physicist Walter H.
Schottky (1886-1976), a pupil of Max Planck, after visiting the lectures of
Einstein on statistical mechanics, became interested in 1918 in fluctuations
and understood that even after the complete elimination of all possible
sources of noise there must remain in an amplifier a certain noise level. The
cause for this is the statistical character of the emission of electrons by the
vacuum tube cathode. This phenomenon Schottky called “shot noise” [27].
V. E. Zhvirblis, S. E. Shnol’, A. G. Parkhomov, A. I. Veinik as well as
many other researchers found a correlation between the noise of electronic
Nikolai Kozyrev 209
devices and the processes where Kozyrev observed them the first time [28].
Therefore they conclude that Kozyrev’s “time” is somehow related to the
physical vacuum.
V. E. Zhvirblis writes about the properties of the vacuum:
“Macro-fluctuations of cosmic origin were also observed in the results

of the analysis of the precise physical measurements by means of various
photoreceptors [29]. In this case the effect is explained by the change of
the emission of electrons, i.e., as well by the fluctuation of the potential
barrier height. A similar phenomenon can occur accompanying the
emission of energy from the zero-point fluctuations of the physical vacuum,
as has been observed experimentally” [30-34].
The originality of Zhvirblis’ thoughts is not far from Kozyrev’s

opinions, but Kozyrev knew about the energy of zero-point fluctuations in
these days. Remarkable is according to Znykin that Aleksander Georgievich
Parkhomov [35-39] used as a generator for (1/f) noise a device with low
frequency which was based on the transistor MP102, already in the time
when Kozyrev worked with measuring bridges. Albert I. Veinik built in the
1980’s noise generators for the investigation of the properties of time on the
basis of microchips of the series K531 [40]. All the more remarkable that
Kozyrev obtained his results without support and only with the equipment
he possessed.
Znykin proposes that one could use as a source of noise an entire
amplifier or a generator especially built for this purpose, or that one could
try to look for the correlations between the Kozyrev phenomena and the
noise with a common photomultiplier. “I need the inherent noise of the
weakly noisy transistor… There is no noise of one’s own… The noise in
every electronic device is the noise of the virtual electron-positron
interaction in the vacuum that penetrates the whole world, all of space…”
[41]. Kozyrev once wrote to Zhvirblis: “For time spreads not out, but
appears immediately in all space, and a changing property of its quality will
appear everywhere at the same moment as in the locality of change. And that
is the reason that an immediate impact is only possible by means of time
[42]. This changing property is noise! It’s the noise which in the entire fractal
threads of the Peano curve of Zhvirblis crashes through the energy of the
zero-point fluctuations [43]. Why is there a correlation between noise and
the cosmic processes? For instance because noise is a property of space, and
not of a specific device?” [44].
According to Kozyrev, matter shows an interaction with energy. His
theory suggests that we can consider all material objects in the universe as a
kind of sponges which are submerged in water (i.e., energy) and are soaked
completely with water (i.e., energy) [45]. If such sponge now is squeezed,
cooled, or rotated fast enough, then it yields something of the water (energy)
in its interior to the surroundings and this diminishes his mass. But as soon
as one leaves the sponge alone, the pressure on its pores decreases and it
absorbs again water and expands to its normal initial capacity. It is also
possible to pump still more water into such a sponge, for instance by heating
it or vibrating it, and thereby to induce its pores to expand and absorb still
more water. As soon as this influence stops, the sponge yields the surplus
water by itself and shrinks back to its normal initial capacity.
Kozyrev demonstrated in his experiments that by shaking, rotating,
heating, cooling, vibrating, or breaking of physical objects their weight can
be reduced or increased to a minimal, but significant degree. Time energy,
according to Kozyrev, can be absorbed, shielded, and reflected by matter.
Different materials do this in various degrees. In some substances time is
stored for a longer time than in others, as for instance in aluminum it is two
times longer than in lead, in wood it is five times longer than in lead [46].
Aluminum and polyethylene films, as for instance PVC foil, are supposed to
act as shielding for the flow of time.
Kozyrev also believed he had discovered that the flow of time moves
not in a straight path through space, but performs a rotational movement
[47]. “Time possesses not only energy, but also a rotation (…) that it can
transfer onto a system” [48]. According to Kozyrev, right-handed
molecules, as for instance sugar, absorb the flow of time and slow it down,
while left-handed molecules, like for instance turpentine or salt, increase the
flow of time and accelerate it. On this principle rests also the shielding
property of certain substances for the flow of time.
Nikolai Kozyrev 211
Kozyrev identified also, besides the well-known speed of light in the

vacuum which he called c1, other speeds of propagation of signals in the
universe [49]. According to Kozyrev c2 is the cause-effect conversion
velocity.
 e2
c2     350 km / s
 (1)
c2 / c1    1 / 137
where α = fine structure constant and c1 = velocity of light in the vacuum

[50]. To this constant Kozyrev relates all self-organizing and evolutionary
processes in the animate and inanimate worlds that are accompanied by
macroscopic violations of spatial symmetry and non-locality effects [51].
C3 is, according to Kozyrev, the signal propagation velocity in the time
flow, which is infinite.
“Time does not carry momentum and does not propagate, emerging at
once in the whole universe. Therefore organization and information can be
transferred by time immediately to any distance. The possibility of
instantaneous signal propagation is not at variance with the Theory of
Relativity since such a transmission is not accompanied by a material
motion” [52].
Zhvirblis [53] understands Kozyrev’s “hidden logic” of “Causal or

Nonsymmetrical Mechanics” as follows. According to Kozyrev’s
publications [54, 55] the Sun and the stars were to be considered not as
isolated systems tending to thermodynamic equilibrium, but rather as open
systems exchanging energy with the environment and capable of self-
organization, that is, as somewhat similar to living organisms.
“Kozyrev approached the problem of irreversibility in a very original

manner. He assumed that irreversibility by itself is a fundamental property
of any real system and that reversibility occurs only if interaction of these
systems with the flow of a special substance is disregarded that defines
objectively the direction of the ‘time arrow’, penetrates all at once the
universe, and therefore can cause what today would be called non-locality
effects”.
Kozyrev called this substance ‘time’, thereby causing much

terminological misunderstanding. Had he called the substance ‘physical
vacuum’, there would have been no problem, but by the middle of the 20th
century, the quantum electrodynamics was not yet so much developed to
allow that. From today’s point of view Kozyrev’s ‘Causal or
Nonsymmetrical Mechanics’ should be ranked with the theories of hidden
variables.
If interpreted in this way, Kozyrev’s research turns out to lie (by its
essence, not by its form) along the mainstream of the ideas of modern
thermodynamics of irreversible processes that deals just with the
manifestations of non-locality” [56].
In recent times, this latter approach was mainly followed by Sergey M.
Korotaev from the Geoelectromagnetic Research Institute of the Russian
Academy of Sciences in Troitsk and collaborators have interpreted
Kozyrev’s “Causal Mechanics” as implying macroscopic nonlocality in the
universe [57-64]. The generalization of Kozyrev’s experimental results had
shown a similarity of the properties of the transaction by active time with
the ones of quantum non-locality [57-61]. Up to recent times, it was
generally believed that quantum non-locality exists only at the micro level.
But during the last years of the 20th century, theoretical considerations
evolved on non-locality in the macroscopic region [65-67]. The idea of
Korotaev’s group was to bring “Causal Mechanics” into connection with the
interpretation of quantum non-locality by the Wheeler-Feynman
electrodynamics formalism [68] which they used in a modern quantum
treatment [69]. This theory considers particle fields as a superposition of
retarded and advanced fields. The advanced field is unobservable and
manifests only through radiation damping, which is the dissipative process.
According to Korotaev, many experiments by the Korotaev group that were
performed with modern rigor have confirmed the existence of Kozyrev’s
transaction of dissipative processes by the action of active time as a form of
Nikolai Kozyrev 213
macroscopic non-locality [70]. This opens, according to Korotaev, not only

the possibility of the use of “Causal Mechanics” for the explanation of the
interaction of dissipative processes, but also for the forecasting in
geophysical and astrophysical applications [62, 63].
According to Zhvirblis, if the energy of the stars is fed by the
surrounding physical vacuum instead of thermonuclear reactions within the
stars, then one can compare them with artificial objects that feature the same
properties and can be studied in laboratories [71]. Zhvirblis describes such
artificial objects in the form of the “koltsars” discovered by M. F. Lazarev,
closed ring-shaped vessels with porous partitions in which volatile liquids
continually circulate [72]. Zhvirblis concludes these considerations by
stating
“Thus any real object is metastable, and has definite form and
structure only as far as it continuously exchanges energy with the
environment. If sometimes this energy still does not undergo any noticeable
transformation and, therefore, remains unobservable, in the bistable
systems it causes processes accompanied by useful work. If systems of this
sort exist among non-quantum macroscopic objects (koltsars), it can be
assumed that the Sun and the stars are such objects, and that, similar to
Kozyrev’s original assumption, the energy they produced has no direct
relation with thermonuclear synthesis processes” [72].
If we assume that instead of a vessel containing liquid (koltsars) we

consider a liquid sphere of radius R and mass M that has formed under the
action of its natural gravity forces, and assume that R=H, and if the
inequality
𝑀2
𝑅 < 𝛾𝛽 𝐶
(2)
With γ for the gravitational constant, is also satisfied, we see that the
sphere will radiate energy like a star.
“This fact implies that the star energy comes mainly from the energy
introduced by the gravity forces combining all the bodies of the universe
into one, rather than from thermonuclear synthesis” [72] – that is, from a
sort of “Mach’s Principle”.
The editor of the only collective work devoted to Kozyrev’s work in the
West, concedes: “In general, the effects observed by Kozyrev could be
explained by more prosaic factors than the ‘time flow’ – for instance, by
convective flows, cooling or heating effects, induced electric or magnetic
fields, etc.” [73]. N. A. Kozyrev himself tried to analyze the possible role of
alternative factors in his experiments, for instance, he dedicated a whole
article to possible mechanisms causing different effects in vibrating bodies
being weighted at a beam balance.
At any rate, by now neither a concrete disproof of Kozyrev’s
experimental results exists, nor their consistent explanation by common
physical factors.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK OF KOZYREV
Kozyrev’s “flow of time” which accompanies dissipative processes

manifests itself in many mechanical phenomena [74]. According to
Kozyrev, irreversible processes rotate the beam or disk of a torsion balance
when they emit or absorb Kozyrev’s flow. The irreversible processes include
body deformations, encounter of an air flow with an obstacle, sandglass
operation, light absorption, friction, burning, some observer’s actions, body
heating and cooling, phase transitions in substances, their dissolving and
mixing, and non-electromagnetic radiation from astronomical objects.
Inelastic processes in rigid bodies change their weight while elastic bodies
change their elastic characteristics. Whipping tops change their weight when
involved in an additional process, such as vibration, heating or cooling, or
electric current transition [75].
Nikolai Kozyrev 215
The flow of time causes also responses of non-mechanical detectors

such as the resistance values of resistors,
Mercury level in thermometers, quartz crystal vibration frequencies, the
electric potentials of thermocouples, water viscosity, electronic work
function in photoelectric cells, chemical reaction rates, and bacteria and
plant growth parameters [76].
Correspondingly Nikolai Kozyrev and his collaborators performed
experiments with torsion balances, resistors, photocells, piezoelectric
elements, mercury thermometers, thermocouples, different substances for
instance water viscosity and liquid nitrogen evaporation, chemical reactions,
elastic bodies, inelastic bodies, rotating bodies, and organisms.
The effect magnitudes depend on the energy characteristics of the
initiating processes, on the geographic latitude of the experiment site (for
mechanical experiments), on the season, on additional active non-
equilibrium processes occurring in the neighborhood of the detectors, and
on some other irregular and sometimes unclear conditions of the experiment
[77].
In I. A. Yeganova’s opinion numerous phenomena observed by other
researchers apart from N. A. Kozyrev exhibit the influence of background
non-equilibrium processes on detectors, similar to those observed by N. A.
Kozyrev [78]. The so-called kinetobaric effect [79], Giorgio Piccardi’s
experimental results – 25-year observations of the bismuth chloride
precipitation rate [80] –, and those due to S. W. Tromp – observations of
erythrocyte precipitation rate [81], flicker noise [82], the observation of
torsion balance oscillation period increase during the 1970’s total solar
eclipse [83], and the similar results of metrologists V. S. Kazachok, O. V.
Khavroshkin and V. V. Tsyplakov [50] who repeated these experiments
during the 1976 solar eclipse, the results of A. Shapovalov’s [85] three-year
observations of the dark current of a photomultiplier (see also a discussion
of some of these effects in N. A. Kozyrev’s works [86, 87]).
Levich adds that Kozyrev’s flows may turn out to be the universal
cosmophysical cause leading to correlations between macroscopic
fluctuations which show itself by equally shaped histograms describing
quite different processes, from biochemical reactions to radioactive decays,
in simultaneous experiments separated sometimes by thousands of

kilometers [88]. Moreover, the experiments carried out by Kozyrev and his
colleagues were to a large extent dedicated to direct detection (and
application for astronomical measurements) of non-electromagnetic flows
from planets, stars, galaxies, stellar clusters, and nebulae.
CONFIRMATIONS AFTER KOZYREV’S DEATH
After the death of Nikolai A. Kozyrev (1983) in Russia a series of

research programs were carried out in order to test or extend various aspects
of Kozyrev’s theoretical, laboratory and astronomical discoveries [89, 90,
91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100].
One report from the Polytechnic University of Tomsk in the Ural region
reported about a research project which lasted from 1983 to 1996 in which
19 scientists collaborated [99]. Another researcher, Ivan M. Shakhparonov,
noted that his results were based upon a 30-year collaboration by eight
different laboratories [100]. Many of these results were only published after
the Glasnost period since 1991, when the safety regulations in Russian
science were relaxed.
On the one hand, there are authors who have performed a long series of
laboratory experiments using N. A. Kozyrev’s procedure and have obtained
results confirming and amplifying Kozyrev’s data on the distant action of
irreversible processes on the status of ambient bodies [101-103]. They are
mentioned in a paper by L. S. Shikobalov [104].
Additionally, there are publications that describe the results of
astronomical investigations using Kozyrev-type detectors and those of
biological type [105-108]. The reception of signals not only from the visible
(i.e., past) positions but also from the true (present-day), and future positions
of stars and other astronomical objects was confirmed in complete accord
with the results of N. A. Kozyrev and V. V. Nasonov’s papers [109-111].
The paper by M. I. Arushanov and S. M. Korotaev [112] on the other
hand explained a number of geophysical facts on the base of Kozyrev’s
Nikolai Kozyrev 217
theory that have not found an explanation in conventional terms, e.g.,

asymmetries of the shape of the Earth, the atmospheric circulation and
distribution of the Earth’s physical fields.
Japanese researchers Hideo Hayasaka and Sakae Takeuchi carried out a
weighting of right- and left-rotating gyroscopes with a vertical axis and
revealed that when the rotational speed increases, there occurs a decrease of
the weight of the right-rotating gyroscopes, close to that observed by
Kozyrev, but without referring to his works [113]. Later, this result was
tested and allegedly not confirmed by American and French researchers
[114-115]. An analysis of these publications, however, carried out by R. Ya.
Zul’karneev at the JINR in Dubna, Russia, shows that in reality these papers
are in agreement with N. A. Kozyrev’s data [104]. The point is that, in
accordance with the view of “Causal Mechanics”, to change a gyroscope
weight, it is necessary to subject it to an irreversible influence, e.g.,
vibrations. The latter were indeed present in the experimental setup
employed by Hayakawa and Takeuchi [113] due to using a spring
suspension of the gyroscope, and are lacking in the setup described by Faller
et al. [114] and Quinn and Picard [115].
A large number of correlations between lunar and terrestrial events as
well as solar and terrestrial ones, unexplainable in the context of
conventional physics, have been revealed by now [115-117] which makes
N. A. Kozyrev’s hypothesis on the interconnection of all the World’s
phenomena by the physical properties of time be treated with attention.
Since about 1995 the “Russian Interdisciplinary Temporology Seminar”
[118] serves as a platform for the followers of Nikolai A. Kozyrev. It is
hosted by Alexander P. Levich at the Moscow State University, Faculty of
Biology, Division of General Ecology. Among them A. P. Levich and
Sergey M. Korotaev seem to be most active.
Finally, in the year 2008 on the occasion of the 100th birthday of N. A.
Kozyrev, a collective work on “Time and Stars – to the 100th Birthday of N.
A. Kozyrev” was published in St. Petersburg [119], which contains a detailed
biography of the centenarian, various works on the experimental, theoretical
and philosophical aspects of the work of N. A. Kozyrev, five articles by N.
A. Kozyrev himself not included in his “Selected Works” [120], and archival
records and recollections.
ASTROPHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS
From the mid-1950s to the late 70s, Nikolai Kozyrev, together with his
collaborator Victor V. Nasonov, conducted astronomical observations using
a receiving system of a new type [121, 122].
When the telescope was directed at a certain star, the detector, designed
by N. A. Kozyrev and V.V. Nasonov, positioned within the telescope,
registered the incoming signal even if the main mirror of the telescope was
shielded by metal screens. This fact indicated for Kozyrev that
electromagnetic waves (light) had some component that could not be
shielded by metal screens. When the telescope was directed not at the
visible, but at the true position of a star, the detector then registered an
incoming signal that was much stronger. The registration of the true
positions of different stars could, according to Kozyrev, be interpreted only
as registration of star radiation that had velocities billions of time greater
than the speed of light. N. A. Kozyrev also found that the detector registered
an incoming signal when the telescope was directed at a position
symmetrical to the visible position of a star relative to its true position. This
fact was interpreted by Kozyrev as a detection of the future positions of stars.
TRUE POSITION OF THE STARS
In this work we will present the experimental approach to verifiy the

famous Kozyrev experiments where he measured the true position of stars,
planets and the sun [121, 73]. The true position is the position were the object
is in this moment, the apperent position is the position were the object is
seen now, also called visible position. The distance to the sun is 8 light
minutes and therefore the true position of the sun is where the sun will be
Nikolai Kozyrev 219
seen in 8 minutes from now. So the true position of the sun is 2° ahead of
the visible position. The true position for sun and the planets is calculated
straight forward from their distance in relation to the earth rotation velocity.
The true position of the stars is much more difficult to calculate.
Since the stars are at least a few light years away, the true position is not
calculated in relation to the earth rotation. Like for the sun and planets the
true position of stars is calculated relative to the apparent position. In case
of close stars, with distances up to 300 ly the relative motion of the stars
towards the background stars is used. Other major factors are the parallax π
and the aberration A. The parallax or trigonometric parallax is the change of
relative position of the near stars toward the far away background stars due
to the different position of the earth due to its rotation around the sun. The
near stars have a slightly different position in winter and summer, the two
extreme positions in the movement of the earth around the sun,
The angle  between true and apparent position is calculated in
following way:
ʘ =  - A (3)
with ʘ = Angle between true position and sun, A = annual Aberration.
𝑉𝑇
𝐴ʘ = 𝑐
(4)
where VT = tangential projection of star velocity, Aʘ = Aberration from the

position of the sun, c = speed of light,  = 3.26 μ/ʘ, µ = proper motion of
a star, and π = trigonometric parallax.
Aberration is the difference of position of a star due to the relative
motion of the earth. There is a daily aberration due to the rotation of the earth
around its axis and an annual aberration that changes during the cource of
the year due to the motion of the earth around the sun. It is like watching
rain fall in a moving car or train. If the car is moving then the rain appears
to come from a different direction then when the car is standing still or
moving in the opposite direction. Stars on the zenith of the ecliptic are
making a circle due to the aberration, stars on the ecliptic a horizontal line
and all other stars an ellipse during the year [123]. So the Aberration is a
relation between the light speed and the velocity of the earth relative to the
observed star. So the speed and direction of the moving star and the speed
and direction of the solar system, the speed course of the earth rotation
around the sun and the earth rotation around its axis all go into the aberration.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND MEASURED DATA
Selection of the Telescope
According to Kozyrev it is necessary to use a reflector type telescope.

Kozyrev pointed out, that his time waves are reflected on a mirror surface in
the same way as light is. So as in the law of reflection the angle of incidence
equals to the angle of reflection. A refractor telescope will not work because
the glas-air boundary does not bend the time wave. A reflector with an
aluminum coating will focus the time wave. Kozyrev emphasized that about
50% of the intensity is lost at each reflection. In order to have enough
intensity a reflector with 8” diameter was selected. A Celestron NexStar
Evolution 8 with an 8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain optical tube and
computerized GoTo mount was used in these experiments. The telescope
makes it easy to find the current visible position. First the telescope has to
be aligned. The telescope uses the SkyPortal and SkyAlign technology. In
order to align the telescope three bright stars have to be centered. After
centering the first star the position is entered into the app. Than the up and
down buttons have to be used to direct the telescope at the second star. After
precise centering the position is saved. The third star can be selected in the
star map on the smart device. Then the third star is accurately centered and
saved. After that the telescope is aligned with the current position of the
stars. The resolution of the telescope is 0.77 arc seconds.
Nikolai Kozyrev 221
Figure 2. The set up with reflector telescope, instruments and laptop in the field.
Calibration to Kozyrev Time Impact Procedure
Kozyrev tested his detectors with evaporating acetone [121]. We don’t

have a comprehensive and clear description of his testing procedure. Levich
gives some description in [73] on how the testing might have been done. But
the important facts like precise distances in meters, quantity of the
evaporated acetone in milliliter, exact durations in minutes and ambient
temperature is not given. That makes it very difficult to reproduce these
important experiments. Without a successful test it is not clear if the whole
system is really detecting Kozyrev’s time influence.
Another problem that Kozyrev pointed out is that the influence of time
is traveling through material and therefore it is difficult to maintain the
necessary difference of influence and no influence zones in the detector.
This difference is the basis for detecting the impact of time.
Detector used in this work:
Figure 3. Electric cuircit of the detector.
Figure 4. Arrangement of the resistors in the aluminum cylinder in the optical element.
Figure 5 and 6. The detector, a 100 kOhm resistor is in the line of sight/in the focus,
the other 3 resistors of the Wheatsone bridge are in the aluminum ring. The ring is
placed in a a 1.25 inch optical element replacing a Barlow lens
Nikolai Kozyrev 223
R1 to R4 are 100 kOhm precision metal film resistors. The diagram of

the electric circuit is shown in Figure 3.
The Wheatstone bridge is built into a solid cylinder made of aluminum.
In a notch ring are 3 of the 4 resistors. The resistor that acts as the detector
and is suppose to be influence by Kozyrev time impact is seen in the center
of the center aperture of the astro-optical 1.25 inch element (see Figure 4).
The 100 kOhm resistor was part of a balanced Wheatstone bridge built with
selected resistor. The resistors were selected to be of closest value, to make
the bridge as sensitive as possible. A 6 Volt, 7.2 Ah battery from Conrad
Energy was used as a stable power source. To measure the voltage of the
Wheatstone bridge as well as the battery voltage and temperatures of the
detector and the ambient air a Keithley 2000 digital multi meter was used
with a scanner card. The data was recorded on a laptop with a LabView
program via GPIB to USB.
Measurement Data
The procedure to detect the true position was to centre the telescope on
the star, than to bring the focus onto the resistor by defocusing slightly and
tan to scan around the visible position using the rotation and azimuth drives
of the telescope. Scan area was around plus minus 3 minutes of arc.
Small variations in detector voltage were observed from time to time.
Good scans are shown in Figures 7 to 8. The 20 µV peak on a 1.2 mV base
signal in Figure 7 is change of approximately 1.6%. It is possible that the
detector is influenced by Kozyrev time waves. There were no conclusive
repeatable results.
Also the temperature of the detector and of the air were recorded and
showed no similar response, so a temperature effect can be excluded.
Figure 7. Scan around the visible position of the star Arcturus, distance 36.7 ly.
Alderamin 09052016
0,000015
0,000010
0,000005
0,000000
A [mV]
-0,000005
-0,000010
-0,000015
-0,000020
0 50 100 150 200 250

Row Numbers
Figure 8. Scan around the visible position of the star Alderamin, distance 49 ly.
Nikolai Kozyrev 225
Altair 23062016
0,00092
0,00090
0,00088
0,00086
A [mV]
0,00084
0,00082
0,00080
0 20 40 60 80 100
Row Numbers
Figure 9. Scan around the visible position of the star Altair, distance 16.7 ly.
TORSION BALANCE
The most important detector for Kozyrev was the torsion balance. After
consulting with Kozyrev’s son Fyodor Kozyrev the following points became
clear.
The torsion balance should be made out of non conducting material. The
balance should have a great asymmetry. As seen in Figure 10, the asymmetry
is created by placing a ball of modelling clay on one side of the white fibre
rod. The counterweight is simply the rod itself. The tip of the rod is coloured
to improve automated tracking and recording of the angle. The rod is
suspended by a thin nylon thread. The construction is fragile but sensitive.
Figure 10. Torsion balance of the 3rd generation.
If left alone and protected from air currents by the casing the rod spins
with speed of around 30 degrees per hour. The speed can vary. The direction
of rotation changes over time, creating a random like signal. If the angle is
recorded over time, an unusual long continues rotation in one direction
followed by a similar long counter rotation appears to look like a peak.
Kozyrev used this as a sensitive detector for his time impact that is related
to torsion [73].
CONCLUSION
Kozyrev’s theory describes mathematically the velocity of cause and

effect, light speed and information velocity. Based on his theory Kozyrev
made observations on stars, planets and in laboratory experiments. He
became well known for predicting lunar volcanism and was recognized for
that even in the west. He deduced from his theory and experiments, that the
stars, including our sun, derive their energy much differently and not by
thermonuclear reactions. It is therefore very relevant for our time and our
Nikolai Kozyrev 227
search for new energy sources and new energy technologies. Furthermore
Koyzev’s findings give new possibilities for communication technologies.
His theory that time is not just a clock but is an energy as well, would have
a great impact in many parts of physics.
The detector showed no clear signal during calibration. Kozyrev
calibrated and tested his detectors with evaporation of acetone. Our detector
and the detector telescope system (when our detector was mounted in the
telescope) never showed a clear signal when acetone was evaporated near
by. We don’t have a comprehensive and clear description of his testing
procedure. We therefore conclude that the detector was probably not capable
of detecting Kozyrev-like time waves/signals. One of the problems that
Kozyrev describes is that it is very difficult to create a space where the time
influence does not reach, so to create a detector were one resistor is exposed
to the influence of time and the other resistor is shielded from this influence.
It is possible that our efforts to create this difference were not enough and
we therefore did not detect Kozyrev-time-waves.
Another problem was the angle resolution of the telescope. A larger
telescope would enhance the effect. It would be advisable to repeat the
experiments in a larger telescope, an aluminum reflector of at least 0.5 meter
in diameter. The larger telescope would make it easier to resolve small
distances between real an apperent position and would give a greater signal
amplitude as it should collect more Kozyrev time impact/flow. The 8 inch
reflector reached its limits.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the Deutsche Vereinigung für Raumenergie (DVR)

for support of this work. We are grateful for the translation Heinz Büchner
made from the Russian of the paper by Pavel A. Znykin. The authors also
thank Fyodor Kozyrev for helpful discussions.
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Chapter 10
NONLINEAR ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

DEVICE AND POTENTIAL EXPLANATIONS
P. A. Murad1,*, M. J. Boardman1,
J. E. Brandenburg1 and W. Mitzen2
1
Morningstar Applied Physics, LLC†, Vienna, Virginia
2
Manassas, Virginia
ABSTRACT
The Morningstar Energy Box is an unusual revolutionary derivative

based upon both the Searl and a modified Searl device by the Russians
Godin and Roschin. The Energy Box device is similar to a mechanical cage
by the Russians, laminated rollers per John R. R. Searl and a unique main
ring with ferromagnetic fluid to enhance electrical and magnetic properties
to represent a game-changing technology. The Russians made several
serious claims that their device-generated self-acceleration, provided a
weight loss when spun in one direction and gain when spun in the opposite
direction and induced discrete magnetic walls. Unexpectedly the Energy
Box established similar phenomenon regarding discrete magnetic walls,
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: ufoguypaul@yahoo.com.
†
Associate Fellow AIAA.
244 P. A. Murad, M. J. Boardman, J. E. Brandenburg et al.
with weight gain and loss, although at lower magnitudes. Unfortunately,

no self-acceleration was achieved. The 190-pound rotating
electromagnetic device reduced its weight by 7% during steady-state
situations and as much as 20% during transient operation. Previous
investigations identified several plausible explanations from the
conversion of angular momentum into linear momentum, Gravito-Electro-
Magnetism (GEM) effects – a notion using a Poynting vector force
induction based upon the roller design, and Retarded Potentials where the
ring acts as a reflection plane for the roller electric and magnetic fields.
Emerging Theories are mentioned to include Gravitational-wave
generation, Co-gravitation (Jefimenko) DeBroglie matter waves and an N-
Dimensional Axis. Unfortunately, because of this nonlinear device, no
clear-cut theory provided a reasonable explanation of these events. This
warrants continued investigation.
Keywords: Morningstar energy box, co-gravitation, Jefimenko, John

Searl, gravito-electro-magnetism, magnetic walls, rotating magnetic
cylinders, magnetic rollers
INTRODUCTION
Several unusual and controversial mechanisms warrant consideration

especially if they have space propulsion implications. Some of these devices
are discounted because they might defy expected physics behavior. In some
cases, the theoretical determinations are unclear with these similar devices;
however, they demonstrate some unusual physical and experimental
behavior that warrants investigation. Some of these controversial devices
regard efforts of Searl [1, 3], and by Godin & Roschin [4-6] with significant
claims about a phenomenon that have either produced unusual
electromagnetic fields or the gain or loss of weight. If successful and if real,
such devices may implicate new forms of ‘Green Energy’ or some advanced
propulsion capabilities to include spacecraft [7, 8]. The problem is to
investigate these claims with a sane rational approach thereby identifying a
potential significant game-changing technology that may create advanced
propulsion or energy. The Energy Box clearly falls within this domain and
warrants continued investigation.
Nonlinear Electromagnetic Energy Device and Potential Explanations 245
DISCUSSION
A. Searl Device
The idea proposed by John R. R. Searl [1-3] has created significant

controversy. The basic idea of his device is that cylindrical magnets will
interact with a ferromagnetic bar of material. These magnets will
diametrically approach a certain displacement from the bar. Searl’s
contribution bends the bar into a contiguous ring so that the individual
magnets ‘hunt’ and ‘peck’ in a circular arrangement with an equal azimuthal
increment concerning the ring. The rollers stay above but do not contact the
ring surface. His notion suggests that all of the magnets have either all south
or all north polarity. The other contribution by Searl is that the rollers and
rings are laminated with specific materials. For the roller, they consist of a
central core that includes an intense strong magnet. These are inserted in a
copper sleeve followed by a dielectric material externally concentric by an
aluminum sleeve. The dielectric provides a gate for electrons; other roller
materials also provide electrons. The ring has a similar laminated
arrangement where the magnet is on the exterior portion of the ring and
aluminum within the interior ring. Other elements to include iron can also
be used. Searl identifies the law of squares or the magic squares [2] but we
found there is basically no real science to validate this concept.
Figure 1. The rollers operate around the ring with parity of the pole magnets.
Rings will achieve a magnetic/mechanical resonance that produces a

rotation rate as the rollers move quickly about the ring. Some felt that the
roller rotation rate motion is the same as the surface motion on the ring
whereas another view implies the roller rotation rate moves faster by a factor
of six. That means the rollers rotate faster than the motion expects around
the ring. To generate electricity, passing rollers move through a transformer
capture device that generates electricity by cutting the roller lines of its
magnetic field. In a different variation from the theme, these sections could
be charged to create an electric signal that allows induction for the roller’s
rotation. Very little evidence has identified the amount of current generated
by this device. Finally, Searl suggests that the device may have three
concentric sets of rings and rollers but no evidence has ever shown any
working apparatus with more than a single ring, except as dictated books or
newsletters from the inventor John Searl, Russian engineers Godin and
Roschin, or as detailed design instructions from Prof. S. Gunnar Sandberg
[3] from the University of Sussex (see Appendix).
Considerable information claims that Searl may have generated some
devices that lifted to high altitudes. Nevertheless, these comments did not
provide real evidence for these claims and are a principal source of
controversy especially why one would want to lose such a complex device
in the first place.
B. The Brown Device
Before his demise, Paul Brown [4] created a Searl device supposedly the
size of a telephone book (see Appendix). Rollers were in even pairs and had
a specific radius of the roller radius to the diameter with the ring. Test results
suggested the device was unstable and created about a megawatt of
electricity. Wires started to glow and magnets were so overheated that the
magnets caught fire before the system was destroyed. Not much information
is available about this machine. However, if the magnets became hot, they
would exceed the Curie temperature and the magnets should have lost their
magnetism. Consequently, device rotation should have ceased.
C. The Russian Godin and Roschin Device
Godin and Roschin [5-7] are Russian scientists that created a

comparable electromagnetic technology. Roschin provided an initial device
that resembled a Searl device to demonstrate feasibility. They made a similar
ring with several hundreds of pounds of magnets using Selenium. Rollers
were not concentric but cylinder slabs for each of these materials. Rollers
were also constrained to a mechanical carousel or armature that oriented the
location of the rollers as well as the spacing from the surface of the ring.
Other variations by the Russians are that the rollers had used radial magnets
meshed between the rollers and the ring. If this worked successfully, rollers
would rotate per the linear spacing of the ring where the magnets meshed
like gear teeth.
This device, reported [6] at an AIAA Meeting in 2001, claimed the
device self-accelerated, that it rotated by itself. A 7 KW generator was used
to generate electricity. The device was charged on the exterior of the rollers
to 20,000 volts. It is not clear how this voltage was applied. When the device
rotated at 600 rpm, the approximate weight of the 375 kg armature lost 35%
of its weight. They claimed at this time, the temperature decreased. When
rotated in the opposite direction, the device gained 35% of weight at 560
rpm. Moreover, the system produced magnetic discrete walls that were at
several distances away from the device. Finally, the nearby device also had
a smell of ozone.
Unfortunately, the authors stated that in 1993, the device was torn apart
supposedly to obtain money for support funds. For example, the magnets
were very costly. This was a crucial time during the economic collapse of
the Soviet Union. For this reason, when the findings were presented, there
was not much of any encouraging response from the participants of the
meeting proceedings.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2a and 2b. The Russian rotating MEC supposedly generated self-acceleration as
well as very significant phenomena.
They were able to create a second heavily modified device, with help
from Ivan Kruglak. Unfortunately, this second device was not successful. A
third attempt was made but has not provided any new or additional
information about the Godin and Roschin device. At face value, the primary
issue is that if the temperature decreased with the weight loss, this would
constitute an Unruh-like effect. However, their oral report does not mention
temperature increases commensurate with weight increases as per their
technical paper.
(a) (b)
Figure 3a and 3b. A vortex street has specific fluid geometry. The Russian notion may
be promising on this basis for certain pairs of vortices that act on the ring and the
opposite vortices in the rollers.
The Russians had several different theoretical views regarding how their
device worked. The main idea is that angular momentum can convert linear
momentum. This may sound trivial; however, it works in terms of a wheel
in a bicycle, a car or a locomotive. The notion [8-10] here is that a von
Karman vortex street provides this effect. Unfortunately, the problem in this
particular situation is not obvious. Each odd vortex would rotate in one-spin
rotation while even vortices rotate in the opposite spin. Moreover, the length
of these vortices may not be of even lengths for specific conditions. The
results are shown in the following figure.
D. The Morningstar Energy Box
The name “Energy Box” is a misnomer. The original purpose of the

device was to originally create a self-sustaining magnetic motion drive.
Unfortunately, this did not occur when experiments revealed that the device
could alter its weight. This was unexpected. The unusual operation of this
device is that the rollers move within a three-dimensional magnetic field in
a circular kinematic trajectory that differs from an axisymmetric electrical
motor because of the electromagnetic field trajectory.
This revolutionary variant is based upon at least three possible
theoretical principles. These possibilities are:
 Angular momentum- The idea is to change Mother Nature by

transferring angular momentum into linear momentum possibly
similar to the Russian motives.
 Gravito-Electro-Magnetism (GEM [11])- This notion uses a
Poynting vector force induction based upon the roller design that
acts like magnetic dipoles, and
 Retarded Potentials- The ring acts as a roller reflection plane on the
ring. If the time is retarded or through magnetic hysteresis, the
image and subsequent forces from one roller may attract the
adjacent roller to create self-acceleration.
The first approach would allow an angular motion to induce linear

motion using interactions with magnetic and electric fields. The second
approach initially looks at a magnetic roller/capacitor around the ring in
Figure 4. When roller motion is started, an electric field is created by
Maxwell-Heaviside’s equations. If the magnet is longitudinal and the
electric field in the roller is radially oriented, the Poynting vector, which is
the cross product between the electric and magnetic fields, would create a
force to induce motion. John Searl’s use of dielectrics tends to act like a
capacitor, thus it is obvious that the Searl roller creates such a Poynting
vector effect. Additionally, we have found a derivation for the Poynting field
conservation that offers additional effects dependent upon separate magnetic
and electric fields. The Poynting field [12] looks very promising but requires
further investigations.
The Poynting field is:
S
1
E  B  . (1)
(1)
o
And the conservation equation is:
 1 2S   
 0  2 2   2 S    4    m   E   e   B  2  J e  B  E  J m    0     S . (2)
1 
(2)
 c  t   c  t 
(a) (b)
Figure 4a and 4b. The left figure is with no rotation and the right uses rotation. Blue
arrows are the magnetic field, green is the electric field and the red is the Poynting
field with motion.
Where S is the Poynting field [13], E is the electric field, B is the

magnetic field, J represents currents, ρ is a source term with subscripts are
for e with electric and m for magnetic fields. This also provides insights into
gravitational forces in a recent publication [12].
The retarded potential looks at the electric and magnetic field images in
the ring created by the roller. If these images in the surface plane could be
delayed, say due to high rotation about the carousel that aligns the rollers,
the images may drag the next roller to cause linear momentum and self-
acceleration. It is conceivable that the revolutionary performance of the
Energy Box may use new theories, combinations of each or all of these
theories. This will be addressed in the result section.
E. Description of the Energy Box
The device operates with rollers similar to Searl’s design and the design
of a ring, while a cage is used as a carousel similar to the Russian device.
The ring in this figure is a laminated device with different rings to enhance
the electric and magnetic properties and how this will interact with the
rollers. Moreover, in place of using magnets within the ring, HyMu-80
material in the ring contains a copper reservoir for a ferromagnetic fluid.
Besides, rollers have a passageway to allow air movement to cool the
magnets and hopefully prevent the magnet fire problem seen by Brown.
HyMu-80 material is also used as the magnetic core of the rollers and the
core is placed in concentric angular Neodymium magnets. This is generally
followed by a copper sleeve and an insolated aluminum sleeve. Thus, the
Energy Box has similar components with these effects, which includes the
use of the most favorable characteristics gathered from several serious
investigations.
Components for these elements are seen in Figure 5.
The system used to determine information includes various components.
Measurement Specialties Inc. manufactures the six load cells with part
number FC2231-0000-0100-L. The load cell is capable of 0-100 lbf with
outputs from 0.5 to 4.5 volts. These load cells were placed on the bottom of
the cabinet to minimize any magnetic effects from the rollers. Moreover,
cables were used to minimize magnetic effects from distorting electrical
signals during the operation. AlphaLab Inc. provides a magnetometer using
part number DC Gaussmeter M1ST with a range of 0 to 20,000 gauss; this
was increased using a modification by the developer to 30,000 gausses. The
Motenergy (formerly Mars Electric Inc.) motor is a 48 V brushless DC motor
capable of 5-10 kW or a maximum of about 6.7 HP with a rotation rate of 0
to 5,000 rpm. Compact Instruments Tachoprobe A2108 provides a laser
tachometer to determine rotation levels capable of 80 to 6,000 rpm. The
National Instruments SCXI 1600 data acquisition system was used for all
measurements. The configuration contained 32 channels of analog to digital
conversion that was additionally fitted with an SCXI 1102 32-Channel
Thermocouple/Voltage Input Module as well as an SCXI-1102C 32-
Channel Amplifier Module. Also, to overcome noise in the data, a relaxation
filter was also used. The assumed actual weight is approximated by 0.025
times the new experimental measured weight added to 0.975 multiplied by
the weight at the previous time step to decrease frequencies higher than the
Nyquist frequency sampling rate. This provides a reasonable weight
distribution as a function of steady-state and rotation rate changes.
Figure 5. The laminated ring graphically shows with the actual ring and spindle to
drive the carousel. Hardware for the carousel also includes the motor and
support drive.
Four different types of rollers were manufactured. The interaction of

these rollers depends upon the strength of the magnets as well as
performance. The ability of the rollers to hunt along the ring is also crucial.
Some of these concepts were found unworkable based upon how they would
be anchored to the carousel. In general, these rollers used a core that
consisted of Hymu-80. The green color represents a copper sleeve and a gray
aluminum sleeve that does not have electrical contact with the other
components within the roller by the yellow separate sleeve. Magnets in the
central core were small segments because it was difficult to obtain magnets
within the roller geometry. The purple objects are larger magnets that
enhanced the magnetic pole of the roller. These magnets generally were
strong enough to generate a pull of 69 pounds per magnet. This created quite
a bit of difficulty in terms of handling these rollers that are shown in Figure
7.
In a phone conversation with Devon Tassen [14], the recommendation
was made to enhance the poles of the rollers. This advice was correct. The
successful roller used larger magnets at the poles compared to the rollers that
used smaller magnets. The final selection for the roller design used a turbine-
like arrangement that replaced the plastic sleeve. This would allow an air
passageway between the copper and aluminum sleeves. If the magnets were
too hot, this air would provide a modicum of cooling and prevent problems.
In the experiments, a question was raised if these turbines could generate
aerodynamic lift. We used to tape over these accesses to block any air
passage and there was no change in performance. If this were an important
conclusion, the lift would go in one direction to decrease weight and
probably add weight in the opposite direction. No clear-cut demarcation
occurred. If there were weight loses or gains, they occurred at specific
situations based upon rotation rates or different voltages.
Ivan Kruglak provided significant insights on these devices and the
performance of the Godin and Roschin device since he spent considerable
time in Moscow with them in an attempt to replicate their published results.
Kruglak [15] stressed that they used a planetary gear relationship to enhance
roller rotation. One approach used by the Russian device was that small
magnets were drilled and physically meshed within both the rollers and the
ring. This was to generate a gear-like tooth mesh action to ensure that roller
motion about the spin of the rollers. Some collars used on the roller were
altered to allow for the creation of small-embedded magnets in a radial
direction. This was in addition to the larger magnets. No small magnets were
incorporated in the ring. After tests, there was no great difference in results
with these modifications. If anything, the small magnets would be ejected
from the roller due to the strong centrifugal force acting away from the
center of the carousel. To our surprise, the small magnets were not ejected
radially but were found located on the ring considering that the rollers move
about 100 g’s of acceleration. This surprisingly suggests that the magnetic
attraction of the ring with its Hymu-80 material and ferromagnetic fluid
acted far stronger than the centrifugal motion.
The last detail is a capacitor that is embedded within the plastic turbine.
This, in turn, is connected to the large bottom magnet to the aluminum
sleeve. The connection through this magnet allows electrical continuity
throughout the entire roller and the aluminum acts similar to capacitance to
create an electric charge to induce a Poynting force.
Figure 6. Four different roller configurations were initially fabricated to

test capabilities.
There are several basic options for tests that exist. Rollers can be either
12 or 24 in the carousel, four different versions of rollers were examined and
the device may rotate clockwise or counterclockwise. There are several
different voltages usually from 0, 60, 120, 180 and 1,000 voltages with plus
or minus charges and the amount of ferromagnetic fluid can be at 0, 0.50, to
1.00 levels. This easily results in a spectrum of at least 120 test variations.
Figure 7. The selected roller design with and without using small radial magnets at the
collars of each roller ends are seen with no basic difference in performance.
Figure 8. This is the integrated assembly that resides on a base support plate.
RESULTS
A. The Behavior of the Morningstar Energy Box
Based on the rationale for a device to generate electricity, self-

acceleration is the highest desirable phenomenon. To date, we have not
observed this phenomenon with any certainty. However, several unusual
effects were observed and documented under controlled laboratory
conditions. Results demonstrate that this is a very nonlinear device.
The first investigation was to examine the magnetic field from the
device. Results are a function of rotation rate and radial distance. The
maximum field strength is located at 9.5 inches for the rollers’ position in
the carousel. If the roller magnets were set at alternating poles, the strength
of the magnetic field was significantly reduced. Reverse polarity of the
alternating rollers, in effect cancel or compete with adjacent rollers. On this
basis, the rollers were used in the same polarity to maximize field strength.
In general, there was no obvious increase in the magnetic field as a
function of rotation rate. However, some disturbances showed a
considerable radial distance from the device. Later, it was apparent that the
magnetic field would move radially outward at a greater distance to increase
carousel velocity, these ‘moving’ magnetic walls may be radial shells. Here,
some sudden increases for magnetic walls show discrete changes in the field.
This is unusual in that one would normally expect the field to be continuous
and not discontinuous in the magnetic field. This is similar to some of the
effects observed by the Russians.
Because of the limited laboratory spacing, we could only measure two
or three walls from the device. Also, there are several other metal objects in
the cramped test lab, which may supply the magnetic fields. Moreover, the
magnetic walls appear like shells that increase radially as the rotation rate
increases.
(a)
(b)
Figure 9a and 9b. The magnetic field response shows the polarity of the rollers.
Using magnetometers, the walls are not linear barriers as the Russians
imply. Here, the walls follow a parabolic curve similar to expected
trajectories from the magnetic lines of force. The difference is that the
Russian device could have had a significantly stronger magnetic field than
in this device. The reason these walls are important is that the magnetic field
movement could be used to harvest electrical energy away from the
machine.
When the device was originally examined with two thermocouples to
give a measure of temperature, there were very unusual responses that varied
at different rotation rates. However, some of the instrumentation was
incorrect and when grounded, the thermocouples did not show significant
temperature variations together with weight increase or decrease. Thermal
energy is driven by the driveshaft and a significant amount of electrical
power from the motor generates conduction heat transfer. This creates a
background noise affect compared to defining an Unruh effect so no
particular relationship was identifiable for temperature decreases with
weight losses or gains. Godin later mentioned that there was no real trend to
support Unruh-like relations.
Regarding weight, bathroom scales initially estimated that there was a
change in the device’s weight. Some resulting judgments looked at weight
changes based upon considerable vibrations that moved during rotation
changes. Six load cells were used to determine weight responses. These
generated weights that in some situations lost or increased by as much as 20
to 40 pounds. The device, minus the cabinet and instrumentation, would
weigh about 190 pounds. The results would be examined where weight was
measured against the rotation rate. This strongly depended upon varying
conditions. However, these results showed specific regions where the
rotation rate occurred during a resonance.
Results in Figure 11 show the rotation rate as a function of time. In this
graph, rpm shows a staircase step history. Besides, a smell of ozone was
detected when the carousel was removed from the drive mechanism, which
is a telltale sign of high voltage discharge above 7 to 9000 volts, as is well
known to electrical engineers. Results from the first three series validated
some of the ideas about the Russian device; we saw unusual results that
showed increases or decreases in weight but at a smaller magnitude

compared to the Russian claims. A fourth test series of the Energy Box was
performed approximately two months later after these tests. The new test
objective was to modify the rollers to use capacitors capable of holding 1500
volts compared to the original capacitors that only held 100 volts. This
would be used to validate the Poynting vector approach to increase the force
of the rollers by at least a factor of ten.
Real-world tests usually provide unexpected situations. These tests had
clearly defined reasonable objectives. One co-author established that the
capacitor for the lower voltage was not required during the first three series.
This was debated because voltage differences in the rollers could not be
sustained; hence, the capacitance was required. At higher voltages, several
rollers lost their charge because of the space between the rollers and the ring
formed by an electric arc resulting in a short circuit. This limitation only
allowed the device to reach an upper voltage of, say 325 volts before the
roller voltage would discharge.
In other words, if the device was to achieve a charge of 1,000 volts, the
spacing between the insolated rollers and the ring should be increased. This
raises questions of how a Searl device could operate and sustain a voltage
difference or how the Russians used 20,000 volts? In other words, short
circuits may become routine regarding conserving voltage.
Figure 10. The “magnetic walls” showed some radially displaced locations from the
mechanism. These walls would increase in magnitude with increases in rotation rate.
MEB4_IX-A2 Weight
463.4
463.2 1000
463.0
800
462.8
Weight (lbf)
462.6 600
RPM
462.4
400
462.2 Average
Weight
462.0 Throttle
200
461.8
RPM
461.6 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time (s)
(a)
MEB4_IX-A2 RPM vs. Weight
463.4
463.2
463.0
Weight (lbf)
462.8
462.6
462.4
Average Weight lbf
462.2
462.0
461.8
461.6
0 200 400 600 800 1000
RPM
(b)
Figure 11a and 11b. A typical weight reduction case occurred at the resonance
frequencies of 480 and 810 rpm.
In many postulated theories, the retarded potential was considered as a

low probability. Unfortunately, the device was fully assembled and dormant
for several months. In the past, the carousel and rollers were disassembled
from the ring. Here, the carousel and rollers did not move. This induced
magnetic imprints within the ring despite that the Hymu-80 material was not
supposed to maintain a sustained magnetic field. Moreover, Searl indicated
that the ring should use imprinting magnets within the ring. By residing in
this position for several months, this imprint naturally occurred, and this
created unexpected events compared with the other series. When spun by
hand, the carousel coasted in a relatively smooth fashion. However, after it
moved in a particular direction, the carousel would stop and move a small
amount in the opposite direction before stopping again. This was
unexpected. The rotation was about 10 degrees in azimuth regardless of

clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. This effect of ring imprinting
tends to support the idea about the hypothesis for a retarded potential.
One of the investigators suggested the device would overcome the
strange magnetic effects by rotations above 300 rpm. This effect would
persist regardless of the rotation rate. When the voltage was increased, the
device would act like a normal device. This meant that rotation was
smoother than the previous test series where only a very small weight change
was observed in either direction. This was disappointing because this
demonstrated that we could not duplicate behavior seen during the other
three series. These new trials established experimental uncertainty that
reached about 0.1 or 0.2 pounds of weight. In a majority of runs, the device
would lose or increase weight by about 2 pounds. These weight changes
were within 1% considering the 190 pounds of the device without the weight
of the cabinet, battery, and charging power supplies. Results were therefore
ignored as not being considered as notable.
In addition to the change in the capacitors, the brake drive was also
removed for decelerating the electric motor. When 1,000 rpm was reached
and power was withdrawn, the carousel coasted for 37 to 39 seconds before
stopping though it only took 20 seconds during the prior three-test series
with the brake. As previously mentioned, the carousel always stopped and
reversed direction before finally coming to a rest. When the weight versus
rpm data was examined, departures that were once seen at resonance
locations in previous tests were found considerably diminished because of
the ring imprinting. Data showed some resonance locations but the
amplitude was not as prevalent. If power was removed at 1,000 rpm, the
weight history as a function of the decreasing rpm showed a sinusoidal
response that peaked at different locations for different voltages or rotation
directions as shown in Figure 11. This did not seem to show any disparity
when the rpm reached resonance thresholds. Such behavior was not
observed for the other three-test series. Moreover, the change in weight was
very low at some of these conditions to record what you would assume
would occur for a normal device that did not produce weight changes.
Figure 12. The behavior demonstrated a typical response with fewer resonance effects
and the sinusoidal signal when electric power was removed. The rollers were charged
at 325 volts.
At this point, there was some disappointment about results, and

obviously, the imprinting had made the device operate in a more nonlinear
fashion than in the past. Moreover, the earlier results could not be repeated
since this device now acted like a different system. Runs were made at higher
voltages as high as 325 volts with no notable consequences worth reporting.
A reference trial was performed where there was no voltage at the rollers
and the carousel moved first in one direction and decelerated to a stationary
state. The device was restarted in the opposite direction and was eventually
decreased to cease operations. The results were unexpected as follows.
The initial weight includes the device, cabinet, and supporting
equipment. The weight shown in Figure 12 first dropped from 447 pounds
to 433 pounds, and held constant with resonance spikes at 220 and 400 rpm.
A weight spike at about 2180 seconds dropped to 425 pounds. The weight
returned to the initial weight and then, in a different direction, dropped a
minimum of 431 pounds. A maximum weight loss occurred at 22 pounds at
about 12%, and an average loss in direction was 14 pounds at 7.3%. The
initial objective of this run was designed to establish resonances but the
results changed weight right away. Moreover, one may argue that less
weight may occur at one direction over the other but this would have been
reasonable only if the rotation rate history was identical. Unfortunately for
this run, the different directions went to a higher rotation rate, and results at
different directions were apples versus oranges.
Compared to the other test series, there was no behavior where the
weight changed for a considerable time of period and higher result
magnitudes occurred only at transient situations. The weight loss of 7.3%
would easily be assumed as greater than experimental error at 0.1 or 0.2
pounds.
The success of these runs encourages us to pursue and complete the
manufacture of a tapered ring device. After these different tests and results,
a variant device would explore these ideas for further changes in weight
reduction situations. The increase in the angle of the ring is designed to
extend the electric and magnetic fields of the rollers that should alter weight.
In other words, using the current configuration, the charge on the roller is
limited by the spacing between the roller and the ring. By using this
geometry, spacers could be used to extend the carousel and increase the
spacing between the rollers and the ring thereby allowing for larger voltages
of the order of 1,500 volts.
Figure 13. This unusual weight history resulted in no roller electrical charge
in both directions.
MEB 6 12-A1b RPM vs. Weight

450
445
Weight (lbf)
440
435
430
425
420
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
RPM
Figure 14. The unusual behavior demonstrated events as a function of acceleration

versus deceleration. Resonance was not as expected at 200 and 400 RPMs. The lowest
value occurred when the first portion of the run was decelerated or stopped running at
about 2180 seconds.
B-1. Angular Momentum
Is there a reasonable postulate or theory to explain these results? One

idea is to change Mother Nature by transferring angular momentum into
linear momentum. This would allow an angular motion to induce linear
motion using interactions with magnetic and electric fields.
Figure 15. The Tapered Ring Device- A future reality that could use more weight.
This may sound unusual but several dynamic situations exist where there
is a transfer of momentum from one coordinate direction to another. For
example, if one is to consider the six degrees of freedom of a body, there are
specific situations that may not occur. This would involve a geometric body
that has a body of inertia matrix that only has elements in the main diagonal.
Here, motion in a specific linear or rotational momentum is kept separate in
a specifically defined direction. However, if the body is not symmetric and
elements appear off of the diagonal elements in the moment of the inertia
matrix, there is an unexpected transfer from one direction into another. In
other words, pitch rotation can induce yaw or roll orientation. Other
examples also occur for the trajectory of a missile system in these situations.
This can induce sudden yaw motion which will induce roll and pitch
rotations. The subsequent performance of the aircraft results in what is
familiar as ‘Dutch roll’.
The final example which is more direct is the situation of a bicycle or
any automotive device. Here the wheels are involved in rotation but the
vehicle changes this rotational momentum into linear momentum deriving
forward motion.
In these examples, it is feasible to include the impact of large electrical
or magnetic fields inherent in the energy box. These fields might alter such
a change as an off-diagonal element in such a mathematical entity as the
moment of the inertia matrix.
Regarding the Morningstar Energy Box, the main carousel rotates and
each roller is allowed to separately rotate within the carousel. The
complications exist further in that each roller has its electromagnetic fields
and the ring on the energy box also may generate its own magnetic and
electric fields. The roller fields will induce a three-dimensional field during
the rotation around the carousel and the ring as well as the individual rotation
at the axis of each roller. Clearly, it is feasible that these fields can induce
the linear and angular momentum effects seen by the rollers traveling around
the ring and that these could allow the carousel to initially rotate by its own
capability. The impact of these fields may induce weight reduction in some
as of yet to be determined effect.
B-2. Gravito-Electro-Magnetism (GEM)
This notion uses a Poynting vector force induction based upon the roller
design. The second approach initially looks at a magnetic roller/capacitor
around the ring. When roller motion is started, an electric field is created by
Maxwell’s equations. If the magnet is longitudinal and the electric field in
the roller is radially oriented, the Poynting vector, which is the cross product
between the electric and magnetic fields, would create a force to induce
motion. John Searl’s use of dielectrics that tends to act like a capacitor
creates such a Poynting vector motivator.
Briefly, the Poynting field is:
S 
1
E  B  . (3)
o
And the conservation equation that is derived is:
 1 2S   (4)
0  2
1 
  2 S    4   m   E   e   B  2  J e  B  E  J m    0     S .
c  t
2
  c t 
Where s is the Poynting field, e is the electric field, b is the magnetic

field, j represents currents, ρ is a source term with subscripts are for e with
electric and m for magnetic fields. This also provides insights into
gravitational forces in a future publication.
At this junction, it is speculated that the curl of the Poynting vector could
have induced an effect that created losses and gains to weight because of the
interaction. Additionally, we have found a derivation for the Poynting field
conservation that offers additional field then only by using separate
magnetic and electric fields. This use of the Poynting field looks very
promising. During these efforts, the ancillary field looks like:
 4     
1  2V  r
 2V    E   e   B   0     S  dr  4    J e  B  E  J m .
c t t
2 2 0 m
(5)
This expression includes magnetic sources and currents for completion

with symmetry between the electric and magnetic fields derived as a
byproduct from the Poynting conservation equation. It represents another
field that may be either a torsion field or possibly a gravitational field. It is
most likely that this is a gravitational field that would cause these effects.
This is far more detailed than what is available from either Gertenshtein or
forward’s efforts that imply that an electromagnetic field can be used to
induce gravitation.
The importance of this equation is that you can see components that are
related to the items that create the Poynting vector. However, the crucial
component is the curl of the Poynting vector. The rotation of the separate
rollers within the Morningstar energy box could have created some of these
components; however, the rotation of all of the rollers would generate a
larger term for the curl expression that would produce a significant effect.
There is another point worth noting. No restrictions are made on whether
this field is positive or negative. If this is a gravitational field in the
conventional sense, it could be positive to generate an attractive force acting
near different masses of a body. However, with these different terms, it is
possible that the field could be negative thereby generating a repulsive
gravitational effect. In other words, the mass would repel against each other
and such an expression may be an interesting alternative to generate a future
vehicle to produce a vehicle exercising in long-range spaceflight.
B-3. Retarded Potentials
As the rollers interact while moving around the ring, they will create an
image directly opposite to the field on the ring created by the roller. As these
virtual images exist, there are some interrelationships between the ring and
the individual rollers. Thus, the ring acts as a roller reflection plane on the
ring. If the time is retarded in the image within the ring due to
electromagnetic properties such as hysteresis, the image from one roller may
be delayed such that it will attract the adjacent roller to create self-
acceleration. The retarded potential looks at the electric and magnetic field
images in the ring created by the roller. If these images in the surface plane
could be delayed, say due to high rotation about the carousel, the images
may drag the next roller to cause linear momentum and self-acceleration.
What is of interest is that during the last series of tests of the energy box,
a stronger level of magnet imprinting occurred and the carousel acted
differently. When power was reduced, the carousel rotated longer than in the
past as a function of time. However, when the carousel stopped in a specific
direction, it would rotate in the opposite direction for about 10 degrees in
azimuth before finally stopping. This occurred in either clockwise or
counter-clockwise motion when the stopping appeared acting in the opposite
direction. This may have represented an experimental rationale for
validating the idea about retarded potentials.
It is conceivable that the performance of the energy box may use
combinations of each or all of these theories. It should be mentioned that the
Russians also have a theory and that used a magnetic von Karman street.
Each of the vortices in the street would operate at the location of the roller
in a circular path following the ring. This would lead to self-acceleration.
We did not fully assess this capability but would like to suggest that it
represents a possible solution set as well.
B-4. Generation of Gravitational Waves
This approach is rather different. In the case of 1913+16, a binary pulsar,

the precession rate is significantly high. This implies that the neutron star is
losing weight significantly and the view is that this is predominantly due to
the creation of gravity waves [16]. The issue about binary pulsars is not
trivial by any stretch of the imagination. The neutron star rotates at a
significantly high rotation rate. According to speculation from some
investigators, it is conceivable that this rotation rate affects the gravitational
field of the neutron star. Moreover, there is a careful balance between the
weights of the neutron star, the companion star as well as the type of
trajectories with these stars and the neutron star rotation rate. These
interactions may exist somewhat like these relations in a binary pulsar.
Einstein claimed the existence of gravitational waves but since

Newtonian gravitation does not include time effects, gravitational waves
will either occur instantaneously or do not exist. On this basis, Einstein
developed a wave equation relationship for gravity to allow the inclusion of
gravity waves. However, the problem is that the technology to either create
gravity waves or detect gravity waves may be currently outside of the realm
of technology. Moreover, several interesting ideas exist if gravity waves
would exist. Giorgio Fontana addressed an interesting idea about using
gravity wave generators that were focused in front of a spacecraft. When
these beams of gravity waves intersected, they would create a singularity in
the space-time continuum. This would induce a pseudo-gravitational field
that would literally pull instead of push the craft’s motion due to an attraction
toward the singularity.
Although speculative, the idea here is that if weight is reduced, gravity
waves are emitted away from the device. When the rotation stops and the
weight returns, the device would attract gravitational waves. The processes
to create or absorb gravity waves are created by the unusual electromagnetic
field induced by the rollers interacting with the ring. If this is the case, then
creating or destroying gravity waves might be far easier than initially
considered and this warrants additional concern.
B-5. Cogravitational Waves
Jefimenko [17-19] claimed that gravity could be modified to deal with

two separate fields to create gravity and cogravity field the force was based
upon a Lorentzian type of relationship that derives Maxwell’s equations:
F m g  uK  . (6)
The relationships for the gravitational field and the cogravity field have
to obey the following relationship:
 K
g ;   g   4  G  ;   K  0.
 t
4 G 1  g (7)
a nd :   K   Jg  2 .
c2 c  t
These equations are adjusted to create wave equations such that:
1  2g  1  Jg Jc 
  2 g  4  G   g  2  ,
c t
2 2

 cg  t c 
 (8)
1  K 2    g 1  Jc Jg 
2 K  4 G   3  .
c t
2 2

 c
2
c  t c2 

Moreover, the reason for the additional field was that gravity would not
only bring forth an attractive force but would also create angular motion.
The reason was to provide an explanation of why the moon of the earth only
looked at the same side. This notion is somewhat similar to the ideas
previously mentioned about angular and linear momentum transfer.
The final expression for the gravitational vector is:
G m  r v   v 2    r v  v   m   v 2  2r v 2 
g  r   1  2  r    r    2     G 3  1  2  ro  3 v o . (9)
r 3 1 r v / r c 3  c   c    c  c   r   2c  3c 
The Newtonian would accept this behavior of the moon based upon an
offset in the weight or center of gravity of the moon. However,
investigations revealed that all of the major planets with moons also had
similar behavior. Moreover, all of the planets and moons in our solar system
essentially dynamically operate in the same rotation direction. This tends to
confirm some of Jefimenko’s conjectures. Finally, the need for cogravitation
is to allow the effects of gravity due to responding for treatment of motion
at or near the speed of light.
Jefimenko makes, as mentioned, an analogy between gravity and
cogravity with electricity and magnetism. This is derived from Maxwell’s
equation type of relation. Several variations of these gravity laws were
modified to treat with gravity and cogravity currents. These currents are not
well defined except with analytical representations. In other words, if these
currents were dependent upon electrical and magnetic currents within the
energy box, there would be a logical conclusion that a relationship exists for
explaining the weight losses and gains. The point is that this cogravity field
may be active under the influence of the energy box and that this is creating
the gains or losses. From the wave equation relationships, there is no pretext
to define a positive or negative value although the relationship is clearer for
this with the definition of the gravity term. Further gravitational laws based
upon Jefimenko, have also formed a similar relationship but with an
expansion to include additional magnetic current and source terms.
Additional effort is warranted to examine if cogravity exists and if so, what
would be the consequences that may impact the energy box.
B-6. DeBroglie Matter Waves
The turn of the 20th century brought about some amazing thought-
provoking ideas. Einstein presented the idea of a photon. A small packet of
light that acts as a wave under certain conditions and then like a particle
under other conditions. Finally, a middle ground was determined in the
particle vs. Wave debate of light propagation. Louis de Broglie became
intrigued and came up with a very interesting idea [9]. What if other particles
had wave-like properties to them? Could all matter act as a wave at some
point and then act as a particle at another?
Using the relativistic momentum formula from special relativity:
(10)
Allows this equation to be written as [10]:

(11)
(a) (b)
Figure 16a and 16b. The propagation of de Broglie waves in one-dimension–the real
part of the complex amplitude is blue, the imaginary part is green (blue oscillates
higher than green if this is viewed in B&W). The probability for finding the particle at
a given point x is spread out like a waveform, there is no definite position of the
particle. As the amplitude increases above zero the curvature reverses sign, so the
amplitude begins to decrease again, and vice versa - the result is an alternating
amplitude or a wave.
Using the four-momentum p = (e/c, p) and the four-wave vector k =

(ω/c, k), the de Broglie relations form a single equation:
(12)
Which is frame-independent.
This relates the wavelength of a particle to its momentum creating the
basis for wave-particle duality, which is used in the time-dependent
Schrödinger equation (single non-relativistic particle).
(13)
This idea is rather simple: the generation of an electromagnetic vortex

is based upon the Poynting Conservation equation. This also implies a vortex
that contains some level of energy. What we are suggesting is that this vortex
contains a conduit that allows converting mass into energy during the
rotation of the energy box and likewise, converting this energy back into
mass when the device is slowing down or stopping.
There is a far simpler understanding. If de Broglie said that E= mc2, then
matter waves may be defined as m = E/c2. What is suggested is that the
energy is changing due to the electromagnetic interactions between the
rollers and the ring, that matter waves are produced while weight is lost
during rotation. The weight is regained by matter waves when the device
stops.
B-7. Dimensional Axis Transport
This hypothetical approach is based upon the conjecture that the

perturbation associated with the device was able to impact the space-time
manifold of the local area to the point where the charged particles would be
able to access a D-dimensional axis that would allow for transport to a point
in space-time that was less perturbed. If this D-dimension exists, it would
overlay the primary dimensions of space-time and due to the perturbation of
the device allow for a window into how particles fundamentally interact.
Initially, this idea came from the observation that mass was being lost
or gained by the device. The thought that mass was phasing and returning at
the end of the experiment is a difficult concept to understand, much less
accept, since it implies that the laws of conservation of energy and mass are
being violated.
Further explanation of this possible transport was investigated that
assumed information of the particle experiencing the perturbation of the
device would be transported along this axis through quantum mechanical
interactions thus violating Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. This
explanation somewhat utilizes the GEM theory relationship associated with
the application of the Poynting vector, the retarded potential created during
rotation of the device and the wave-particle duality exhibited by DeBroglie

matter waves.
Figure 17. The Russian Magnetic Energy Converter, a single ring Searl device, built by
Godin and Roschin in 2004 was an attempt to replicate their published data from a
previous Searl construction that was unavoidably lost (credit: Ivan Kruglak, supplied
by Editor).
C. Basic Considerations
The basic issue is that most of these ideas are worth investigating.
Unfortunately, there was no clear-cut decision one way or another when an
additional test series was performed. Moreover, the effort to fully identify
and provide an adequate understanding would require serious considerations
for defining each of these separate possibilities in the form of creating
unique experiments. Furthermore, there is a tacit view that the eventual
phenomenon may not be a consequence of a single approach but rather as a
consequence that includes several of these ideas simultaneously.
To perform this, experiments would have to be carefully designed to

exploit each of these approaches as well as coupling several of these
alternatives simultaneously. This is currently outside of the realm of
technology in some of these notions where measurement may affect the
observation of the device. As mentioned, for example, no technology
currently exists to identify gravitational waves in terms of a transmitter and
a receiver. The notion about isolating cogravity is also something that would
require detailed investigations as well as discovering and quantifying the
torsion or gravitational field based upon the conservation law for the
Poynting field. Possibly, the solution may exist in a quiescent environment
such as in outer space or in orbit around the Earth.
A more down-to-Earth possibility can be discussed but only with some
portion of the problem as a means to examine small pieces instead of the
‘whole’ process. The examination of environmental conditions would need
to be monitored during the operation of the device to understand how the
device affected its environment. Time could be observed using a laser-
detector array passing through the area of field interaction to observe how
the evolution of the system occurred. A cubic grid of magnetometer probes
could be placed around the device at 2” increments with a real-time feed to
an on-line acquisition system to attempt to better map the changes in the
magnetic fields to infer the changes in gravity. A change of symmetry of the
carousel could be used to create a stronger alignment of fields. Certainly, the
employment of new materials, such as graphene as a capacitance element
may be useful as well.
Several different mechanical system changes ensued for further
investigations to demonstrate nonlinear behavior. Magnetic fields generated
from the rollers will alter behavior. For example, the carousel is made out of
aluminum but because of the strong roller magnetic field, it is magnetized.
The HyMu-80 ring is also unusual material because of its high nickel
content. Although not a natural magnet, if a magnet touches it, the entire
material acts like a large magnet.
During the previously mentioned test runs, several roller rotation
appeared frozen implying bearings needed lubrication. The carousel was
taken off of the device. This takes roughly 30 minutes due to the strong
magnetic interaction between the carousel rollers with the major ring. Each
roller was lubricated and spun freely. Nevertheless, when the loaded
carousel was placed again over the ring, several rollers still did not move
freely. This was unexpected despite moving the carousel at different
locations around the ring. One may assume this was due to the magnetic
field interactions with the ring plus the very low possibility of a roller
misalignment during manufacturing.
The initial configuration used a 6 hp electric motor requiring a battery
pack. This was converted to a 1 hp electric motor. For no particular reason
except other than curiosity, eight 1 inch long white crystals were placed in a
circumferential alignment in the cavity inside the major ring. Using a
nominal run where a constant speed for about 5 minutes to warm-up the
device, the carousel ceased operating after 2 or 3 minutes. The motor burnt
out and there was no free motion between the carousel and the major ring.
There is no explanation other than the rotating magnets probably electrically
charged the crystals and this somehow led to some unknown interaction
between the crystals, the main ring, and the rollers.
Clearly, nonlinearities on this device exist and these are yet to be
understood.
CONCLUSION
The experimentation involved with the Energy Box has proven to be a

non-linear roller coaster. In an attempt to explain how the device works, a
group of plausible explanations has emerged. What can be taken away from
these explanations is that the device in motion causes a system that due to
symmetry and dynamic force production yields an environment where the
fundamental interconnection between mass and force can begin to be
explored. Through mathematical analysis gained by the GEM approach, the
interdependence of the dynamic fields begins to take shape through how the
device reacts to subtle changes in energy. The retarded potential or lagging
field image created can imply a state of causality entrained in the operation
of the device. Each of these cases explains the system as it is, a nonlinear
reaction of interdependent forces. To gain a greater understanding of which

theory is present and how it works will need greater experimentation.
The Energy Box and how it implements dynamic forces creates a
window into how our reality is affected due to space-time perturbation. The
fundamentals of how mass is seen and how its energy is converted in these
dynamic fields could lead to a greater understanding of our terrestrial
environment, which in turn could allow for a greater understanding of our
extraterrestrial environment.
Basically from these results, the Energy Box validated some of the
interesting phenomena discussed by the Russians. This includes weight
increases, decreases, magnetic walls, and the presence of ozone. Weight
measurement spikes of the Energy Box indicate a higher weight loss fraction
than the 35% suggested by the Russians during transient motion.
There are at least three interesting alternative theories for this nonlinear
machine. This includes several options theorizing about converting angular
rotation to linear momentum, a Poynting field force effect, or using retarded
potentials where the ring acts as a reflection ground plane against the electric
and magnetic fields of the roller’s images. Clearly, this Energy Box is a
nonlinear mechanism by virtue of the unusual magnetic and electrical fields.
All of these notions require further clarification with additional tests as well
as the possibility of inducing gravitational fields. Rollers could represent
electromagnetic dipoles that repulse gravitational fields, which are also
among other possibilities. Additional variants of the Energy Box should be
fabricated and tested to identify and understand the physics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the D. H. Washington Trust for its support on
these efforts.
APPENDIX
Two unpublished documents on the Searl device follow. First: the

original Sandberg report including the “Additional Information Regarding
the Main Feature of the Searl-Effect Generator;” and Second: Paul Brown’s
“Kinetic Demo & Roller Magnet,” both from 1985 – Ed. Note
REFERENCES
[1] Thomas, John. (1993). ANTIGRAVITY: The Dream Made Reality, the
Story of John Searl. Reprint available from Integrity Research
Institute.
[2] LaViolette, P. A. (2001). “How the Searl Effect Works: Analysis of

the Magnetic Energy Converter”, in Magnetic Energy Converter
Report: How the Searl Effect Works, Integrity Research Institute.
2005.
[3] Sandberg, S. Gunnar. (1986). “The Searl-Effect Generator: Design
and Manufacturing Procedure”, School of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, University of Sussex, SEG-003 and SEG-004 (see
Appendix).
[4] Brown, Paul. “Additional Information Regarding the Main Feature of
the Searl-Effect Generator”, 1985, hand-written and unpublished (see
Appendix).
[5] Godin, S. M. & Roschin, V. V. (2004). “Orbiting Multi-Rotor
Homopolar System”, US Patent 6.822,361 for this device held by
Energy and Propulsion Systems, Valencia CA, formerly owned by
Ivan Kruglak.
[6] Roschin, V. V. & Godin, S. M. (2001). “An Experimental
Investigation of the Physical Effects in a Dynamic Magnetic System”,
AIAA Paper 2001-3660.
[7] Roschin, V. V. & Godin, S. M. (2000). “An Experimental
Investigation of the Physical Effects in a Dynamic Magnetic System”,
Technical Letters, Vol. 26, No. 12, pp. 1105-1107.
[8] Karimov, A. R., Stenflo, L. & Yu, M. Y. (2009). Coupled flows and
oscillations in asymmetric rotating plasmas, PHYSICS OF PLASMAS,
16, 102303.
[9] Karimov, A. R., Stenflo, L. & Yu, M. Y. (2009). Coupled azimuthal
and radial flows and oscillations in a rotating plasma, PHYSICS OF
PLASMAS, 16, 062313, published online 29 June 2009.
[10] Karimov, A. R. & Godin, S. M. (2009). Coupled radial–azimuthal
oscillations in twirling cylindrical plasmas, IOP PUBLISHING
PHYSICA SCRIPTA, Phys. Scr., 80, (2009), 035503, (6 pp.)
doi: 10.1088/0031-8949/80/03/035503.
[11] Brandenburg, J. E. (2003). “A Theoretical Value for the Newton
Gravitation Constant from the GEM Theory of Field Unification and
the Kursunoglu-Brandenburg Hypothesis of Massive Gamma-Ray
Bursters”, The Launching of La Belle Époque of High Energy Physics

and Cosmology, (pp. 112-119).
[12] Murad, P. A. & Brandenburg, J. E. (2012). “The Murad-Brandenburg
Equation- A Wave Partial Differential Expression for the Poynting
Vector/Field Conservation”, AIAA 50th Aerospace Science Meeting,
AIAA Paper 2012-0997, Nashville, Tennessee.
[13] Lorentz, H. A., Weyl, H. & Minkowski, H. (1952). Einstein: The
Principle of Relativity, Dover Publications, Inc.
[14] Private conversations with Devon Tassen.
[15] Private conversations with Ivan Kruglak at a technical meeting.
[16] Murad, P. A. (2012). “Replicating Pulsar Behavior to Create a Future
Space Propulsor”; International Journal of Astronomy, 1(5), 81-86
doi: 10.5923/j.astronomy.20120105.02; 2012.
[17] Jefimenko, O. D. (1992). Causality Electromagnetic Induction and
Gravitation, Electret Scientific Company, Star City.
[18] Jefimenko, O. D. (1997). Electromagnetic Retardation and Theory of
Relativity, Electret Scientific Company, Star City.
[19] Jefimenko, O. D. (2006). Gravitation and Cogravitation, Electret
Scientific Company Star City, ISBN 0-917406-15-X.
Chapter 11
GRAVITY/ANTI-GRAVITY, LIBRATION
POINTS, AND RELATIVITY:
EXPOSING THE LIGHT ON DARK MATTER
P. A. Murad*
Morningstar Applied Physics, LLC†, Vienna, Virginia
ABSTRACT
Investigation of separate gravitational laws to include attraction and

induced angular momentum. Such alternative laws, which may include an
electromagnetic counterpart and evidence of angular momentum, are wave
equations permitting gravitational waves using Newtonian gravitation
boundary conditions. Wave equation transient terms should appear
exponentially damped. If otherwise, exponentially growing terms may
revise theories prominent toward explaining the Big Bang or supernovae.
Equally, the mathematical notion about anti-gravity may propose an
explanation about the numerous Trojan Asteroids located at the off-angle
Libration points1 between the Sun and Jupiter. These asteroids over ages
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: ufoguypaul@yahoo.com.
†
Associate Fellow AIAA.
1
Ed. Note: Libration points serve as equilibrium gravitational points at a certain distance away
from the moon, for example, on the near and far sides, similar to Lagrange points.
304 P. A. Murad
should have congealed to form small planetoids. Unfortunately, this did

not occur. These gravitational anomalies may be incorrectly identified as a
consequence of Pulsating Libration Points, as poor analytical clarification.
The same can be aforementioned about, not including, relativity.
Substantiation from the Pioneer 10 and 11 and MOND implies that gravity
indeed does not vanish during very large distances as expected by
Newtonian assumptions but reaches a constant value. Thus, this evidence
implies that Dark Matter may be only an intellectual artifact using mass for
providing additional gravitation. In addition, a test to validate Dark Matter
is described in a straightforward simple experiment. Conclusions are
gravitation is not as commonplace as initially assumed.
Keywords: gravitational law, binary pulsars, dark matter, torsion, spin,

angular momentum
INTRODUCTION
There are many aspects to consider how to investigate the far-abroad

cosmos. You can use a warp drive [1-11] designed to generate thrust, field
concepts that influence the environment’s electric and/or magnetic field, or
you can alter gravitation. Before we can study gravity, the issue is if we fully
understand gravity and its implications. This may suggest we normally
appreciate gravity to raise different concerns where anomalous behavior
may be of interest. If we are honest about gravitational anomalies and the
results are real, then it is our obligation to alter the conventional wisdom and
incorporate the anomalies to see if a new technological capability is
applicable for space travel. Unfortunately, the result of the success of these
modified models requires additional evidence as well as investigations.
DISCUSSION
This section will discuss some anomalies/phenomenon and details for

some gravitational model details.
Gravity/Anti-Gravity, Libration Points, and Relativity 305
A. Phenomenon and Anomalous Evidence
Let us describe some unusual evidence that raises anomalous behavior.
A-1. Pioneer Effects

Pioneer spacecraft investigations [12-19] were to examine the existing
magnetic field of the solar system where one satellite moved in a specific
direction and the other moved directly in the opposite direction. After
decades, they reached out past the solar system. Beyond Saturn, the sensor
systems that use electricity from a neutronic system were turned off. A week
later, both spacecraft could not be located. The Pioneer anomaly or Pioneer
effect was the observed deviation from predicted Newtonian accelerations
of the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft after they passed about 20
astronomical units (3×109 km; 2×109 mi) on their trajectories out of the Solar
System. The apparent anomaly was a matter of much interest for many years
but has been explained as an anisotropic radiation pressure caused by the
spacecraft’s heat loss.
In 2012, an appropriate model of the recoil force during Pioneer
satellites assumed that an anisotropic emission of thermal radiation of the
spacecraft was able to accommodate but for only about 80% of the
unexplained acceleration plaguing the telemetry of both the Pioneer probes
as far as magnitude, temporal behavior, and direction of concern. The use of
more detailed information [15] from Pioneer provides the following graph.
The remaining 20% still does represent a statistically significant
anomaly in view of uncertainties in the acceleration estimates using Doppler
telemetry and thermal models. The Pioneer anomaly may be due to some
exotic gravitational mechanism external to the spacecraft. This resulted in
the form of a constant value and uniform acceleration directed towards the
Sun. It turned out the Pioneer anomaly may also provide induced anomalous
signatures of other previous probes to Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Upon
close examination of navigational data, the spacecraft were found to be
slowing slightly more than expected. The acceleration is found to be a = 8.74
± 1.33 × 10-8 cm/s2 based on [16-17].
306 P. A. Murad
Figure 1. A polar view of the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft trajectories. Pioneer 11 is

moving in the direction of the Sun’s orbital motion about the galactic center which is
located approximately toward the top of the figure.
This anomaly would be far too large to consider the initial conditions or
strong tensions between the Galactic tide dominant in including observable
Oort cloud comets. The action may be a putative Pioneer anomaly-like
acceleration in those remote peripheries of the Solar system or our
understanding of weight and ‘local’ gravity that may require alternative
conclusions. Thus, these anomalies may consider conventional physics
possesses a great potential to uncover modifications of our currently
accepted picture of natural laws. Nonetheless, before this dream really
comes true, it is mandatory that the unexpected patterns are confirmed to an
adequate level of statistical significance by further independent analyses,
and any possible conventional viable mechanism could be responsible can
be reliably excluded.
Figure 2. The gravitational change.
A-2. The Kuiper Edgeworth Belt

This is as old as the Solar System and estimated to stretch across 20
astronomical units (AU) of space from roughly the orbit of Neptune at 30
AU out to about 55 astronomical units from the Sun as part of a population
of worlds called Trans-Neptunian Objects. The main body of this belt covers
from nearly 40 AU to 48 AU. It is thick in most places and probably more
torus-shaped than a belt. It was during the formation of our Solar System
that most of rocks, dust, and gases were used up to form the Sun and the 8
planets. The remaining rocks, dust, and gases were then swept away into the
Sun or the outer reaches of the Solar System. The Kuiper Belt is elliptical in
shape. To be precise, it is an elliptical plane. It spans a distance of 4.5 to 7.4
billion kilometers from Sun or 30 to 50 AU. The Kuiper Belt closely
resembles the asteroid belt that is known to exist between giant Jupiter and
our neighbor, Mars. However, unlike in this asteroid belt, the objects in
Kuiper Belt are icier. The busiest part of this belt is located at a distance of
42 to 48 AU. Thus, Pioneer has penetrated this region.
308 P. A. Murad
What is surprising is that with the Kuiper Belt, no gravitational

contribution on Pioneer appears to exist where there should have been some
influence as these crafts go closer to and amongst these asteroids. As these
crafts approach the Oort cloud, there should have been an Omni-directional
attraction with the belt that opposed the anomalous attraction from the sun.
Moreover, once inside the belt, the gravitational effects would be
homogeneous with an isotopic potential that would minimize any effects of
local debris resulting in no additional gravitational attraction. This did not
occur. The only rationale is that the belt’s meteorite distribution is such that
the effects may cancel some of the gravitational attraction, however, there
still should be a movement in disparity to an acceleration initially toward the
sun upon entry. Furthermore, the asteroids in the belt may be
inhomogeneous, which should have also created additional unexpected
gravitational attractions.
Figure 3. The Kuiper Belt amid the Oort Cloud.

The other point of concern is that upon entering and exiting from the
Kuiper belt, why were the magnetic field sensors and others not used?
Would not these spiral magnetic fields from the sun be of concern if the belt
really consists of ice or what if there were possible regions with
ferromagnetic capabilities? If so, the disk would have created an unusual
magnetic field.
A final point is since the Pioneers went through this region; do we have
any capability of learning if the spacecraft was structurally damaged upon
impact with ice meteorites? Both this and the magnetic fields would have
been of extreme value to understand the behavior of the far-abroad. Thus, if
the sensors were reinitiated, we would have a better definition if the
gravitational anomaly exists, characterization of the magnetic field in the
Kuiper belt as well as if the spacecraft can survive in such an environment.
A-3. Linear Gravitation

How far can we go to support the view of linear gravitation? Pharis
Williams [20] mentioned that T.C. Van Flandern2, of the Naval Observatory,
has reported a measuring a very small-time rate of decrease in the
gravitational field where he determined to be approximately 6-parts in 1011
per year. This impacts other astronomical constants providing a value of b =
-1.9 x 10-18sec-1 of the equation to be discussed on four-derivative theory to
be discussed later.
Jose A. de Diegoa et al. [21] comes to an acceleration of aλ = c2 √λ =
9.79 × 10−8 cm/s2, which is comparable to the previous acceleration. They
find that for r ≥ 20 AU, there is a constant acceleration towards the Sun on
mentioned objects, which, with the proper amount of mass, accounts for the
blue shift detected3 on the Pioneers spacecrafts. They also discuss the effect
2
Ed. Note: Dr. Tom Van Flandern’s related paper, “The Speed of Gravity” is in Future Energy:
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Future Energy (COFE1), Integrity
Research Institute, 1999, ISBN 978-0-9641070-3-8, also on COFE1 CD (with Proceedings,
audio lectures).
3
There is another explanation about the data from this acceleration. The deep-space radio data
from the Pioneers as well as the Venus radar data from the sixties could be an explanation if
it could not confirm with the consistency of the speed of light.
310 P. A. Murad
of this gravitational pull on Neptune and comment on the possible origin of

such a matter distribution. They also develop a gravitational law that says
when r is greater than r1, gravity becomes nearly a straight line. Note, r1
could be at 20 AU units where aP = −2π G α (1 – (r1/r)2). Where α is based
upon the Pioneer trajectories. However, there is a problem when r is at r1
and gravity goes to zero and the sign change occurs so one would have to
shift these values.
A-4. MOND
In physics, Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) [22-27] is a theory
that proposes a modification of Newton’s laws for observed properties of
galaxies. Israeli physicist Mordechai Milgrom in 1983 developed the
theory’s original motivation to explain the observed velocities of stars in
galaxies that were larger than expected based on Newtonian mechanics.
Milgrom noted that this discrepancy could be resolved if the gravitational
force experienced by a star in the outer regions of a galaxy was proportional
to the square of its centripetal acceleration (as opposed to the centripetal
acceleration itself, as in Newton’s second law), or alternatively if
gravitational force came to vary inversely with radius (as opposed to the
inverse square of the radius, as in Newton’s law of gravity). In MOND4,
violation of Newton’s laws occurs at extremely small accelerations,
characteristic of galaxies yet far below anything typically encountered in the
Solar System or on Earth.
The value in MOND can be due to galaxy distances whereas the Pioneer
results are within our solar system. In other words, one might expect the
lower value reminiscent of longer distances having the span of a galaxy’s
radius or that these anomalies as well as Pioneer, may be created by linear
acceleration feature.
4
The author appreciates the contribution from Hal Puthoff.
Figure 4. Comparison of the observed and expected rotation curves of the typical spiral
galaxy M33.
A-5. Dark Matter

Dark matter [21, 28-34] is claimed to consist of particles that are
neutrally charged electrically, magnetically and are stable. Natural
candidates are called WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) for
Dark matter particles. The implication is that gravity, in contrast to the
Newtonian Gravitational model is a constant value albeit a very small value.
This provides a problem. There are spirals in the galaxies as well as far-away
stars that do not obey Newton’s law. The solution is to create an intellectual
artifact called ‘Dark’ matter. It is dark because you cannot see it and yet it
also does not have electrical or magnetic fields which would be attracted to
these bodies. So, it exists but yet it does not exist. One could go further to
say that dark matter does not consist of physical particles but say, WIMPS,
are like gravitons. This would be a weak rationale to satisfy the anomalous
gravitational effects.
There is another solution and with MOND that is the use of Newtonian
gravitational law for these distances may be flawed. Gravity may be some
trivial small value of gravity, like the solar noise, that exists within a galaxy.
No speculation could be raised about the void between galaxies because of
the lack of data. What should raise some concern is that travel from several
312 P. A. Murad
spacecraft have gone away from the Earth and none of these have
structurally impacted dark matter unless dark matter does not exist within
our solar system?
B. Neutron stars, Black Holes, Magnetars and Rotation
When a Red Giant star [35] reaches the end of its existence, it may die
with a supernova. This results basically in an implosion where the star’s
external surface forces the interior to high temperatures and pressure. If the
initial mass is lesser than 1.4 times the solar mass of our Sun, this may result
in a neutron star, if greater, it will result in a black hole. These two celestial
bodies are in contrast to each other. What is of interest is that the neutron
star is influenced by its angular momentum where it gains a considerable
amount from the initial star. What is surprising is that the implosion creates
pressure to produce neutrons and the size of the star is of the order of one to
ten kilometers in diameter. This spin, because of the angular momentum will
go from 10 to 600 rps compared to the initial star which was at, say one
revolution per month. The gravitational attraction of a neutron star is higher
than what one would expect for a celestial body. What is further of interest
is that the black hole will generally attract a higher gravitation attraction than
either a benign celestial body such as a star or even a neutron star. Likewise,
black holes are not stationary and also rotate. One could speculate that the
rotation rate may have some impact to significantly raise the gravity in a
black hole.
Understanding this attraction ‘power’ is difficult to comprehend.
Companions of binary pulsars [35-42] tend to move considerably faster than
the planets in our solar system because of this higher gravitation. For the
neutron star, there is a higher density due to the close stacking of neutrons
which may explain part of the difference, however, for a black hole, any
concept would be speculative. It is as if a black hole [43-46] possesses a
gravitational venture that acts as such a multiplier. This may be a future issue
of investigation.
Every black hole has an accretion disk that is based upon debris
tangentially rotating about the black hole as a consequence of centrifugal
motion. If no rotation occurred, the black hole would be a gravitational sink
swallowing everything with no accretion disk. Thus, all black holes that have
accretion disks must rotate. The size of the disk depends upon the black
hole’s gravitational pull; the smaller the disk, the greater the gravitation. A
black hole is a collapsed star where the forces of gravity are so large that
even light does not escape. This means that everything that moves at or less
than the speed of light will remain within the black hole to include magnetic
and electric fields.
If a jet leaves the black hole, it must either move at greater than the speed
of light or by some other unknown mechanism. If greater than light speed,
then the jets that exist are clear evidence of the naturally occurring hyper-
light phenomenon. Thus, it would be beneficial to find a black hole that is
not rotating with no accretion disk but with a jet.
If, from the black hole itself, the jet consists of a spiral that is moving
outward along its ejection axis as well as rotating about this axis. How is this
achieved just considering fluid dynamics? Unfortunately, there are no direct
means to measure the rotation rate of a black hole or for that matter the jet
rotation rate. Such rotation can be approximated only indirectly by
examining the surrounding environment.
This is not the case for a neutron star where the beam of radiation would
sweep over the Earth for detection due to the lighthouse effect for neutron
stars. A Magnetar is a neutron star with an extremely strong magnetic field
generated by the convection of hot nuclear matter produced as a
consequence of nuclear reactions. Winterberg [46] looks at a laboratory
analog of a geodynamo or Magnetar that involves a rapidly rotating liquid
metal.
These Magnetars have masses that could be far larger than our sun at
larger rates. Jeong [12] implies that the jet from a black hole or a neutron
star may be forced outward by a repulsive gravitational source. It is
hypothesized that the spiral motion within the jet can create a repulsive
gravitational source based upon an analysis of a Magnetar by Winterberg.
314 P. A. Murad
Here we can assume the jet swirls at such a rotation rate that results are a
repulsive gravitational source.
Figure 5. Scheme of a Herbig-Haro object HH47 and the collimated jets of partially
ionized gas claimed as belonging to the accretion disk, taken by the Hubble Space
Telescope.
Figure 6. Some details may indicate a gas dynamic shock may appear in the jet as
suggested in this artist rendition. Based on the above figures, the jet material can move
faster than the speed of light.
If from the black hole. Moreover, a convergence of cloud material could

be nothing more than gas dynamic shocks coalescing due to deceleration of
the jet matter caused by the original backward gravitational pull of the black
hole.
C. Gravitational Models
Based upon the questions about the stability, wide scatter, and strength
of the Libration Points and some celestial bodies, it would be reasonable to
open the door to look at a different gravitational model potentially in contrast
to the conventional Newtonian gravity model. There are many types of
gravity laws [47]. Several different types of gravity that may be examined.
Foremost of these laws for a 2-body problem is the Newtonian gravity law
that assumes there is an attraction between two separate bodies. It is based
on the masses of and the separation distance between these bodies:
𝑚 𝑚
𝑔̅ ≈ −𝐺 𝑟3 𝑟̅ = −𝐺 𝑟2
𝑟̂ . (1)
This is the ground-based standard for conventional wisdom. Of these,

r is the distance as a vector between both bodies and the ‘normal’ vector 𝑟̂
is in the radial unit direction anchored with a coordinate system, G is a
constant and m is the mass. This law is broken down mathematically into ∇ ×
𝑔̅ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇ ∙ 𝑔̅ = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠 , where ρs is a mass source term. This indicates
that no rotation is involved. The gravitational law becomes:
𝑔⃑ = − ∇𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2 𝜙 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔⃑ ≈ 1⁄ 2 (2)

𝑟 .
In this model, gravity asymptotically goes to zero at extremely large

distances disappearing at infinity. This tends to limit values where gravity
would grow away from, say outside of a source. However, all of this is based
only on our knowledge close to the near-aboard within the innermost regions
of the solar system.
316 P. A. Murad
Newtonian gravitation has been very successful and accurate for

describing satellite and celestial bodies in their motion within the
surrounding environment. However, this does not involve all situations and
other anomalies may be of concern. These anomalies involve rotation as well
as the creation of gravitational waves described by Einstein. Mathematically,
this is an elliptical partial differential equation and does not create
characteristics or waves, hence gravity waves. Either gravity waves exist or
they do not. This standard is used with all laws that they should satisfy
asymptotic boundary conditions such as gravity disappears at infinity.
Pharis Williams [20, 48-49] offers where it is worthwhile to look at
alternative gravitational laws:
“Kepler’s first law states that a planet describes a closed elliptical orbit
with the sun at a focal point. However, the presence of such small
influences as other planets moving in the suns’ field causes a perturbation
in the motion of a given planet, and the resulting orbit is not precisely
elliptic. Indeed, one may think of the actual orbit as a slightly bumpy ellipse
which may precess in the plane of motion; that is, the perihelion shifts
about and does not always occur at the same angular position. This
provides evidence of gravitational angular momentum. The fact that the
idealized classical orbit in a closed ellipse is a result peculiar to the
Newtonian inverse-square law; in fact, Newton himself found that, if the
force of gravity were proportional to 1/r(2+δ) instead of 1/r2, then a planetary
orbit would not be closed and a perihelic shift of order δ would occur.
Indeed, this result was taken to indicate that, since planetary orbits are very
nearly closed, the Newtonian inverse-square law must be very accurate, as,
in fact, it is.”
C-1. Four-Derivative Theories

These theories [49] are a conformal gravity as an example from the
theory of relativity. This means each term in the wave equation can contain
up to 4 derivatives. There are pros and cons to 4-derivative theories. The
pros are that the quantized version of the theory is more convergent and
renormalizable. The cons are there may be issues with causality. A simpler
example of a 4-derivative wave equation is the scalar 4-derivative wave

equation:
𝛻 4 𝜙(𝑟) = 0. (3)
For this potential, gravity is similar to other equations satisfying: 𝑔⃑ =

− ∇𝜙(𝑟), where the solution is in a central field of force. The first two terms
are the same as a normal wave equation. An equivalent solution to the
Schwarzschild solution in General Relativity on a spherical source for
conformal gravity has a metric with:
𝜙(𝑟) = 1 − 2 𝑚⁄𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑏𝑟 2
2𝑏 𝑑 (4)
𝜙(𝑟) = 𝑔𝑜𝑜 = (1 − 6𝑏𝑐)1⁄2 − 𝑟
+ 𝑐𝑟 + 3 𝑟 2 .
Since this equation is a simpler approximation to conformal gravity,

then m corresponds to the mass of the central source. The last two terms are
unique to 4-derivative wave equations. One may assign small values to them
to account for the galactic acceleration constant (also known as dark matter)
and the dark energy constant.
There may exist a positive increase in gravity away from a source term,
which by our initial assumptions, we should ignore this and the constant
term. This shows a difference between models created by General Relativity.
The term 6 bc is very small so it can be ignored. The problem is that now c
is the total mass-energy of the source, b is the integral of density time’s
distance to the source squared. This is a completely different potential to
General Relativity and not just a small modification. The main issue with
conformal gravity theories, as well as any theory with higher derivatives, is
the typical presence of instabilities of the quantum version of the theory,
although there might be a solution to this problem.
Note that this approaches Newtonian gravitation because of the r and r2
terms. However, based on establishing different views about results during
Pioneer 10 and 11, the existence of such terms may be explained. The issue
is if this law should compensate for the degradation in the inverse radius
318 P. A. Murad
function where the terms tend to approach a constant value as implied by the
Pioneer trajectory data.
C-2. Winterberg’s Rule

Winterburg [46] accounts for situations with pulsars and neutron stars.
This implies the large rotational rate of these bodies somewhat change the
strength of the gravitational attraction. Thus there is a consideration for
angular momentum in the body itself as a source term in this law. Winterberg
does not prove this rationale but this difference in mass could be attributed
to a similar effect to using light to understand dark matter because all forms
of celestial bodies usually rotate. His gravitational rule is 𝑔⃑ =
− ∇𝜙(𝑟) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2 𝜙 = −2 𝜔2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔⃑ ≈ 1⁄ 2 this is:
𝑟 .
𝜔2
∇ ∙ 𝑔⃑ = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠 = 2𝜔2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌𝑠 = − . (5)
2𝜋𝐺
These values imply that rotation may become a source that would
increase gravitation. Because of the square term, rotation going clockwise
or counter-clockwise is irrelevant but always increases gravity. Is this
reasonable?
Under the gravitational force magnitude interpretation, an object with
negative mass would repel ordinary matter as well and could be used to
produce an anti-gravity effect. Alternatively, depending on the mechanism
assumed to underlie the gravitational force, it may seem reasonable to
postulate a material that shields against gravity or otherwise interferes with
a gravitational force.
According to Winterberg with Magnetars, the source term ρs is negative
for a repulsive mass density. If a gyroscope is placed at 45o on a table and
lets it go, the gyroscope falls. However, if the rotor is spinning, it is capable
of remaining aligned at this initial angular orientation. As the rotor speed
decays, the gyroscope starts to precess rotating in a circumferential
direction. When the rotation drops below a certain limit, the gyroscope falls
to the tabletop. The conventional wisdom suggests angular momentum
couples explain this effect. An alternative solution is that the rotation may
induce a repulsive gravitational source that levitates the gyroscope according

to this equation. Moreover, one could classify this as an ‘Inverse Coriolis
effect’. Another way of considering this is that a gravitational field would
repulse negative mass. Such a source can be considered as negative matter
[50]. One could argue that this phenomenon is also based upon creating anti-
gravity.
C-3. Jefimenko Gravitational Model and Variants

This involves an attractive force between two bodies as well as create
an angular momentum. The gravitational law [51-53] is not only a function
of the distance between the two bodies but also a consideration for the
relativity velocity function between the two bodies. A formulation of the
Jefimenko model involves:
𝐺 𝑚 𝑟𝑣̅ 𝑣2 𝑟 𝑣̅
𝑔̅ = − 3 3 [(𝑟̅ − ) (1 − ) + 𝑟̅ × [(𝑟̅ − )× … ]] ≈
𝑟 (1− 𝑟̅ ∙𝑣̅⁄ ) 𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐
𝑟𝑐
𝑚 𝑣2 2𝑟𝑣 2
𝑔̅ ≈ −𝐺 3 [(1 − 2 ) 𝑟̅𝑜 − 3 𝑣̅𝑜 ]. (6)
𝑟 2𝑐 3𝑐
Note that the last results involve initial location and velocity. These laws
are derived from using a Maxwell-type relationship where gravity is
analogous to electricity while co-gravity, K, is comparable to magnetism.
The last two laws in Table I are modifications to Jefimenko’s laws from the
author. The point in the first system of partial differential equations is to
obtain symmetry between the gravitational and co-gravitational fields.
Whereas Jefimenko considers gravitational currents, an additional law
considers that co-gravitational currents should also exist. The same holds for
the co-gravity source term yet to be defined. A discipline of interest would
be to examine the creation and experimental evidence of any of these
currents and sources. Here, force can be represented with: 𝐹̅ = 𝑚(𝑔̅ + 𝑣̅ ×
̅ /𝑐).
𝐾
The author implies in a previous paper [54] that angular momentum
could be transferred into linear momentum especially if nonlinear effects are
320 P. A. Murad
realized5; say for example, in Einstein’s field equations. Usually, these

problems are evaluated using a linearized or a vector version of the gravity
tensor. This means that only main diagonal terms exist and off-diagonal
terms are ignored. If an off-diagonal element does exist, effects from one
conservation equation would stream into another and the same would hold
for different space-time continuums.
Table 1. Different Gravitational Laws which cover a spectrum

of conditions of interest
Gravity Law Assumptions Gravitational Rule

Newtonian ∇ × 𝑔̅ = 0. 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇ ∙ 𝑔̅ = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠 , 𝑔⃑ = − ∇𝜙(𝑟) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2𝜙 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠
Gravitation 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔⃑ ≈ 1⁄𝑟 2 .
Four- 𝜙(𝑟) = 1 − 2 𝑚⁄𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑏𝑟 2
Derivative 2𝑏 𝑑 𝑔⃑ = − ∇𝜙(𝑟)
𝜙(𝑟) = 𝑔𝑜𝑜 = (1 − 6𝑏𝑐)1⁄2 − + 𝑐𝑟 + 𝑟 2.
theories 𝑟 3
Winterberg ∇ ∙ 𝑔⃑ = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠 = 2𝜔2 𝑔⃑ = − ∇𝜙(𝑟) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2𝜙 = −2 𝜔2
𝜔2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔⃑ ≈ 1⁄𝑟 2 .
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌𝑠 = − .
2𝜋𝐺
Jefimenko 𝜕𝐾̅ 1 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 1 𝜕𝐽𝑠̅ ∇×𝐽𝑠̅
𝛻 × 𝑔̅ = − ; 𝛻 ∙ 𝑔̅ = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠 ; 𝛻 ∙ 𝐾 ̅ = 0. − ∇2𝑔̅ = 4𝜋𝐺 [∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑠 + − ],
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 𝑐
gravity and co- 𝜕𝑡 1 𝜕2 𝐾
̅ ∇∙𝜌𝑠
4𝜋𝐺 1 𝜕𝑔̅ ̅ = 4𝜋𝐺 [
− ∇2 𝐾 ],
gravity. 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇ × 𝐾 ̅= − 𝐽̅ + . 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑐3
𝑐 2 𝑠 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡
Murad’s 𝜕𝐾̅ 4𝜋𝐺 1 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 1 𝜕𝐽𝑠̅ ∇×𝐽𝑐̅
𝛻 × 𝑔̅ = − − ̅
𝐽 ; 𝛻 ∙ 𝑔 ̅ = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑠 ; − ∇2𝑔̅ = 4𝜋𝐺 [∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑠 + − ],
𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 𝑐
Change of 1 𝜕𝑔̅
𝛻 ∙ 𝐾̅ = − 4𝜋𝐺 𝜌𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇ ×𝐾 ̅ = − 4𝜋𝐺 𝐽̅ + 2 . 1 𝜕2 𝐾 ̅
̅ = 4𝜋𝐺 [
− ∇2 𝐾
∇∙𝜌𝑐
−
1 𝜕𝐽𝑐̅
−
∇×𝐽𝑠̅
],
Jefimenko 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑠 𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑐 𝑐 3 𝜕𝑡 𝑐2
Murad’s 1 𝜕𝑔̅ 4𝜋𝛾𝐺 1 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 1 𝜕𝐽𝑔̅
𝛻 × 𝑔̅ = − + 𝐽̅ . − ∇2𝑔̅ = 4𝜋𝛾𝐺 [∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑠 + −
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡
gravity law 𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝑔
∇×𝐽𝑔̅
1 ]
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛻 ∙ 𝑔̅ = −4𝜋𝛾𝐺𝜌, where γ = . 𝑐
𝑢2
√1 − 2
𝑐
Obviously, Jefimenko’s notions are contrary to Newtonian gravitation,

which is considered only as an attractive force. Is there any semblance of
5
The notion is that rotational effects may create angular momentum as well as attractive forces to
influence gravity. If you were to look at a moving body in a rotating coordinate system where
the rotational rates are constant, the forces in a Cartesian coordinate system may depend upon
rotation or:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 (𝑉𝑥̇ + 𝑉𝑧 𝜔𝑦 − 𝑉𝑦 𝜔𝑧 )
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚 (𝑉𝑦̇ + 𝑉𝑥 𝜔𝑧 − 𝑉𝑧 𝜔𝑥 )
𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚 (𝑉𝑧̇ + 𝑉𝑦 𝜔𝑥 − 𝑉𝑥 𝜔𝑦 )
Where x, y, z are the coordinate locations and ω represents rotation about each of these axes. Thus,
rotation plus velocity can influence the force distributions in a trajectory.
proof that this is true? Two moons of Jupiter, Himalia and Elara are probably
recently captured asteroids that have not yet had sufficient time in orbit to
synchronize their period and rotation6. Himalia is the tenth known satellite
of Jupiter. As the brightest of Jupiter’s outer satellites, Himalia, was
captured by Cassini and resolved, for the first time, in a series of narrow-
angle images taken on December 19, 2000. It is likely that Himalia is not
spherical; it is believed to be an irregularly shaped asteroid.
Figure 7. a and b. Himalia and Elara, an interesting cosmological coincidence.
Elara is the twelfth known satellite of Jupiter. Very little is known about
Elara. Comparing these numbers, as the orbital period increases, the
rotational period increases. This may allow seeing the same side of the
asteroid from the Jupiter surface per Jefimenko’s initial claim that an
6
It is appreciated by the contribution by John Cole, formerly at NASA Marshall.
322 P. A. Murad
inhabitant will only see the same side of a major moon from a planet’s
surface and that gravity induces angular momentum that limits the rotation
of the moon.
Himalia is at a distance of 11,480,000 km from Jupiter’s surface and
rotates every 0.4 days but requires 250.6 days to complete a revolution
around Jupiter. So, an observer on Jupiter would certainly be exposed to all
sides of Himalia, and similarly with Elara. Elara is at a distance of
11,737,000 km from Jupiter’s surface and rotates every 0.5 days with an
orbital period of 259.6 days. Differences are due to orbital eccentricity for
Himalia of 0.1580 and the orbital eccentricity for Elara of 0.2072. Most of
the asteroids that have been closely observed seem to be rotating.
Unless the capture mechanism involved a collision, it is hard to know
how the angular momentum would change by the capture process. It is
possible that these two moons were rotating before they were captured and
maintained that rotation rate while being captured. After capture, tidal
effects, or whatever process that creates synchronization, would slowly
reduce the rotation rate by transferring angular momentum to Jupiter. Light
can carry angular momentum, so heat from tidal friction could radiate some
of the angular momenta into space. In other words, two satellites with almost
equal weight but different geometric shapes tend to orbit Jupiter at similar
distances and have similar rotation rates that imply Jupiter’s gravitation is
inducing angular momentum. This is more than coincidental.
C-4. Murad’s Gravitational Model

These models made attempts to create symmetry between gravity and
co-gravity. Jefimenko apparently could not eliminate co-gravitation as a
need to include the effects of the speed of light motion. The equations below
show that indeed this can be defined:
1 𝜕𝑔̅ 4𝜋𝛾𝐺
𝛻 × 𝑔̅ = − 𝑐 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑐
𝐽𝑔̅ .
1 (7)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛻 ∙ 𝑔̅ = −4𝜋𝛾𝐺𝜌, where γ = 2
.
√1−𝑢2
𝑐
Again, these quantities involve the need for gravitational currents and
sources. However, the final equation to be solved is:
1 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 1 𝜕𝐽𝑔̅ ∇×𝐽𝑔̅
− ∇2 𝑔̅ = 4𝜋𝛾𝐺 [∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑠 + − ] (8)
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 𝑐
This equation is rather clean and a simplified formulation that looks

promising to eliminate co-gravity.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
A. Gravitational Hyperbolic Partial Differential Equation Model
Einstein’s theory of relativity implies that the gravitational model would

satisfy wave equations, say such as:
1 𝜕2 𝑔̅
− ∇2 𝑔̅ = 4𝜋𝐺 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑠 (9)
c2 𝜕𝑡 2
We need to discuss this equation. If you look at the separation of

variables, the homogeneous equation provides some variables to represent a
function of time as well as the radial distance. We also need to recognize
these wave equations can have characteristic waves that converge and, it
may be possible, to coalesce these waves to create gravitational shocks [55],
which, using electric and magnetic fields coupled with boundary conditions,
would have implications for a propulsive system.
A-1. Transient Effects

Let us look into the two-body problem modified for separation of
variables:
324 P. A. Murad
𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2 𝜇
( −𝑟( ) ) = − 𝑇(𝑡),
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑟2
(10)
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 𝑑 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(𝑟 𝑑𝑡 2 + 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
(𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡 ) = 0. , ℎ = 𝑟 2 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) .
Here, there is no additional complexity for the angular momentum but

only the transient radial momentum effects. If we attempt to look at gravity
on a sphere, this would require solving:
1 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 1 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 2 𝜕𝑔̅
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
− ∇2 𝑔̅ = 4𝜋𝐺 𝛻𝜌 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
− [ 𝜕𝑟2 + 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
] = 4𝜋𝐺 𝛻𝜌 (11)
Let us embed a separation of variables [56-58] solution that includes a

specific Newtonian solution:
1
𝑔̅ = 𝑔̃ + 𝑔̂, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑔̅ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑟 [𝑅̅ (𝑟)𝑇(𝑡) + 𝑔̂(𝑟)] (12)
Then the solution for gravity, for say a gravity self-feeding law, may be
required to solve.
1 𝑟 1 𝑟
𝑔̂(𝑟) = 𝑟 {−4𝜋𝐺 ∫0 (𝑟 − 𝜉)𝜌(𝜉)𝑑𝜉 + 2𝑐 2 ∫0 (𝑟 − 𝜉)𝑔̂2 (𝜉)𝑑𝜉 + ⋯} (13)
The time term from Equation 10 and 12 may look like:
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 𝑡 + ∑(𝛽𝑗 sin 𝑐𝜆𝑗 𝑡 + 𝜖𝑗 cos 𝑐𝜆𝑗 𝑡 ) +

1
∑𝑛1(𝜇𝑗 sinh 𝑐𝜆𝑗 𝑡 + 𝜏𝑗 cosh 𝑐𝜆𝑗 𝑡 ). (14)
Here, λj represent eigenvalues, αo, α1, βj, εj, μj, τj are integration constants
defined by initial conditions. The issue is how Newtonian gravitation can be
correct without considering the time factors. The sinusoidal terms,
hyperbolic sine, and cosine terms are never observed. The reason for the
latter is that they most likely occur only early during gravitational creation,
say during the Big Bang or during a supernova as well as create either a
black hole or a neutron star. Moreover, the two functions asymptotically are
large values as an exponential function of time and may approach a line that
could cancel out the t term. One formulation may lead to:
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 𝑡 + 𝛼3 cosh(𝜆𝑡)(1 − tanh(𝜆𝑡)) + 𝛼4 cos(𝜔𝑡) +

𝛼5 sin(𝜔𝑡). (15)
This implies the hyperbolic terms at zero time would have some value
suggesting gravity may exist, and then slowly decay. Here this initial value
could be canceled out by the α1 term to compensate for this initial value
unless gravity always existed before the Big Bang. One may further
speculate when the Big Bang occurred, gravity may have expanded
exponentially and then simply vanished after energy and mass were all
consumed. Obviously, some of these terms may be provided only during the
Big Bang7 or as gravity is initiated. However, these transient terms in this
equation also imply several interesting features worth noting which may or
may not exist in situations other than the initial conditions. The coefficients
of the sinusoidal terms may be larger than those for the hyperbolic sinusoidal
terms.
B. Trojan Asteroids: Libration Points and Anti-Gravity
The presence of these transient terms may explain why there is such a
large variation in the Trojan Asteroids near the triangular Libration Points.
Euler discovered three collinear Libration Points. Historically Lagrange
discovered two other points while investigating the Trojan asteroids [59-65].
Based upon the length of the Sun and Jupiter, forming the point of an
equilateral triangle. The term “Trojan” originally referred to the “Trojan
asteroids” (Jupiter Trojans) named after characters from the Trojan War of
7
When dealing with these relations, the trend is toward finding an asymptotical solution that
gradually reaches some constant value. For the Big Bang, gravity may initially be formed as
an exponentially increasing value until sometime, say the force breaking down into electrical,
magnetic, nuclear forces. Gravity from its initial form may have decayed considerably over
time except in unusual events such as the creation of a supernova.
326 P. A. Murad
Greek mythology. By convention, the asteroids orbiting near the L4 point of

Jupiter are named after the Greek side of the war, whereas those orbiting
near the L5 of Jupiter are from the Trojan side. Jupiter Trojans have orbits at
L4 and L5 with radii varying a range between 5.05 and 5.35 AU from the Sun
(the mean semi-major axis is 5.2 ± 0.15 AU)8, and orbits are distributed in
curved regions around these two Lagrangian points. Each swarm stretches
about 26° along the orbit of Jupiter, amounting to a total distance of about
2.5 AU. Jupiter Trojans do not maintain a fixed separation from Jupiter.
They slowly vibrate around their respective equilibrium points, periodically
moving closer or further from Jupiter. There is also a collection of asteroids
near L3, which is considered an unstable Libration Point. The scatter at this
location is as bad as the scatter from the L4 and L5 points9 which are
supposedly stable.
Current Trojan asteroids are believed to hold between 160,000–240,000
asteroids with diameters larger than 2 km and about 600,000 with diameters
larger than 1 km. If the L5 swarm contains a comparable number of objects,
there is more than 1 million Jupiter Trojans 1 km in size or larger. The total
mass of the Jupiter Trojans is estimated to be low at 0.0001 of the mass of
Earth or one-fifth of the mass of the asteroid belt10. One would assume that
after eons, these asteroids would congeal and form planetoids. This does not
occur implying there may be anti-gravity acting between these asteroids.
8
This movement of the asteroids is significant. However, the eccentricity of Jupiter around the sun
is 0.0489, which one would incorrectly assume is near circular. Jupiter’s orbit distance from
the sun is 4.95 to 5.46 AU. This implies the need to account for pulsating Libration points
applicable to the analysis with a binary pulsar by the author.
9
The number of Jupiter Trojans observed in the L4 swarm is slightly larger than observed in L5.
However, because the brightest Jupiter Trojans show little variation in numbers between the
two populations, this disparity is probably due to an observational bias. However, some
models indicate the L4 swarm may be slightly more stable than the L5 swarm. This cannot be
mathematically determined.
10
. By contrast, the asteroid debris orbit between Mars and Jupiter if all summed up would be the
size of the planet Mars. Thus these Trojan asteroids are relatively light and should be strongly
influenced by the large celestial bodies.
Figure 8. The Trojan Asteroids. Estimates of the total number of Jupiter Trojans are
based on deep surveys of limited areas of the sky. The false-color picture gives a better
description of the Trojan asteroids near Jupiter’s orbit as well as the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter.
This motion for studying Libration Points based upon research on binary
pulsars by the author is an analysis called a ‘Pulsating Libration Point’ [65].
Here, the equations of motion are used in a phase-space representation:
𝐿𝑒𝑡: 𝑢 = 𝑥̇ , 𝑢̇ = 𝑥̈ ; 𝑣 = 𝑦̇ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣̇ = 𝑦̈ , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ

𝑢̇ − 2𝜔𝑣 − 𝜔2 𝑥 = − 𝑉𝑥 , (16)
𝑣̇ + 2𝜔𝑢 − 𝜔2 𝑦 = − 𝑉𝑦 .
This is an x-y Cartesian coordinate system where ω is rotation rate and

Vx and Vy are gravitational terms for the two primary bodies. These equations
of motion are rewritten as:
x   0 0  1 0   x 0 
   0  1   y 0 
d y   0 0      , d (17)
 or x A  x  F .
dt u    2 0 0  2  u  V x  dt
       
v   0    2  0  v  V y 
2
The eigenvalue is important where the three collinear and two triangular
points are strongly dependent upon the rotation rate which impacts the
328 P. A. Murad
centrifugal forces in a cyclic fashion. Eigenvalues depend primarily upon

the rotation rate. The solution to this problem is:
𝑡
𝑥̅ (𝑡) = 𝑥̅𝑜 𝑒 𝐴̿𝑡 − ∫𝑜 𝑒 𝐴̿(𝑡−𝜉) (𝐹̅ (𝜉) − 𝐹̅ (0))𝑑𝜉. (18)
However, the solution is modified because of repeating eigenvalues for

solving the equation:
𝑡
𝑥̅ (𝑡) = 𝑥̅𝑜 𝑒 𝐴̿𝑡 + 𝑥̅1 𝑡 𝑒 𝐴̿𝑡 − ∫𝑜 𝑒 𝐴̿(𝑡−𝜉) (𝐹̅ (𝜉) − 𝐹̅ (0))𝑑𝜉. (19)
The middle term is problematic. This, in turn, would impact stability. If

the rotation is too high for say, a binary star, the debris at the Libration points
may break-away from the system. However, the equation satisfies the matrix
differential equation if x1 uses eigenvectors11.
But the problem is incomplete because Jupiter travels with considerable
radial motion. The dimensional constant l, the distance between Jupiter and
the Sun, is now dependent upon time. These equations are:
𝑥 = 𝜉𝑙, 𝑥̇ = 𝜉̇ 𝑙 + 𝜉𝑙 ,̇ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̈ = 𝜉̈ 𝑙 + 2𝜉̇ 𝑙 + 𝜉𝑙 ̈ ,

(20)
𝑦 = 𝜂𝑙, 𝑦̇ = 𝜂̇ 𝑙 + 𝜂𝑙 ,̇ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦̈ = 𝜂̈ 𝑙 + 2𝜂̇ 𝑙 ̇ + 𝜂𝑙 ̈ .
Substituting these terms into the original set of equations becomes:
𝑙 ̇ 𝑙 ̈
(𝜉̈ − 2𝜂̇ − 𝜉) + 2 𝑙 (𝜉̇ − 𝜂) + 𝑙 𝜉 = −𝑉𝜉 ,
𝑙 ̇ 𝑙 ̈ (21)
(𝜂̈ + 2𝜉̇ − 𝜂) + 2 𝑙 (𝜂̇ + 𝜉) + 𝑙 𝜂 = −𝑉𝜂 .
One may ask the value of the derivatives of l. Let us treat with a binary
pulsar where both bodies have the same mass. These values are:
11
Eigenvectors are required because of repeating Eigenvalues:
1 𝑖 −1 1 𝑖 −1
𝑣1 = (− , − , −𝑖, 1) , 𝑣2 = (− , + , +𝑖, 1) Basically, they should have:
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
𝐴̿𝑡
𝑥̅1 𝑡 𝑒 = 0. with a vector operating on a matrix to satisfy the equality. This satisfies initial
conditions as well.
Figure 9. A representation for binary stars showing the trajectories starting at initial
conditions (five-pointed stars) moving to the 180 degrees Position (four-pointed stars)
relative to the primaries at F2 and F3. Despite the significant trajectory motion, there is
no motion at L1 or the barycenter at F1. With this amount of oscillation, or l is a
function of time, four of the Libration Points will escape from this universe.
2 𝑝̃ 𝑙̇ 2𝜀 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑙= (1−𝜀 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)
, with derivatives: 𝑙 = − (1− 𝜀 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)
;
𝒍̈ 𝟒 𝜺𝟐 𝒍̇(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽−̇ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽)
𝒍
= 𝒍 (𝟏− 𝜺𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽)
. (22)
Obviously, if the orbits are circular, ε is zero, these terms vanish and l is
constant. The sign also changes at various locations as well. These values
330 P. A. Murad
can significantly destroy stable locations due to either high rotational rates
or considerable eccentricity values12.
Let us treat the problem with derived eigenvalues13. These additional
terms due to pulsation may incorrectly appear as a gravitational anomaly.
This is an interesting point [66]. For example, many planets and binary
pulsars such as 1913+16 [19] have unusual rotation about the primary orbits.
This may be due to an increase as a function of time. Here the latter example
indicates the unusual trajectory motion is caused by the loss of energy in the
neutron star generating gravitational waves. Note also these time functions
may explain the scatter of the asteroids at the triangular Libration Points.
Motion is dominated by initial energy levels to define specific trajectories
of the asteroids.
The issue is how to relate time to spatial coordinates and especially
angular changes. This is something which will not happen in the current time
period14. Furthermore, transient terms suggest asteroids or other bodies near
a Libration Point will be like a pot of boiling water always changing and
altering energy. This effect may incorrectly be considered as a gravitational
anomaly
12
For this analysis, stable points for binary pulsars indicate stability at L1, the barycenter. This
would include PSR B1257+12, PSR B1620-26, and J0337+1715 which appear to be three
planets, one of which is not much heavier than the Moon. These are large bodies and should
satisfy the results previously discussed. If this third object is collinear with the primaries, this
would become an experimental validation for this rationale about Murad stars. Obviously
finding clear experimental proof is a worthwhile continuing activity to gain further insights
into these possibilities.
13
The pulsating solution to these equations using WOLFRAM Alpha suggests eigenvalues are
transient with l:
𝑙 ̇2 𝑙̈ 𝑙̇ 𝑙 ̇2 𝑙̈ 𝑙̇ 𝑙 ̇2 𝑙̈ 𝑙̇ 𝑙 ̇2 𝑙̈
𝜆1 = −√ 2 − + − 𝑖𝜔, 𝜆2 = +√ 2 − + − 𝑖𝜔, 𝜆3 = −√ 2 − + + 𝑖𝜔, 𝜆4 = +√ 2 − +
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑙̇
+ 𝑖𝜔.
𝑙
If l is a constant, these eigenvalues are similar to the previous results and the trajectories are
sinusoidal. If l is a function of time, the results are exponentially increasing or dampening as
a function of time. These trajectories will become unstable and leave the system.
14
The only point is a comment made by Kozyrev who said the sun is not a thermonuclear fusion
device because it should possess a higher surface temperature. When asked, what then is a
star? His response was: a star is a machine that converts the space-time continuum into
energy! Mass converting into energy, but how can we relate time to either angular momentum,
energy or for that matter, mass? This is beyond the realm of our technology.
Ed. Note: See Dr. Ludwig’s chapter, “Nikolai Kozyrev, His Theory of Time and The True
Position of Stars” elsewhere in this book.
C. Relativistic Effects
Anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury of 42.98” cy−1 (a change

of its orbit by 42.98 arc seconds in a century) since it is nowadays fully
included in the state-of-the-art models of all of the modern ephemerides.
Instead, if real, it would be due to some unmodeled dynamical effects which,
in principle, could potentially signal a breakthrough with the currently
accepted laws of gravitation. The relativistic dynamical models for the
modern ephemerides, for example, Mercury, are not complete, not to say of
the other major bodies of the Solar system, which causes the Lense-Thirring
effect. This effect would be comparable to the action of a hypothetical ring
of undetected moonlets in its neighborhood as a possible solution using
conventional gravitational physics regarding the gravi-tational anomalies of
Uranus.
C-1. Relativistic Mechanics

Relativistic effects [67-72] can vary the sense of time dilation and
changes in length. Such changes depend upon the velocity. Let our probe
move at a stationary orbit about the Earth. The probe’s trajectory can be
given for a geodesic [73] in:
𝑑2 𝑥 𝛼 𝛽
𝛼 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝛾
+ Γ𝛽𝛾 = 0.
𝑑𝜏 2 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
(23)
𝑑2 𝑢 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
And: 𝑑𝜃2 + 𝑢 = ℎ2
+ 3 𝑐 2 𝑢2 = 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢2 .
where τ is the proper time, x is a linear measure, and u= 1/x. Note the value
of β is basically from the Theory of Relativity and is small which is why this
effect is not usually considered regarding short-term celestial mechanics.
However, do we fully understand the impact of this value with respect to a
given trajectory? For example, an additional term at the RHS can be
considered as an anomalous gravity? Let us consider this point.
332 P. A. Murad
C-2. Solution Rationale

Using relativity, the integral solution equation for the above ordinary
differential equation is:
𝛼
𝑢(𝜃) = 𝐶1 cos(𝜃 − 𝜃𝑜 ) + 𝛼𝐾(𝜃, 𝜃) − 𝛽 ∫𝑜 𝐾(𝜃, 𝜉)𝑢2 (𝜉)𝑑𝜉 =
(24)
𝛼
𝜁(𝜃, 𝜃) − 𝛽 ∫𝑜 𝐾(𝜃, 𝜉)𝑢2 (𝜉)𝑑𝜉.
This is an inhomogeneous Fredholm equation or a Volterra integral

equation. Because of the squared term for the independent variable and the
coupling between these terms, this is nonlinear. The first term is a previously
determined orbit trajectory solution without relativity. Here, we are
assuming this tends to minimize the coupling impact with the integral
equation.
Normally in using an iterative process, this means if it exists for
generating a series, the absolute magnitude of the kernel is basically less
than the value of unity and with numerous Kn terms, this becomes
insignificant. There are some interesting points for consideration for this
mathematical solution15.The solution to this problem is found:
𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥,𝑠)𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥, 𝑠)𝑢2 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑢(𝑥) = 1+2𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥,𝑠)𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
. (25)
Additional solutions16 can be extended by this methodology. The

question of interest is that the nonlinear term due to relativity could be
incorporated possibly as a gravitational anomaly converging to include
Pioneer data.
15
. For example, the basic solution to the linear integral equation looks like:𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) +
𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥,𝑠)𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥, 𝑠)𝑢(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑢(𝑥) = .
1−𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥,𝑠)𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
16
This can be extended most likely as follows:
𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥, 𝑠)𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥, 𝑠)𝑢 𝑛 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑢(𝑥) = .
1 + (−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜆 ∫ 𝐾(𝑥, 𝑠)𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
D. An Electromagnetic and a Torsion Model
If the electric and magnetic fields were wave equations, the Poynting
field should also be a wave equation because of the intimate relationship
between these two fields. A Poynting law by using Maxwell’s equations, can
derive a Poynting Conservation Law in reference [74-75]. This law is a wave
equation that includes the influence of a spin factor with the term that is the
curl of the curl term:
1 𝜕2 𝑆̅
𝜇𝑜 [ − ∇2 𝑆̅] = 𝜇𝑜 ∇ × ∇ × 𝑆̅ − 2 ∇ × 𝐵̅ × ∇ × 𝐸̅
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
(26)
1 𝜕 1 𝜕
−4𝜋 [− 𝑐 𝜕𝑡 (𝜌𝑒 ∙ 𝐸̅ + 𝜌𝑚 ∙ 𝐵̅) + (𝐽 ̅
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝑒
× 𝐵̅ + 𝐸̅ × 𝐽𝑚
̅ ) − ∇(𝐽𝑒̅ ∙ 𝐸̅ +
̅ ∙ 𝐵̅)]
𝐽𝑚
The capital words represent vectors. The Poynting field is S, the electric
field is E, B is the magnetic field, J values represent currents and ρ are the
source terms. The subscripts e stand for electric field and m is the magnetic
field. The use of magnetic current is based on the flow of electrons in the
Van Allen belts where the movement is due to the strength of the Earth’s
magnetic field which is far larger than the electric field. During this process,
a Cauchy-Riemann like process demonstrated that a second field exists. This
field could be an unknown torsion field or represent a localized gravitational
field. The equation is:
1 𝜕2 𝑉 ̅ 4𝜋 𝜕
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
− ∇2 𝑉̅ = ∇ × ∇ × 𝑉̅ + (𝐽 ̅
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝑒
∙ 𝐸̅ + 𝐽𝑚
̅ ∙ 𝐵̅)
2 𝜕 𝑟
−4𝜋∇ ∙ [(𝐽𝑒̅ × 𝐵̅ + 𝐸̅ × 𝐽𝑚
̅ ) − (𝜌𝑒 ∙ 𝐸̅ + 𝜌𝑚 ∙ 𝐵̅)] − ∫ (∇ × 𝐵̅ ×
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝑜
∇ × 𝐸̅ ) ∙ 𝑑𝑟̅ . (27)
Note that this term also involves spin and that these terms also depend
upon electric and magnetic sources and currents. Are these curl terms and
rotation valid?
334 P. A. Murad
There is a theoretical consideration as well about spin or rotation. In

1913, Dr. Eli Cartan was the first to clearly demonstrate that the “fabric”
(flow) of space and time in Einstein’s general theory of relativity not only
“curved”, but it also possessed a spinning or spiraling movement within
itself known as “torsion.” Moreover, it is generally accepted that the space
surrounding the Earth and perhaps the entire Galaxy has “right-handed
spin,” meaning that energy will be influenced to spin clockwise as it travels
through the physical vacuum.
Kozyrev [76-88], a Russian astrophysicist, theorized about his “direct
knowledge” that spiraling energy was the true nature and manifestation of
“time”, more than just a simple function for counting duration. Kozyrev
urges time as something tangible and identifiable in the Universe as
ultimately nothing but pure spiraling movement similar to the orbital
patterns of celestial bodies. From his illuminated observations in the prison
camp, Kozyrev considered lifeforms might draw off of an unseen, spiraling
source of energy. Terms such as “torsion fields” and/or “torsion waves”
where torsion means spinning or twisting, would describe the spiraling flow
of “time energy” that Kozyrev discovered. “Torsion waves” continually
reminds us of their spiraling nature.
Research of Shipov, Terletskiy, and other Russian theorists have directly
associated the energy of torsion fields with the energy of gravity, thus
leading to the term “gravispin energy” and the science of “gravispinorics.”
In these new theories, gravity and spin are coupled similarly as electrostatics
and magnetism join to form the electromagnetic wave. Torsion waves can
travel in any direction absorbed into the downward flow of a gravitational
field. Thus, the pressure of torsion waves would be a slight spiraling
movement that is joined by gravity.
Kozyrev [88] concluded this was caused by a “Coriolis-like effect,”
where an object will show a rotational movement as it is dropped towards
the surface of the Earth due to the subtle spiraling pressure of torsion
imparted to the flow of aether (gravity) as it rushes into the earth.
The only explanation for this effect is that both objects are drawing
energy into themselves from an unseen source, and a rotating ball is thus
“soaking up” more of this energy than its counterpart – energy that would
normally exist as gravity, moving down into the earth. With the addition of
torsion-field research, we can see that a spinning ball was able to harness
naturally spiraling torsion waves in its environment, which gave it an
additional supply of energy. Jefimenko examined similar effects.
E. A Consolidating Model
The approach is to create a new gravitational model [32] that resembles:
1 𝜕2 𝑔̅ 1 𝜕𝐽𝑔̅ 𝛻×𝐽𝑔̅
− ∇2 𝑔̅ − ∇ × ∇ × 𝑔̅ = 4𝜋𝛾𝐺 [𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑠 + − ] (28)
c2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 𝑐
This is not Einsteinian because of the addition of gravitational vorticity

that accounts for rotation. Considering the influence of rotation, there may
be an avenue for considering this effect. As mentioned, one could use
Jefimenko, Winterberg, or Kozyrev. This approach could be to include
rotation within a Lagrangian and incorporate this into Einstein’s field
equation. There could be a constant or a different sign for the curl term.
Interesting, this could increase gravitation that the need for dark matter
disappears.
Part of the solution would include, in terms of a perturbation variable as:
1 1 𝜕2 𝑔̃
𝑔̅ = 𝑔̃ + ∇ ∙ [ + 𝛼𝑟] 𝑟̂ where: − ∇2 𝑔̃ − ∇ × ∇ × 𝑔̃ =
𝑟 c2 𝜕𝑡 2
(29)
1 𝜕𝐽𝑔̅ 𝛻×𝐽𝑔̅
4𝜋𝛾𝐺 [𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑠 + 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡
− 𝑐
]
Here, α is close to 8.74 ± 1.33 × 10-8 cm s-2 from Pioneer and the
perturbative vector satisfies additional terms that may involve
electromagnetic variables.
336 P. A. Murad
F. AN Experimental Test
As previously mentioned, there is a constant gravitational acceleration

after a given distance from the sun. To disprove that the acceleration does
not exist, use a spacecraft with a thrust for an acceleration that compensates
for this value resulting in a spacecraft that will move at a constant velocity.
If this is the case, the implication is that the gravity model is flawed and
there may be no need for dark matter.
a b c
Figure 10. a, b, c. Brandenburg’s Microwave Electro-Thermal (MET) Thruster may be

a candidate.
CONCLUSION
The existence of some gravitational anomalies may be issued because

of incomplete definition for a methodology. One may ignore relativistic
motion with the possibility that additional gravity may appear. This is also
true about looking into Libration points where dimensionality may provide
false conclusions. However, there is evidence that indicates gravity at large
distances does not literally vanish but may reach a constant value to suggest
there is no need for dark matter. Likewise, the evidence, for example with
two moons of Jupiter, appears to be an angular momentum contribution with

gravity. This may point to a new equation which incorporates spinning
effects as a gravitational law. Furthermore, some possibility was identified
to examine electromagnetic effects that may create local gravitational fields.
There is another point about gravitational law wave partial differential
equations. Mathematically, characteristics can converge similar to fluid
dynamics where gravity waves could coalesce into gravitational shocks. If
controlled by mass, electric and magnetic fields and sources. Such shocks
could be used for propulsion aspects.
There are several additional issues regarding mechanisms or physical
phenomenon that have propulsion implications. Three separate issues can
include:
 Conversion of angular momentum into linear momentum,

 The possibility of spinning Black Hole jets creating repulsive
gravitation, and
 Dynamics for the formation of pulsars.
All of these phenomena can have propulsion implications as well as, in

some cases, they may stretch the conventional wisdom requiring a different
perspective and understanding. Electromagnetic effects are interesting
contributions to this problem. Clearly, gravity still requires a different
understanding if we intend to go to the far-abroad region of the cosmos.
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Chapter 12
PROTON AND ELECTRON PRODUCTION

AND DESTRUCTION AS SOURCES OF ENERGY
Ray Fleming*
Austin Applied Research Laboratory, Austin, Texas
ABSTRACT
Protons and electrons exist without an equal amount of antimatter. So

unless they have existed for infinity, they can be produced. And assuming
the principle of conservation of energy is always valid, they can be
produced without requiring an external source of energy. The electrical
neutrality of the universe as a whole tells us that protons and electrons are
produced in equal numbers to many decimal places, making it highly likely
that they are produced together. Any experiment that produces protons and
electrons will at a minimum produce hydrogen gas and electrical current
that can be used as sources of energy. It needs to be a high priority for
physicists to perform experiments designed to produce protons and
electrons and measure the energy that is produced in the process. Then it
may be possible for that process to be reversed and energy produced from
the destruction of protons and electrons.
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: rayrfleming@gmail.com.
348 Ray Fleming
Keywords: particles, particle production, quantum field theory, zero-point

energy, fusion, plasma, vacuum arc discharge, glow discharge
PARTICLE PRODUCTION AND ENERGY CONSERVATION
All stable matter in the universe is in the form of protons, electrons, and
neutrons. So that begs the question; how were they produced? Since
neutrons are produced when an electron and proton combine, and neutrons
decay to a proton and electron, we can simplify the question to either how
are protons and electrons produced, or alternatively, how are neutrons
produced?1 In this chapter the question of how protons and electrons are
produced is considered first, but the second possibility must be kept in mind.
It can also be assumed throughout this chapter that any discussion of proton
and electron production is not referring to pair production where equal
amounts of antimatter are produced, but rather where protons and electrons
are produced without antimatter.
The alternative to protons and electrons being produced is to assume that
they have existed for eternity. While this is certainly a position someone
could chose to take given the minimal experimental evidence for proton and
electron production, it is not scientifically interesting as it is not testable.
The testable hypothesis is that proton and electrons are produced in some
way that needs to be discovered. Most physicists and non-physicists alike
have the theoretical bias that protons and electrons either were or are
produced, so people should be interested in solving the problem of how they
are produced.
Taking the position that they were produced and we cannot duplicate
how they were produced, while a valid viewpoint, is also not testable. It also
goes against standard precepts of physics that no place or time is special with
respect to other places or times. In other words, the supposition is that the
laws of nature are the same regardless of position in the universe or the time.
1
Ed. Note: The physical process is known as “electron capture,” and the full reaction is p + e− →
n +νe. The extra particle in the final state represented by νe (nu) is a neutrino.
Proton and Electron Production and Destruction … 349
While many hypothetical cosmologies allow for the universe to evolve, there
should not be major changes to the natural laws of the universe that allow
proton and electron production at one place and time but not at any other
place and time. This is like the hypothesis that the conditions for the
production of life, out of the entire universe, only occurred on Earth. An
assumption of that type is not scientific or rational.
The most popular theory of proton and electron production is that it
occurred during a big bang that started everything. Under the big bang model
there was initially nothing and then there was a burst of energy and that
energy led to particle formation. But the big bang model has never actually
explained how protons and electrons formed without antimatter. This
highlights a problem with cosmological theories in general. Until we know
how to produce protons and electrons, cosmological theories are only a
guess. Once we know how protons and electrons are produced, we will have
a much better understanding of how the universe evolves, or not, over time.
And if we understand if or how protons and electrons are destroyed, we will
know even more about cosmology.
The big bang model has a conservation of energy problem because it
starts with nothing and then has everything. Normally, if a hypothesis
violates the principle of conservation of energy, that is the end of the
hypothesis. But in the case of the big bang model, believers in it do not see
this as a problem. That points to a fundamental problem with the principle
of conservation of energy. Either it is correct and the energy of the universe
has existed for infinity, and will also exist for an infinite time into the future.
Or, the principle of conservation of energy is incorrect and it is actually
possible to make particulate matter from nothing.
That last problem is probably why nobody is researching ways to
produce protons and electrons. It is believed by many that any process that
produces protons and electrons must violate the principle of conservation of
energy. It is difficult to get funding to perform an experiment that violates
conservation of energy, never mind that big bang model believers already
believe that all the particulate matter in the universe came about in violation
of that principle. Given the importance of the principle of conservation of
energy to all aspects of physics, it is far better if the principle holds and is
350 Ray Fleming
never violated, even if that means that some form of energy has existed for
eternity. Without conservation of energy all physics is suspect.
The energy problem is solved by including the quantum field of standard
model quantum field theory in our theory of the universe. Max Planck found
that no system can achieve zero energy as there is a minimum energy in all
systems [1][2]. Hendrik Lorentz was perhaps the first to acknowledge that
Planck’s resonators could be the substance that fills all space as he
mentioned it during his 1906 lectures at Columbia University [2]. Over more
than a century, evidence has grown showing that this type of quantum field
exists. Space can never be empty; it is always filled with zero-point energy.
It is the zero-point energy that allows the mass of particles to form without
needing an external source of energy.
If the principle of conservation of energy holds and the universe has
existed for infinity, proton and electron production leads to another problem.
Such a universe would become saturated with protons and electrons unless
there was also a mechanism which destroys protons and electrons leading to
an equilibrium. Presently, protons and electrons are not known to decay or
to be destroyed.2 They can only merge to form neutrons. However, if there
is a way to destroy protons and electrons it will produce a tremendous
amount of energy. So if we can understand the destruction process and
design a reactor that destroys protons and electrons in a well-regulated
manner, we will have an unlimited source of energy.
THE QUANTUM FIELD
We know that the quantum field, popularly known as the zero-point

field, exists from essential physics such as the existence of electric and
2
Ed. Note: The estimated predicted lifetimes for a proton or electron are in a similar ballpark,
from the Standard Model, and exceed the lifetime of the universe, which gives them both a
property of being “eternal” for all practical purposes. The proton, according to grand
unification models, might decay with a half-life of about 1032 years. The electron, on the other
hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle
with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate charge conservation. The
experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is 6.6 × 1028 years, at a 90%
confidence level.
magnetic fields and the associated constants, as well as the necessity for
there to be a medium for light and particle waves and for forces to be
transmitted through space. The Casimir effect perhaps tells us the most about
the quantum field because it is due to van der Waals forces that occur
between electrical dipoles [4]. That means the quantum field contains
dipoles. Dipoles are also needed for the formation of electric and magnetic
fields as they polarize to form electric fields and rotate to form magnetic
fields. The most basic example of a quantum dipole is a quantum electron-
positron pair. In most literature these are called “virtual” particles, but since
the word virtual implies they are not real, it is a poor term for them. Quantum
fluctuations are real. So they are referred to as quantum particle pairs or
quantum fluctuations in this chapter. It is also important to note that quantum
fluctuations are also massless.
Each quantum fluctuation has energy (E) that is equal to Planck’s
constant (h) times its frequency (f), E = hf. The higher the frequency, the
smaller the wavelength, and the greater the energy. The smallest dimension
where we feel confident that the normal rules of physics apply is the Planck
length which is approximately 10-35 meters. Wheeler and Misner calculated
the energy density of the quantum field in mass-energy units as 1094 grams
per cubic centimeter assuming the Planck length is an upper energy limit [5].
If there is no upper limit, the zero-point energy in any volume of space is
infinite. This compares to the calculated mass-energy in the entire visible
universe of approximately 1056 grams [6]. There is much more zero-point
energy than stable particulate matter energy.
At the same time, quantum fluctuations are not manufactured someplace
by elves who stamp a different frequency on each one. Quantum fluctuations
get their frequency, wavelength, and energy by interacting with adjacent
quantum fluctuations. In effect, the energy of each quantum fluctuation is
due to the energy of the other quantum fluctuations pushing against it. That
means we can think of the quantum field as being in an equilibrium condition
with zero net energy. In that way the zero-point field, and thus the universe,
simultaneously has zero and infinite energy.
The particle pair quantum model of standard quantum field theory is
important to proton and electron production. Since quantum fluctuations
352 Ray Fleming
behave like dipoles, they are described as pairs of particles with positive and
negative electric charge. To make the net properties of a particle pair add to
zero, quantum fluctuations are treated as matter-antimatter particle pairs.
The best-known example is the quantum electron-positron pair. But
quantum particle pairs can conceivably be any pair of particles that really
exist. Given that protons are the only other particle that is not known to
decay naturally, there must be quantum proton-antiproton pairs as well. So
not only does the quantum field have the energy we need for proton and
electron production, it already has a form of protons and electrons ready to
be converted into the stable protons and electrons.
MASS AND ZERO-POINT ENERGY
Protons are known to have a physical radius called its charge radius.
This radius has been determined during scattering experiments using light
and particles. Feynman recognized that protons scatter like they are filled
with many small particles he called partons as a way to explain the way that
protons scatter [7]. Under the standard model his partons are thought to be
quantum fluctuations. By combining these two concepts we can understand
that protons have a spherical structure made of quantum fluctuations at their
charge radius [8]. Their structure must also scatter quantum fluctuations, so
a proton displaces quantum fluctuations and the zero-point energy that
would have been there if the proton was not present.
While electrons are often treated as point particles, in order for them to
have spin, angular momentum, magnetic moment, and mass they must have
physical dimensions [8]. Electron magnetic moment and mass are calculated
based on the electron’s Compton wavelength. Electrons are also known to
have degeneracy pressure that prevents two electrons from occupying the
same place [9][10][11]. It is electron degeneracy pressure that makes objects
seem solid. It also means that electrons have physical structure that can
scatter and displace quantum fluctuations.
When Dirac was faced with two solutions of mec2 and -mec2 to the
equation that bears his name, he was puzzled by the idea of negative mass.
Negative mass is not known to exist. In standard notation me is the mass of
the electron and c is the speed of light. The negative solution came to be
known as the positron and the negative solution problem is largely ignored.
Dirac speculated, however, that both electrons and positrons have positive
mass-energy due to the energy needed to push against the quantum field in
order to retain its size and location [12].
Using Dirac’s idea, we can find out how much zero-point energy protons
and electrons displace. It turns out a spherical structure the size of the
proton’s charge radius displaces the zero-point energy equal to the proton’s
mass-energy [13]. Similarly, a spherical structure with a diameter equal to
an electron’s Compton wavelength displaces zero-point energy equal to the
electrons’ mass-energy [13]. Protons and electrons must obviously displace
quantum fluctuations and their associated zero-point energy, so this is a real
phenomenon. It is certainly no accident that the zero-point energy they
displace is equal to their mass-energy, so it must be the origin of their mass-
energy. Also note that since neutrons are approximately the same size as
protons, their mass-energy also equals the zero-point energy they displace.
This means that the total energy in free space with only zero-point
energy present is equal to the total energy in space when electrons, protons,
and neutrons are also present. So with the quantum field always being
present, no outside source of energy is ever needed to account for the mass-
energy of electrons or protons during their production. This eliminates the
conservation of energy problem. It is only necessary for the proper
conditions to exist, whatever they may be, for proton and electron production
to occur.3 Note as an aside, the mass-energy of all the unstable particles and
resonances does not arise in this way. Their mass-energy is due to electrons
3
Ed. Note: See “The Decay of the Vacuum” by Lewis P. Fulcher, et al., Scientific American, Dec.
1979, proves the high voltage amount needed to cause particle production from the vacuum.
Also, “Some new results concerning the vacuum in Dirac’s hole theory” by Dan Solomon,
Physica Scripta, 74 (2006), 117-122, uses Dirac equation and quantum field theory to prove
that energy can be extracted from the vacuum through an applied electric field of sufficient
strength.
354 Ray Fleming
and protons moving at relativistic velocities and experiencing relativistic

increases in mass-energy [14].
PRIMAL AND SECONDARY PRODUCTION
There are two basic conditions under which proton and electron
production can occur. The first that we can call primal production, must
occur in space that is devoid of all stable matter. In that case, the particles
form directly from the quantum field. The other type that we can call
secondary production can occur when matter is present. When matter is
present, conditions such as voltage, temperature, and pressure can be
modified. This can make secondary particle production much more efficient
than primal production.
Primal production, while scientifically interesting, will never be useful
as an energy source as the rate of production must be extremely small. If the
rate were not small, we would have observed primal production already.
Perhaps we even have, but rejected the idea since the evidence was not
overwhelming. In any case, it would be interesting to perform experiments
to see if we can actually see protons and electrons pop into existence out of
the quantum field. We can also come up with theories to speculate about
how that might happen, hoping that an experiment may one day validate the
theory.
Secondary production is what we need to discover for a potential energy
source. An important example of what we should be looking for is found in
Clarence Skinner’s 1905 paper from Physical Review titled “The Evolution
of Hydrogen from the Cathode and its Adsorption by the Anode in Gases.”
Skinner found that hydrogen evolved from a silver anode in an arc discharge
tube [15]. He was very careful to ensure that the anode and tube were free
of hydrogen. His experiment has been written off as experimental error for
over a century, but his result is a perfect place to start in our endeavor to
learn how to manufacture hydrogen. This and other experiments are
discussed in a later section.
PRODUCED TOGETHER
An important factor is that due to the electrical neutrality of the universe

and other factors, protons and electrons must be produced together in the
same interaction. Gravity is approximately 36 orders of magnitude weaker
than the electric force, so if there were an unequal number of electrons and
protons, even at the 10-35 level, and the Sun and planets all had the same
electric charge, the planets would have spiraled away from the Sun long ago.
And if the Sun was the opposite charge from a planet by even a small
amount, the planet would have spiraled into the Sun. This tells us protons
and electrons must be produced in equal numbers to within any accuracy we
can conceivably measure.
In order for two different particles to be produced separately at the same
rate, they need to be identical in most or perhaps all respects. So under the
quark model of protons, it would be impossible for protons to be produced
separately from electrons yet at exactly the same rate. Even if protons and
electrons have exactly the same type of structure, the difference in size and
mass means that it is unlikely they would be produced separately at the same
rate.
This requirement that electrons and protons be produced together limits
and simplifies the theoretical models we can consider. And yet ultimately,
we must have a successful experiment to prove the validity of any particle
production theory.
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
Historical it was thought that stars formed as relatively cold gas and dust
that was pulled together by gravity. We now know that it is not so simple as
stars and galaxies form along plasma filaments. This means that plasma
physics is possibly as much of a driving force as gravity. Stars appear in Z-
pinch zones of plasma filaments where the filament diameter is much
smaller than other parts of a filament, and consequently the voltage, current,
356 Ray Fleming
and temperatures are much higher. In a plasma filament model of star

formation, protons and electrons are thought to be carried into the pinch zone
by plasma currents. However, with our Sun we know that the solar wind
reduces the mass of the Sun and pushes matter in space away from it. So
once a star is hot enough that it emits a solar wind, it can no longer build up
mass through plasma currents or gravitational contraction of gas and dust.
Skinner’s experiment hints at another possibility, since the conditions in
a plasma Z-pinch are similar to those in the plasma of an arc discharge tube.
So if his experiments were correctly interpreted to show hydrogen
production, stars can be grown in plasma filament Z-pinch zones due to local
production of protons and electrons. Given that plasma filaments of all sizes
appear everywhere in the universe, proton and electron production could be
happening everywhere in plasma filament pinch zones throughout
interstellar space. If true, that would seriously change our understanding of
the cosmology of the universe.
Main sequence stars are thought to grow in size during their lives as they
maintain a balance between the release of fusion energy causing them to
expand and gravitational attraction keeping the star together. As greater
amounts of energy are released over time, stars grow in size. Near the end
of star life, they can become giant stars. This growth is thought to be pressure
related with the mass staying relatively constant except for the slow loss of
mass due to the solar wind. But if stars are able to add mass at a slow but
steady rate due to proton and electron production, that could explain some,
or perhaps most of their growth during the early and middle parts of main
sequence star life.
The maximum mass of stars would be limited under a purely
gravitational model as they should stop growing once the solar wind starts.
Solar wind would disrupt growth by plasma currents as well, so maximum
stellar mass would still be limited in a plasma filament model of star growth.
The simplest way to get around the mass limitations due to solar wind is
through proton and electron production. In that case, the efficiency of proton
and electron production in a particular star would ultimately determine the
end mass of that star.
Another issue is proton and electron destruction, which must occur in an

eternally existing universe in which proton and electron production occurs.
If a star reaches a state where proton and electron annihilation begins, a
tremendous amount of energy will be released. This would likely cause large
explosions on the scale of supernova sized events. If sustained annihilation
occurred it would make an object very bright. The idea of very bright objects
brings quasars to mind. And, if an object oscillated between annihilation and
non-annihilation it would pulse in a substantial way, possibly from quasar-
like brightness to something much less bright. We should look for objects
that might display these extreme conditions that could be associated with
proton and electron destruction. Of course, the most obvious locale where
proton and electron destruction may occur is inside black holes. But since
black holes are not directly observable, we would have to look for unusual
nebula, jets, or other bright objects in association with a black hole as
indications of proton and electron annihilation.
SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTS
Since protons and electrons are obviously not produced very rapidly in
low energy environments, experiments must be conducted in more extreme
environments to see if we can learn to produce them. This will likely require
high-voltages and/or high currents to produce high temperature and pressure
plasmas. These types of plasma regimes are notoriously difficult to work
with, control, and stabilize. They are also extremely difficult to measure.
Consequently, it is no great surprise that there are already reports of
anomalous energy from plasma and other high-energy experiments of
various types. Existing reports of anomalous energy should be evaluated as
potential cases of proton and electron production, and interesting
experiments should be repeated.
Here is a short list of suggested experiments where proton and electron
production may occur and there are certainly other possibilities worth
considering.
358 Ray Fleming
A. Repeat the Skinner experiment

B. Magnetically or inertially confined plasma
C. SAFIRE project style setup [16]
D. Alternating current vacuum arc discharge
E. Pulsed glow discharge
Repeat the Skinner Experiment
The first and most obvious experiment is to attempt to replicate

Skinner’s experiment. The discharge tube he used was 3 centimeters in
diameter and about 20 centimeters long. It had a rotating tray with 10
different electrode materials, but it would be better to build a tube with only
one fixed pair of electrodes. He found that hydrogen production occurred
when the tube was filled with helium gas, but not as substantially with other
gases [15]. Understanding how this happens may be critical to understanding
the results of his experiment.
The source of energy is stated as electrical accumulators which are
presumed to be simple capacitors, and the current was stated as 2 milliamps.
He went through numerous steps to purify the helium, while laboratory
grade helium can be purchased today. The pressure was listed as 3
millimeters of mercury. He stated that hydrogen spectral lines appeared as
soon as the arcing started. He then measured the amount of hydrogen by
measuring the pressure change while keeping the chamber sealed. Note that
during arcing some gas may become entrained in the electrodes, so his
measurement of the amount of gas produced could be low. This experiment
is effectively a form of pulsed direct current vacuum arc discharge. A similar
existing arc discharge apparatus could be used. It would also be beneficial
to try other fill gases such as neon, argon, and xenon to see if hydrogen can
be shown to evolve in different gas environments.
Magnetically or Inertially Confined Plasma
A magnetically confined plasma experiment would be the most

expensive and difficult to build. It may be possible to use a tokamak or
related design for such an experiment and use helium as the gas to see if
hydrogen appears. An alternative would be to use an inertially confined laser
heated system. Again, a system used in laser fusion experiments could be
repurposed for this type of experiment.
SAFIRE Project Style Setup
Another apparatus that could be repurposed is the SAFIRE project or

something similar. It uses a spherical aluminum anode in a plasma to
simulate the solar surface. SAFIRE experiments have already shown that
trace elements appear to form by way of lower energy than expected fusion
and deposit on the spherical aluminum electrode [16]. A spherical electrode
can be immersed in a helium or other noble gas plasma without hydrogen to
test for hydrogen production. Pulsing the power supply might also be critical
as that was part of the Skinner experiment.
Alternating Current Vacuum Arc Discharge
Instead of using pulsed direct current in a vacuum arc discharge system,

it may be more efficient to perform the experiment using alternating current.
In that case there are interactions at both electrodes and the ions are
accelerated back and forth increasing the path length, acceleration time, and
maximum velocity. Increasing the number of pulses per second is also
known to increase energy output. It is also possible to design a resonant
circuit that is even more efficient [17].
360 Ray Fleming
Pulsed Glow Discharge
Paulo and Alexandra Correa reportedly found anomalous energy

production from a pulsed glow discharge system rather than a pulsed arc
discharge system [18]. It may therefore be expedient to test a system that
operates in the glow discharge regime rather than arc discharge.
Testing for Proton and Electron Production
Numerous measurements must be made with any experiment of this

type. Prior to assembly, anything that goes inside the tube, the tube itself,
and all seals and sealing material must be confirmed to be hydrogen free.
Whichever fill gas is used to charge the tube before drawing a vacuum and/or
leaked into the tube to maintain pressure, must be tested for purity to ensure
it is hydrogen free as well.
It is important to have a spectrum analyzer that can identify the elements
present in the tube during operation as well as a residual gas analyzer that
can identify the gasses and the fraction of each. In this way it should be
possible to identify if hydrogen is being produced in two ways. Residual
gases should also be retained if possible for testing by an outside laboratory.
And, ultimately, in order to be acknowledged as a successful experiment by
others, it may be necessary to retain far more hydrogen than can be
accounted for from any possible source someone can imagine as
extraordinary claims do require extraordinary evidence.
The system should also be tested for anomalous current and energy. And
since measuring at high voltages is much more difficult than at low voltages,
there should be voltage and current regulation and metering prior to the low-
voltage inputs to the high-voltage power supply. Additional metering of
voltage and current on the high-voltage side can be attempted keeping in
mind that any direct attempt at metering high-voltage can disrupt the
operation of the high-voltage power supply and arc system, and add potential
failure modes. Any meter adds resistance, inductance, and capacitance,
which can and will cause the circuit to resonate, sometimes in unanticipated
and unhelpful ways.
One traditional method of measuring the energy from the device is
calorimetry, but calorimetry favors the simplest types of devices and it is
difficult to account for all loses. High-voltage arc discharge devices, for
example, produce x-rays which makes accounting for all energy emissions
difficult. Stray arcs will also go to any ground point they can find including
meters and pumps, so use of nonconductive components and electrically
isolated meters is recommended.
As with any potential over-unity device, in order to convince all
doubters, it will ultimately be necessary to find a way to extract electrical
and/or heat energy and measure it. So extraction of energy from the system
should be considered during the design of the experiment in order to provide
the extraordinary evidence required.
LOW ENERGY FUSION
In a survey of papers from the early 1900s there were numerous reports
of neon and other gases being produced in arc discharge tubes [19]. These
appear to be early reports of nuclear fusion at lower than expected voltages
and energies. So if someone is already experimenting with arc discharge
tubes or related devices as proposed above, it should be possible to perform
low-energy fusion experiments as well. While most fusion research has
focused of making deuterium-deuterium or deuterium-tritium fusion more
efficient, historical and more recent anomalous reports of low-energy fusion
tell us that there may be other forms of fusion which are more efficient than
anticipated.
The most notable of these papers is by Sir Joseph John Thomson, the
discoverer of the electron and inventor of the first mass spectrometer
[20][21]. In his paper on his mass spectrometer invention he discusses how
he started with hydrogen in his arc discharge tube and measured gases with
atomic mass of 1, 2, 3, and 4. That tells us that from hydrogen alone, he
produced neutrons, deuterium, tritium, helium and probably helium-3 as
362 Ray Fleming
well. Then when he added oxygen, he started detecting mass 16 and 20 for
oxygen-16 and neon-20. The neon had apparently formed by fusing oxygen
and helium.
It is not clear if neon appears so often in these historical papers simply
because it is a gas and other possible fusion products are solids that likely
adhere to the electrodes or tube walls, or if neon is produced in a particularly
efficient manner. In any case, if there is a possibility that one or more
combinations of low atomic number elements fuse more efficiently than
deuterium and/or tritium, it is worth investigating as a possible source of
fusion energy.
CONCLUSION
It is undeniable that protons and electrons exist, and based on our

observations to date, it is primarily in the form of matter without equal
amounts of antimatter. Most physicists are biased toward thinking that they
were or are produced rather than having existed for infinity. While at the
same time there is a strong bias against the idea that humans can find a way
to produce protons and electrons. That idea is unscientific in that it assumes
that natural laws have changed in such a way that it was once possible, but
is now impossible.
Any conceivable method that would produce protons and electrons in
quantity will give us new sources of energy, since the mass-energy comes
from converted zero-point energy. At a bare minimum, new hydrogen can
be burned as a fuel. If production occurs in a plasma device, the production
of protons and electrons will create a current as they move toward opposing
electrodes. This excess current can then be siphoned off electromagnetically
for use as a source of electrical energy. There will also be heat produced that
can be used as source of thermal energy that can be used to produce
electricity.
Finding a way to produce protons and electrons without antimatter
should be at the top of every physicist’s list of things to do. It is one of the
most important scientific undertakings of our time and a certain Nobel Prize
worthy discovery. While we must proceed as always with theoretical and

experimental research, proton and electron production can only be proven in
an experiment. Those experiments are more important to scientific
understanding in physics and future energy production than any other
experiments being performed today.
REFERENCES
[1] Planck, M. (1900). “Über eine Verbesserung der Wienschen

Spektralgleichung.” [“On an Improvement of Wien’s Equation for the
Spectrum.”] Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen
Gesellschaft., 2, 202–204.
[2] Planck, M. (1900). “Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung
im Normalspectrum.” [“On the Theory of the Energy Distribution
Law of the Normal Spectrum.”] Verhandlungen der Deutschen
Physikalischen Gesellschaft., 2, 237.
[3] Lorentz, H. A. (1916). The Theory of Electrons, 2nd Edition, New
York: G. E. Stechert & Co.
[4] Casimir, H. B. G. & Polder, D. (1948). “The Influence of Retardation
on the London-van der Waals Forces”, Phys. Rev., 73, 360-372.
[5] Wheeler, J. A. & Misner, C. (1962). Geometrodynamics, New York:
Academic Press.
[6] Davies, P. (2006). The Goldilocks Enigma: Why Is the Universe Just
Right for Life? Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 43.
[7] Feynman, R. P. (1969). “The Behavior of Hadron Collisions at
Extreme Energies”. High Energy Collisions: Third International
Conference at Stony Brook, New York: Gordon & Breach. pp. 237–
249.
[8] Fleming, R. (2018). “Electron Properties Explained as Quantum Field
Effects” GSJournal.net. September 18, 2018.
[9] Dyson, F. J. & Lenard, A. (1967). “Stability of Matter I.” J. Math.
Phys., 8 (3), 423–434.
364 Ray Fleming
[10] Lenard, A. & Dyson, F. J. (1968). “Stability of Matter II.” J. Math.

Phys., 9 (5), 698–711.
[11] Dyson, F. J. (1967). “Ground State Energy of a Finite System of
Charged Particles.” J. Math. Phys., 8 (8), 1538–1545.
[12] Dirac, P. A. M. (1930). “A theory of electrons and protons.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 1 January.
[13] Fleming, R. (2012). “Proton and electron mass derived as the vacuum
energy displaced by a Casimir cavity.” Researchgate.net.
[14] Fleming, R. (2019). “An onium model of particles with only electrons
and protons.” GSJournal.net. 19 November.
[15] Skinner, C. A. (1905). “The Evolution of Hydrogen from the Cathode
and its Adsorption by the Anode in Gases.” Phys. Rev., 21, 1-15.
[16] Childs, M. & Clarage, M. (2018). “SAFIRE Project 2018 report.”
Presentation and report for the Electric Universe UK Conference. 7
July. (Also see www.electricuniverse.info/safire-project and
https://aureon.ca/ -- Ed. Note).
[17] Fleming, R. & Popa, C. (2002). “Resonant plasma x-ray source.” US
patent US6765987B2., 9 September.
[18] Correa, P. N. & Correa, A. N. (1995). “Electromechanical
transduction of plasma pulses.” US patent US5416391A., 16 May.
[19] Nelson, R. A. (1998). Adept Alchemy, Part II. Chapter 6. “The
Transmutation of Hydrogen to Helium and Neon.” Jean, NV: Rex
Research.
[20] Thomson, J. J. (1913). “On the Appearance of Helium & Neon in
Vacuum Tubes,” Nature., 90 (2259), 645-647.
[21] Thomson, J. J. (1913). “Further Applications... of Positive Rays,”
Nature., 91 (2774), 333-337.
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Thomas F. Valone
President
Integrity Research Institute
Thomas F. Valone, Ph.D., P.E., is an engineering physicist (degrees

from SUNYAB and Kennedy Western University) and licensed Professional
Engineer. He is a retired college teacher, patent examiner, research engineer,
instrumentation circuit designer and an author, lecturer, and President of the
nonprofit Integrity Research Institute. He has served as a technical
consultant to authors and film directors/producers and has appeared on
CNN, A&E, History, and the Discovery Channels, including several
episodes of Ancient Aliens. A prolific writer with over 100 articles on new
energy, propulsion, bioenergetics, and climatology, he has written or edited
over a dozen books, such as Zero Point Energy: the Fuel of the Future,
Nikola Tesla’s Electricity Unplugged, Electrogravitics I & II, with the latest
being Faster Than Light: Aerospace Engineer Explains the Science Behind
this Breakthrough. His works have been published in German, French,
Romanian, and English. He recently was a guest on a one-hour Gaia-TV
episode of “Beyond Belief with George Noory.” Dr. Valone has been a
keynote speaker, conference coordinator, as well as a visiting scholar
for many events. His complete resume/CV is online at www.
IntegrityResearchInstitute.org .
INDEX
asteroids, 303, 308, 321, 322, 325, 326, 327,

A
330, 342
atmosphere, 4, 15, 16, 21, 24, 25, 26, 130,
Aaron Murakami, 10
183, 193, 196, 200
aberration, xvi, 202, 219
access, 18, 19, 28, 66, 77, 137, 186, 273
acetone, 128, 202, 221, 227 B
acid, xiii, 50, 169
adaptation, 16, 18, 33, 34, 43, 50, 52, 60, band gap, 113, 119, 127
61, 62 barriers, 77, 78, 258
adaptation system, 34, 50, 52, 62 base, 194, 216, 223, 256
aether, 170, 172, 174, 175, 334 batteries, 35, 42, 49, 54, 65, 78, 80, 86, 90,
afterheat, 139, 140, 141, 148 129, 169, 173, 184, 194, 195
agriculture, 122, 188, 199 battery, xiii, 49, 50, 65, 69, 81, 86, 88, 89,
agrivoltaics, 180, 188, 199 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105,
amorphous, 126, 181 167, 169, 171, 173, 184, 186, 189, 223,
amplitude, 227, 261, 272 261, 276
angular momentum, xvii, 244, 249, 250, battery recharging, 167
264, 265, 303, 304, 312, 316, 318, 319, BDG, xiv
320, 322, 324, 330, 337, 352 benefits, x, 5, 16, 36, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80,
anomalous, viii, 127, 167, 171, 238, 240, 88, 95, 122, 152, 163, 179, 195
304, 305, 308, 311, 331, 339, 357, 360, bias, 326, 348, 362
361 Big Bang, 303, 324, 325
antimatter, 347, 348, 349, 352, 362 binary pulsars, 268, 304, 312, 327, 330
argon, 115, 118, 358 biogas, 5, 6
assessment, 14, 27, 78, 86, 103, 106 black hole, 312, 313, 315, 325, 341, 357
breakeven criterion, 134, 146
368 Index
Brian Ahern, 168, 176 co-gravitation, 244

cold fusion, 151, 152, 170
combustion, 9, 11, 125, 175, 179, 180, 183,
C
184, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 194, 197
commercial, 14, 78, 87, 101, 108, 142, 197
CAES, xii, 35, 42, 49, 50
communication, 42, 48, 227
California Solar Initiative, xiv, 83
community/communities, 10, 66, 106, 192
capacity, xiii, 49, 50, 57, 59, 78, 81, 83, 85,
complexity, 34, 49, 197, 324
86, 88, 90, 92, 95, 96, 98, 99, 102, 139,
concentrated solar, 180, 182, 194, 195
158, 167, 169, 210
concentrated solar power, 180, 182, 194,
carbon, ix, x, xi, xvi, 1, 3, 4, 6, 13, 21, 22,
195
24, 25, 27, 30, 31, 106, 189, 190, 193,
condensation, 9, 108, 115, 128
194
conditioning, 17, 52, 196
carbon dioxide, 22, 25, 30, 193
conductivity, 108, 121, 125
carbon emissions, ix, 1, 26
conference, 5, 21, 156, 161, 170, 365
carbonate rock, 26
configuration, 49, 63, 252, 263, 276
case study/studies, 73, 74, 82, 105, 106
confinement, xv, 107, 109, 110, 113, 134,
catalysis, 27, 108, 114, 121
147
catalyst, 110, 111, 116, 118, 125, 128
Congress, 66, 236, 338
causality, 207, 276, 316
conservation, 250, 266, 267, 273, 275, 320,
celestial bodies, 312, 315, 316, 318, 326,
347, 349, 350, 353
334
construction, 17, 54, 60, 67, 108, 133, 182,
Ceramics, 123, 126, 127, 128, 130
225, 274
challenges, ix, 69, 78, 123, 190, 193
consumption, 56, 59, 76, 77, 79, 91, 102,
chemical(s), 108, 109, 115, 118, 121, 128,
168, 188, 192
129, 130, 160, 194, 215, 240
controlled conditions, 167
chemical vapor/vapour deposition (CVD),
cooling, 17, 61, 63, 70, 139, 140, 171, 182,
xiv, 108, 109, 115, 116, 129
184, 185, 190, 196, 210, 214, 254
chemical vapour transport and condensation
COP24, xi, 1, 27
(CVTC), xiv, 108, 115
copper, xiii, 116, 245, 251, 253, 254
China, 162, 184, 338
correlation(s), 3, 193, 208, 209, 210, 215,
cities, 33, 34, 35, 41, 48, 54, 60, 67, 182
217, 234
citizens, 186, 187, 190
cosmos, 135, 304, 337
clean energy, 2, 12, 15, 152, 180, 188
cost, 18, 27, 29, 30, 34, 49, 54, 73, 75, 78,
climate(s), 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 16, 21, 30, 31, 77,
82, 87, 88, 89, 97, 98, 104, 120, 121,
100, 142, 149, 190, 194, 195
141, 143, 179, 181, 182, 183, 184, 187,
climate change, ix, 2, 6, 30, 31, 77, 100,
190, 192
149, 152, 190
covering, 156, 157, 161
CO2, xi, xvi, 3, 4, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27,
CPP, 83, 88, 97
28, 183
critical load, 74, 80, 91, 94, 99
coal, 184, 190, 193, 194, 199
crystalline, 111, 112, 116, 120, 127
COFE, xi, 6
Index 369
current, xii, xiii, xvi, xvii, 9, 14, 25, 27, 34,

E
39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57,
62, 63, 66, 68, 69, 75, 79, 89, 99, 110,
earth, xvii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 15, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27,
111, 124, 125, 128, 152, 155, 160, 163,
41, 127, 134, 137, 171, 173, 175, 176,
169, 181, 184, 185, 186, 190, 194, 195,
180, 183, 217, 219, 234, 240, 241, 270,
198, 214, 215, 220, 230, 246, 263, 271,
275, 310, 312, 313, 326, 331, 333, 334,
326, 330, 333, 347, 355, 358, 359, 360,
335, 339, 343, 349
362
economic benefits, 80, 88
customers, 74, 80, 83, 187, 188, 196
Edmund Storms, 151, 152, 159, 165
CVD, xiv, 108, 109, 115, 116, 129
elaboration, 44, 45, 46, 47, 64, 91, 92, 93,
CVTC, xiv, 115
94, 95, 97, 99
cycles, 60, 86, 160
electric car, 49, 167, 168, 169
electric charge, 135, 137, 254, 350, 352, 355
D electric field, 250, 251, 264, 265, 266, 313,
333, 351, 353
dark matter, x, 304, 311, 312, 317, 318, 335, electric vehicle, xiv, 78, 197
336, 340 electricity, 6, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27, 30, 34, 35,
decarbonization, 74 36, 37, 38, 42, 47, 48, 54, 61, 66, 74, 75,
decay, 139, 140, 141, 148, 325, 348, 350, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 89,
352 90, 92, 96, 97, 102, 106, 137, 145, 148,
defects, 111, 112, 117, 126 167, 168, 169, 182, 185, 186, 187, 188,
degradation, 78, 79, 85, 102, 128, 152, 317 190, 193, 194, 195, 199, 230, 246, 247,
deposition, 108, 109, 115, 118, 128, 129 256, 270, 305, 319, 362, 365
depth, ix, 15, 154, 158, 163, 203 electricity grid, 37, 38, 48, 61, 78, 80, 81, 90
derivatives, 316, 317, 328, 329 electrochemical, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81,
destruction, x, 347, 350, 357 83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95, 108, 115,
detection, 127, 216, 218, 313, 341 126, 131
dielectric, 245 electrochemical storage, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81,
diodes, 11, 40, 57, 63 83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92
dipoles, 250, 277, 351, 352 electrochemistry, 42
disposal of solar panels, 180 electrodes, 27, 132, 358, 359, 362
distributed generation, 34, 37, 38, 65, 66, electromagnetic, 120, 174, 214, 216, 218,
77, 83, 100 236, 244, 247, 249, 265, 267, 269, 273,
distributed renewable energy sources, 73, 74 277, 303, 334, 335, 337
distribution, 29, 36, 39, 48, 49, 52, 53, 62, electromagnetic fields, 236, 244, 265
65, 67, 82, 103, 199, 217, 252, 308, 310 electron(s), x, xv, 108, 109, 112, 119, 120,
DSSC, xv, 130, 131 121, 175, 194, 208, 209, 245, 333, 347,
DT fusion, 133, 135, 137, 138 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355,
356, 357, 361, 362, 363, 364
emergency, 60, 74, 76, 80, 134
emission, 26, 125, 142, 205, 208, 209, 305
370 Index
emissions, ix, 1, 4, 26, 30, 189, 193, 197, ferrite billet, 167, 169, 170, 173
361 ferromagnetic, 113, 243, 245, 251, 254, 255,
energy anomaly, 167 309
energy consumption, 76, 79, 82, 95, 97, 122 field theory, 348, 350, 351, 353
energy density, 34, 49, 52, 54, 351 films, 109, 126, 129, 130, 210
energy dispatch, 76, 79, 90, 91, 92, 93 fission, vii, ix, 7, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139,
energy efficiency, 184, 190, 192, 194 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148,
energy storage, vii, , ix xii, xiii, 33, 34, 35, 149
42, 54, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 76, 78, flow of time, 206, 207, 210, 214, 215
79, 87, 88, 90, 94, 95, 98, 100, 105, 106, fluctuations, 40, 48, 54, 183, 192, 201, 208,
121, 180, 184, 185, 190, 191, 192, 193, 209, 210, 215, 230, 351, 352, 353
194, 195, 196, 197, 199 fluid, 243, 249, 251, 254, 255, 313, 337
energy supply, 30, 34, 42, 106 fog, 9, 10
energy transport, 107, 109 food, 2, 5, 8, 9, 25, 123
engineering, 14, 20, 21, 108, 134, 138, 149, force, 233, 244, 250, 254, 258, 259, 266,
365 267, 269, 270, 276, 277, 305, 310, 316,
entropy, 203, 206, 208, 339 317, 318, 319, 320, 325, 355
environment, xi, 5, 27, 42, 84, 122, 134, formation, 113, 117, 120, 307, 337, 349,
185, 200, 211, 213, 238, 275, 276, 277, 351, 356
304, 309, 313, 316, 335 fuel, 3, 9, 10, 20, 22, 26, 27, 49, 75, 78, 81,
environments, 16, 52, 122, 357, 358 83, 99, 102, 134, 136, 139, 141, 142,
equilibrium, 110, 204, 205, 206, 215, 303, 143, 148, 172, 174, 186, 188, 194, 195,
326, 350, 351 362, 365
equipment, 14, 52, 53, 75, 76, 88, 100, 155, fuel cell, 75, 78, 83, 102, 194, 195
156, 181, 183, 184, 188, 192, 197, 209, funding, ix, 7, 349
262 fusion, vii, ix, xv, xvi, xvii, 7, 133, 134,
ESS, xii, 35, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 47, 48, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142,
49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61, 63 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151,
evaporation, x, 8, 115, 117, 125, 202, 215, 152, 156, 160, 162, 164, 165, 168, 170,
227 175, 177, 330, 348, 356, 359, 361, 362
evidence, ix, 173, 197, 246, 303, 304, 305, fusion reactions, 134, 135, 139, 145
313, 316, 319, 336, 348, 350, 354, 360, future energy, ix, x, 1, 2, 6, 7, 12, 75, 363
361
evolution, 109, 124, 206, 275
G
excess energy, 141, 167
galaxies, 216, 310, 311, 355
F gas turbine, 191
General Relativity, 317, 338, 343
fabrication, 118, 123, 124, 129, 130 geoengineering, 4, 24
fast neutrons, 134, 142 geometry, 59, 249, 253, 263
ferrite, 167, 169, 170, 171, 173 geothermal, 15
Index 371
Germany, 185, 199, 201 Gunnar Sandberg, 246

gigaton, 4, 24, 25
global warming, 1, 2, 3, 12, 16, 17
H
glow discharge, 348, 358, 360
Godin and Roschin, 243, 246, 247, 248,
harmonics, 46, 54, 55
254, 274
harvesting, x, 13, 14
Google, 28, 158, 181
helium, 135, 358, 359, 361
governments, 24, 77, 179, 186, 190, 197
high voltage, 9, 11, 167, 169, 258, 353, 360
graph, 3, 22, 258, 305
high-level waste, 133, 134
gravitation, 244, 267, 269, 303, 304, 309,
history, 3, 27, 168, 174, 203, 258, 261, 262,
312, 313, 316, 317, 318, 320, 322, 324,
263
331, 335, 337
homes, x, 14, 17, 18, 186
gravitational constant, xvii, 202, 213, 231
human, 5, 142, 149, 152
gravitational effect, 267, 308, 311
HV, xii, 36, 49, 61, 65, 66
gravitational field, 267, 268, 269, 275, 277,
hybrid, 5, 49, 50, 52, 54, 63, 67, 68, 69, 76,
309, 319, 333, 334, 337
77, 80, 81, 101, 102, 106, 126, 133, 134,
gravitational force, 251, 266, 310, 318
138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146,
gravitational law, 271, 303, 304, 310, 311,
147, 148, 149, 183
315, 316, 319, 337
hybrid capacitors, 77, 101
gravitational pull, 310, 313, 315
hybrid reactor, 133, 134, 138, 140, 141,
gravitational wave, 269, 275, 303, 316, 330
142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 149
gravito-electro-magnetism, 244
hydrogen, x, xv, 10, 27, 69, 101, 130, 135,
gravity, x, xvii, 213, 214, 268, 269, 270,
137, 160, 184, 194, 195, 347, 354, 356,
275, 303, 304, 306, 310, 311, 312, 313,
358, 359, 360, 361, 362
315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 323,
hydrothermal, 108, 115, 118, 130
324, 325, 326, 331, 334, 335, 336, 337,
hypothesis, 160, 205, 217, 261, 339, 348,
355
349
Green Revolution, 5, 28
greenhouse, 3, 4, 41, 134, 193
greenhouse gases, 41 I
grid, xiii, xiv, 9, 18, 34, 36, 37, 39, 48, 56,
57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 70, 74, 76, 77, ICCF, xvi, 156, 161
78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 89, 90, 91, 94, 96, ideal, ix, 107, 109, 122
99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 116, 179, IGBT, xii, 40, 46, 57, 63, 70
180, 181, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190, 191, image(s), 28, 156, 177, 250, 251, 267, 276,
192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 199, 275 277, 321
grids, 9, 33, 34, 37, 41, 43, 48, 49, 60, 68, imprinting, 260, 261, 262, 268
69, 78 improvements, 20, 78, 172, 181, 183, 194
growth, 5, 34, 35, 42, 109, 110, 111, 114, induction, 54, 184, 244, 246, 250, 266
115, 116, 118, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, industry/industries, 6, 12, 34, 54, 70, 108,
129, 130, 189, 197, 356 117, 185, 186, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198
growth mechanism, 115, 116, 117, 129 integration, 66, 75, 82, 324
372 Index
inventions, ix, x, 20, 25 lead, 30, 116, 120, 136, 169, 174, 179, 210,
investment, 88, 89, 96, 149, 184, 196 268, 277, 325
investors, 190, 192, 193 LED, xi, 6, 15
IPCC, xi, 1, 27 LED lights, 6
IRI, xi, 1, 8, 9, 12, 18, 20 LENR, ix, x, xvi, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156,
iron, 24, 25, 30, 245 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164,
Iron Curtain, 206, 229, 230 165, 170, 172, 174, 175, 177
iron seeding, 24, 25 LENR records preservation, 152
islands, 5, 105, 116 LENR research documentation, xvi, 151,
isotope, xv, xvi, 135 152, 161, 165
issues, 100, 101, 152, 172, 180, 190, 316, libration point, 303, 326, 328, 336
337 life, xiv, 2, 50, 60, 69, 73, 78, 85, 87, 88, 89,
97, 105, 136, 182, 183, 188, 189, 201,
204, 349, 350, 356, 363
J
life cycle, 74, 87, 88, 89
lifetime, 69, 186, 350
James Hansen, 1
light, xvi, 2, 6, 7, 107, 109, 113, 120, 133,
Jefimenko, xvii, 244, 269, 270, 301, 319,
134, 135, 149, 180, 189, 202, 207, 211,
320, 321, 322, 335, 342
214, 218, 219, 220, 226, 237, 238, 271,
John Searl, 244, 246, 250, 266, 299
313, 318, 326, 338, 344, 351, 352
Jupiter, 303, 307, 321, 322, 325, 326, 327,
lithium, 65, 86, 136, 169
328, 337
longevity, 141, 183, 196
low energy nuclear, 151, 152
K low energy nuclear reaction, 151, 152
LRDI, xvi, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158,
Kozyrev, x, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164
207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214,
215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 223, 225,
226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, M
235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 330,
magma, x, 15, 29
334, 335, 344, 345
magnetic field, 42, 60, 137, 169, 214, 244,
Kuiper Belt, 307, 308
246, 249, 250, 251, 256, 257, 258, 260,
263, 265, 266, 267, 275, 276, 277, 304,
L 305, 309, 311, 313, 323, 333, 337, 351
magnetic motor, x
laws, 197, 204, 270, 273, 303, 310, 315, magnetic rollers, 244
316, 319, 331, 348 magnetic walls, 243, 244, 256, 257, 259,
Lawson Criterion, 134, 146, 147 277
LCC, xiv, 78, 79, 88, 96, 97 magnetism, 244, 247, 270, 319, 334
LCL filter, 39, 44, 55, 56
Index 373
magnet(s), 245, 246, 247, 250, 251, 252. models, 35, 49, 82, 304, 305, 315, 317, 322,
253, 254, 255, 256, 260, 266, 268, 275, 326, 331, 350, 355
276 modifications, 193, 254, 306, 319
magnitude, 23, 24, 119, 148, 259, 305, 318, modules, 27, 53, 65, 70, 85, 88, 90
332, 355 momentum, xvii, 211, 244, 249, 250, 251,
majority, 21, 26, 144, 261 264, 265, 268, 270, 271, 272, 277, 303,
management, 52, 61, 67, 77, 81, 84, 87, 101, 304, 312, 316, 318, 319, 320, 322, 324,
102, 156, 194, 198 330, 337, 352
Manelas, viii, ix, x, 7, 167, 168, 169, 170, MOND, xvii, 304, 310, 311, 340
172, 173, 174, 175, 176 Moon, 131, 137, 205, 330
manufacturing, 7, 34, 60, 181, 183, 189, 276 Morningstar, 243, 244, 249, 256, 265, 267,
Mars, 164, 204, 252, 307, 326, 327 303, 344
Martin Fleischmann, 152 Morningstar energy box, 244, 267
Maryland, v, 338, 344 morphology, 109, 119, 124, 126, 128
mass, xvii, 143, 160, 175, 210, 213, 267, Moscow, 217, 228, 230, 231, 238, 239, 240,
273, 276, 277, 304, 309, 312, 315, 317, 241, 254
318, 325, 326, 328, 330, 337, 339, 350,
351, 352, 353, 355, 356, 361, 362, 364
N
materials, 17, 29, 36, 108, 109, 110, 111,
112, 113, 115, 118, 120, 121, 138, 139,
nanobelts, 109, 114, 117
140, 155, 156, 158, 159, 207, 210, 245,
nanomaterials, 109, 110, 112, 113, 118, 124
247, 275, 358
nanometer, xv, xvi, 108, 160
matrix, 69, 265, 328
nanorods, x, 109, 112, 114, 117, 119, 125,
matter, x, 108, 175, 208, 210, 237, 239, 244,
126, 130
271, 273, 274, 304, 305, 310, 311, 312,
nanostructures, vii, ix, x, 107, 108, 109,
313, 315, 317, 318, 319, 330, 335, 336,
111, 112, 114, 118, 121, 123, 124, 125,
340, 348, 349, 351, 352, 354, 356, 362
126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131
maximum power, 99
nanotechnology, 108, 114, 121, 122, 123,
measurement(s), 40, 46, 169, 202, 209, 216,
194
231, 252, 275, 277, 358, 360
nanowire(s), 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,
media, 151, 155, 156
116, 117, 120, 121, 124, 126, 127, 129,
Mercury, 215, 331, 358
131
metal organic chemical vapour deposition
NASA, xi, 2, 9, 28, 162, 205, 321, 343
(MOCVD) , xiv, 108, 115, 117
National Geographic, 3, 25, 28
meter, 14, 223, 227, 360
natural laws, 306, 349, 362
methodology, 36, 73, 78, 79, 81, 332, 336
neon, 358, 361, 362
Mexico, 6, 169, 338
network, xiii, 16, 20, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,
microgrid(s), vii, ix, 43, 68, 73, 74, 76, 77,
41, 43, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 66, 67, 73,
78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 88, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95,
87, 106, 116
100, 101, 102, 105, 180, 188
neutrino(s), xvii, 205, 206, 229, 348
modelling, 86, 106, 225
374 Index
neutrons, xv, 134, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141,

P
143, 144, 145, 148, 312, 348, 350, 353,
361
parallel, 50, 52, 55, 57, 62
new energy, 2, 134, 227, 365
participants, 152, 154, 156, 157, 159, 162,
Newtonian, xvii, 269, 270, 303, 305, 310,
163, 247
311, 315, 316, 317, 320, 324, 339
particle production, 348, 353, 354, 355
nickel powder, 170
particles, 9, 108, 109, 116, 147, 271, 273,
Nikolai Kozyrev, viii, 201, 208, 215, 218,
311, 348, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355,
330
364
NOAA, xii, 25
Paul Brown, 246, 278
nominal power, 88, 92, 95
peak demand, 83, 192
nonlocality, 212, 233, 234
Perryman, 183, 184, 189
Norman Borlaug, 5, 28
PETM, xi, 3, 24
NPV, xiv, 89, 97
pH, 118, 127, 130
NREL, 85, 87, 102, 103, 104
phase change, 17
nuclear, viii, ix, xvi, 7, 15, 36, 60, 133, 134,
photoluminescence, 113, 124, 127
135, 138, 139, 142, 143, 148, 149, 151,
photons, 108, 109, 160
154, 159, 162, 164, 165, 168, 170, 172,
photovoltaic, xvi, 52, 73, 75, 77, 80, 83, 84,
190, 193, 313, 325, 361
85, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95, 98, 103, 120, 121,
nuclear transmutation, 134
131, 180, 181
nuclear waste, 133, 134, 143, 149
physical properties, 112, 207, 217
nucleation, 109, 110, 111, 117
physics, x, 17, 138, 204, 207, 208, 217, 227,
nuclei, 111, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 141,
244, 277, 306, 310, 331, 339, 344, 348,
146, 160
349, 350, 351, 355, 363
PICM, xiv, 82
O piezoelectric, x, 13, 14, 29, 113, 215
pioneer effect, 305
OAG, xv, 110 planets, 216, 218, 219, 226, 270, 307, 312,
oil, 10, 11, 14 316, 330, 343, 355
one dimensional, 108, 121 plankton bloom, 24
opportunities, 104, 127, 158 plants, 9, 36, 141, 190, 193, 199
optical properties, 107, 109, 127 plasma, xvii, 10, 136, 137, 138, 140, 144,
optimization, 43, 76, 82, 85, 89 145, 146, 300, 348, 355, 356, 357, 358,
orbit, 275, 307, 316, 321, 322, 326, 327, 359, 362, 364
331, 332, 343 plasma filaments, 355, 356
oscillation, 55, 175, 215, 329 platform, 27, 79, 217
osmotic power, x polarity, 245, 256, 257
ox, 243, 249, 251, 252, 256, 259, 265, 268, policy, 14, 52, 68, 74, 198
271, 276, 277, 344 politics, 179, 181, 186, 197
oxygen, x, xv, 25, 27, 112, 117, 130, 362 pollution, 26, 188, 189, 198
ozone, 247, 258, 277 polycrystalline, 112, 181
Index 375
polymer(s), 21, 30, 120, 124, 125 quantum field theory, 348, 350, 351, 353
population, ix, 5, 18, 19, 26, 35, 145, 307 quantum fluctuations, 351, 352, 353
positron, 175, 209, 351, 352, 353 quartz, 115, 117, 128, 215
potential savings, 95 quasars, 357
power diode, 40
power generation, 70, 99, 101, 175
R
power plants, 36, 135, 141, 192, 193, 194,
195
radiation, 122, 183, 189, 204, 205, 212, 214,
power resilience, 74, 95
218, 231, 238, 305, 313, 341
power surplus, 167
radius, 107, 109, 113, 213, 246, 310, 317,
Poynting vector, xvii, 244, 250, 259, 266,
352, 353
267, 273, 301, 344
reactant(s), 110, 114, 116, 119
ppm, xi, 3, 4, 16, 22, 23, 27
reactions, 118, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139,
President, v, 186, 365
140, 145, 146, 148, 172, 206, 213, 215,
probability, 81, 91, 95, 260, 272
226, 313
production, viii, x, 5, 6, 9, 20, 21, 36, 48,
reality, 140, 217, 264, 277
79, 85, 86, 96, 98, 134, 139, 145, 148,
rectification, 20, 40, 45
170, 190, 193, 198, 205, 228, 276, 347,
rectifier, 40, 43, 44, 45, 57, 59, 69, 86, 99
348, 349, 350, 351, 353, 354, 356, 357,
recycling, 5, 179, 189
358, 359, 360, 362, 363
refrigeration, 43, 62, 182
profit, 6, 187, 192
regulations, 75, 78, 216
project, 14, 15, 20, 21, 27, 42, 65, 71, 78,
relativity, viii, 211, 271, 301, 303, 304, 316,
88, 89, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
317, 319, 323, 331, 332, 334, 338, 342,
158, 159, 161, 162, 164, 174, 216, 358,
343
359, 364
reliability, 75, 76, 95, 103, 184
propagation, 211, 271, 272
renewable energy, ix, x, 1, 6, 7, 13, 14, 25,
protection, 11, 52, 57, 60, 62, 89, 149, 163
67, 68, 73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86,
protons, x, 347, 348, 349, 350, 352, 353,
87, 95, 104, 105, 106, 180
354, 355, 356, 357, 362, 364
requirement(s), 35, 39, 75, 76, 81, 87, 134,
prototypes, 20, 137, 193
140, 149, 152, 183, 186, 355
pulsars, 268, 304, 312, 318, 327, 330, 337
RES, xiii
purity, 110, 116, 360
researchers, 27, 76, 120, 137, 151, 152, 154,
PV, ix, xiii, xvi, 76, 77, 78, 84, 85, 86, 87,
155, 156, 159, 160, 163, 176, 206, 208,
88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97,
215, 217
121, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187,
resilience, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86,
188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196
88, 91, 95, 99, 100, 106
resistance, 10, 55, 59, 112, 174, 215, 360
Q resources, 14, 75, 76, 78, 79, 81, 87, 121,
137, 164
quality factor, xv, 55 response, 1, 25, 46, 59, 74, 223, 247, 257,
quantum dot, 108, 120, 131, 132 261, 262, 330
376 Index
rings, 245, 246, 251 Singapore, 183, 228, 230, 231, 233, 235,
risk(s), 142, 152, 162 236, 238, 239, 344
roadways, x, 13 smart city/cities, 33, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42, 48,
rods, 107, 109, 130, 139, 141, 145 54, 59, 60, 61
roofs, 16, 183 smart grid, 33, 34, 37, 41, 43, 48, 60, 76, 78,
rotating magnetic cylinders, 244 82
rotations, 240, 261, 265 SMES, xii, 33, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42,
Russia, 208, 216, 217, 233, 238, 345 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59,
60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 69, 70
software, 82, 155, 156
S
solar, vii, viii, ix, x, xii, xiii, xv, xvi, 6, 7, 9,
13, 16, 18, 27, 28, 67, 69, 73, 74, 75, 77,
safety, 17, 74, 139, 141, 148, 185, 198, 216
80, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95, 96,
SAFIRE, xvii, 358, 359, 364
98, 103, 107, 108, 114, 119, 120, 121,
saltwater, 9, 12
122, 123, 124, 127, 131, 132, 168, 171,
savings, 80, 89, 90, 95, 187
179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187,
scatter, 315, 326, 330, 352
188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195,
science, 19, 29, 108, 138, 151, 152, 159,
196, 197, 198, 199, 205, 206, 215, 217,
174, 190, 199, 203, 207, 216, 228, 245,
220, 229, 230, 234, 236, 240, 270, 305,
334, 343
306, 307, 310, 311, 312, 315, 331, 342,
sea level, 3, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23
344, 356, 359
seed, 118, 129, 131, 140
solar cell, x, 27, 108, 114, 119, 120, 121,
seeding, 24, 25, 118, 123
122, 124, 127, 131, 132
semiconductor(s), 39, 63, 109, 113, 116,
solar incentives, 180
119, 120
solar photovolatic energy, 74
Senate, 3, 5
solar power, 120, 186, 190, 191, 192, 193,
sensing, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128
195, 197
sensitivity, 108, 121, 190
solar system, xiii, 179, 183, 187, 189, 197,
sensor(s), 14, 108, 114, 121, 130, 305, 309
220, 270, 305, 310, 312, 315
servers, 74, 76, 155
Solectria, 167, 168, 169
services, 66, 76, 80
solution, 14, 16, 18, 49, 77, 110, 111, 114,
shape, 55, 110, 117, 217, 276, 307
115, 118, 125, 149, 175, 199, 268, 275,
shock, 11, 16, 314
311, 317, 318, 324, 325, 328, 330, 331,
showing, 43, 44, 329, 350
332, 335, 339, 353
signals, 14, 36, 40, 43, 45, 48, 50, 52, 53,
space-time, 269, 273, 277, 320, 330
54, 62, 202, 211, 216, 227, 252
Spain, 33, 35, 39, 41, 66, 73, 183, 184
silicon, 111, 113, 114, 116, 120, 130
spark plug, 10
silver, 126, 189, 354
speed of light, 171, 211, 218, 219, 270, 309,
simulation, 34, 40, 43, 49, 54, 62, 67, 76, 89
313, 314, 322, 353
simulations, 34, 36, 43, 47, 48, 78, 88, 94,
spin, 237, 249, 254, 304, 312, 333, 334, 352
127
SREC, xvi, 187
stability, 52, 75, 188, 315, 328, 330
Index 377
Stanley Pons, 152

T
star position, 202
stars, 135, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208,
T. Henry Moray, 173
211, 213, 216, 218, 219, 220, 226, 237,
tariff, 82, 83, 88, 96
239, 268, 310, 311, 312, 329, 330, 355,
taxes, 88, 193, 198
356
techniques, 111, 122, 126, 194
state(s), 14, 15, 16, 17, 61, 66, 67, 69, 76,
technology/technologies, v, ix, 1, 7, 14, 15,
79, 84, 87, 90, 99, 102, 114, 120, 121,
18, 19, 20, 26, 27, 34, 42, 49, 52, 65, 66,
185, 186, 190, 206, 208, 234, 244, 252,
67, 68, 69, 70, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84,
262, 276, 316, 331, 348, 357
85, 88, 96, 101, 106, 133, 134, 136, 138,
storage, ix, x, 17, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42,
139, 140, 143, 145, 148, 169, 175, 176,
47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 61,
181, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192,
62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75,
194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 220, 227, 243,
76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88,
244, 247, 269, 275, 330
89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 101, 103, 105, 106,
temperature, 2, 3, 4, 17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25,
108, 121, 140, 141, 154, 155, 158, 160,
27, 43, 53, 59, 63, 67, 68, 85, 118, 119,
161, 167, 169, 180, 184, 185, 188, 189,
127, 128, 129, 136, 159, 160, 173, 174,
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197,
184, 189, 196, 221, 223, 247, 248, 258,
199
330, 354, 357
stress, 6, 112, 160
Tesla, 19, 30, 183, 365
structure, xvii, 17, 36, 37, 109, 110, 114,
testing, 29, 76, 101, 111, 168, 172, 221,
123, 138, 148, 170, 198, 202, 206, 211,
227, 360
213, 229, 233, 352, 353, 355
TFTR, xv, 137
substrate, 111, 115, 116, 117, 118, 127, 128,
thermal, xi, xvii, 3, 16, 17, 20, 30, 36, 42,
129, 130
50, 70, 108, 112, 115, 121, 123, 125,
Sun, 14, 120, 132, 135, 168, 169, 170, 172,
126, 129, 130, 134, 135, 137, 141, 142,
211, 213, 303, 305, 306, 307, 309, 312,
144, 182, 186, 189, 195, 202, 258, 305,
325, 328, 355, 356
336, 362
superconducting, xii, 34, 35, 42, 66, 67, 68,
thermal energy, 123, 135, 189, 362
69
thermal neutrons, 134
surface area, 139, 141, 148
thermodynamics, 15, 169, 173, 212, 230,
surplus, 90, 91, 167, 210
231
survivability, 81, 96
thermonuclear, 150, 205, 206, 213, 214,
survival, 5, 25, 74
226, 330
symmetry, 211, 230, 267, 275, 276, 319,
thin films, 109, 126, 129
322
thorium, 141, 142, 148
synchronization, 89, 174, 322
tides, 11
synthesis, 110, 116, 117, 118, 121, 124,
time, v, viii, ix, x, xv, 3, 5, 16, 21, 25, 27,
125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 194, 213,
29, 44, 48, 50, 59, 60, 63, 74, 79, 81, 82,
214
83, 90, 91, 92, 94, 97, 104, 113, 119,
121, 134, 141, 142, 143, 145, 159, 167,
378 Index
169, 171, 174, 175, 176, 180, 181, 188,

V
192, 193, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206,
207, 208,209, 210, 211, 212, 214, 217,
vacuum, x, 201, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213,
218, 220, 221, 223, 226, 227, 228, 229,
334, 344, 348, 353, 358, 359, 360, 364
230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237,
vacuum arc, 348, 358, 359
238, 239, 240, 241, 247, 250, 252, 254,
vacuum arc discharge, 348, 358, 359
258, 263, 267, 268, 269, 272, 273, 275,
vapor, 110, 111, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130
277, 309, 317, 320, 321, 323, 324, 325,
vapour-liquid-solid (VLS) , xiv, 108, 110,
328, 329, 330, 331, 334, 338, 340, 344,
111, 115, 116, 124
345, 348, 349, 351, 356, 359, 362
variables, 3, 22, 23, 63, 161, 212, 323, 324,
tokamak, xv, 137, 143, 359
335
torsion, 202, 208, 214, 215, 225, 226, 228,
variations, 88, 193, 223, 247, 255, 258, 270
231, 236, 237, 238, 267, 275, 304, 333,
vector, xvii, 28, 244, 250, 259, 266, 267,
334, 335, 344, 345
270, 273, 315, 320, 328, 335
total energy, 79, 146, 353
vehicles, 78, 186, 197
trajectory, 157, 249, 265, 318, 320, 329,
velocity, xvi, 146, 189, 202, 207, 211, 219,
330, 331, 332
220, 226, 256, 319, 320, 331, 336, 359
transcripts, 154, 157, 158
vibration, 160, 214, 215
transformation, 42, 60, 66, 213
vibrations, 14, 19, 29, 217, 258
translation, 227, 232, 236, 237, 239
VLS, xiv, 108, 110, 111, 115, 116, 124
transmission, x, 19, 48, 65, 70, 191, 211,
voltage variation, 167
231
Vostok, 3, 22, 31
transport, 39, 54, 68, 107, 108, 109, 115,
127, 128, 171, 273
trojan asteroids, 325, 326, 327, 342 W
Washington, 100, 104, 105, 162, 179, 187,

U 190, 232, 236, 277, 340
waste, 2, 5, 14, 133, 134, 139, 140, 141,
UNEP, xi, 1
143, 144, 148, 149, 184, 191, 195, 199
uniform, 111, 117, 119, 305
waste heat, 184, 191, 195
uninhabitable, 1
water, x, xv, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 26, 27, 28, 31,
United Nations, xi, 26, 27
71, 101, 118, 125, 133, 135, 139, 140,
United States (USA), xi, 15, 31, 75, 77, 99,
149, 152, 183, 184, 186, 189, 192, 193,
100, 101, 104
194, 196, 199, 210, 215, 330
universe, 170, 176, 206, 207, 210, 211, 212,
wavelength, 107, 109, 113, 272, 351, 352,
214, 329, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 355,
353
356, 357
wear, 59, 60, 192
uranium, xv, xvi, 134, 138, 141, 142, 149
weight loss, 243, 248, 258, 262, 263, 271,
277
weight reduction, 240, 260, 263, 265
Wheatstone bridge, 202, 223
Index 379
wind, x, 12, 13, 28, 52, 67, 68, 70, 78, 83, zero-point energy, 20, 352
180, 190, 356 zinc, 116, 118, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130
windows, 17, 182, 186 zinc oxide, 116, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129,
wires, 20, 107, 109, 116, 120 130
worldwide, 4, 5, 8, 25, 142, 151, 152, 205 ZnO, vii, xiv, 107, 108, 113, 114, 115, 116,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 125, 126,
127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132
Y
ZnO nanorods, 114, 119, 123, 129
ZnO nanostructures, 107, 108, 114, 118,
yield, 5, 112, 125, 185
121, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131
zero energy, 18, 101, 350

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ENERGY POLICIES, POLITICS AND PRICES

THE FUTURE OF ENERGY

Additional books and e-books in this series can be found on Nova’s

THE FUTURE OF ENERGY

THOMAS VALONE, PHD

NOTICE TO THE READER

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

The Future of Energy reveals a diversity of paths to a cleaner, cooler world.

A very inspiring review of creative technologies. Lots of interesting ideas,

Chapter 6 Low Energy Nuclear Reactions:

The Future of Energy always presents numerous challenges and this

as the study by Columbia University that “Energy harvesting by evaporation

In order of their appearance in the text

UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme

ZPE - Zero Point Energy

UPS - Uninterrupted Power Supply

fc - Delayed neutron fraction

α - fine structure constant

FUTURE ENERGY IS ALMOST HERE ALONG

Motivation to present a review of emerging future energy technologies

* Corresponding Author’s Email: IRI@erols.com.

Keywords: future energy, climate change, clean energy, global warming,

Such an energy review aimed toward the future is a challenge to include

Figure 1. Global warming - manmade temperature anomaly.

CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS DRIVE GLOBAL WARMING

In addition, the published compilation from Vostok of global

Figure 2. Billions of tons of carbon added annually to atmosphere.

However, to begin with, Figure 2 shows the accumulated carbon in our

FUTURE ENERGY TO TRANSFORM THE ENVIRONMENT

Converting Waste to Energy”, is worthwhile since from what can be learned

Figure 3. Biogas sources and products.

Now getting to another topic of future energy, many renewable energy

www.littlesun.com, and www.luminaid.com all have been manufacturing

Figure 4. MpowerD.com is leading solar lighting with 8 hours of portable light.

Of course, this anthology is filled with many other future energy

WATER CRISIS, SALT WATER, AND WATER POWER

It is noted that the latest discovery of “Evaporation Energy Generation”

Figure 5. Atmospheric water generator.

Addressing the impending water crisis: websites and books are

condensation converters, are becoming more commercially available to

Figure 6. Ultrasonic fogger with charged grids.

Figure 7. Wide plasma spark plug.

The patent also describes a wide-plasma spark plug with a center

Figure 8. Motion to electrical energy from wave power.

Similar water discoveries have been made regarding the little-known

Figure 9. Osmotic Power is a clean energy generator.

When we try to address the consequences of global warming, the IRI

FUTURE OF LAND ENERGY – UNCONVENTIONAL DESIGNS

While many view land-based renewable energy or carbon-free energy to

“California Is Testing Piezoelectricity on Roads to Generate Power from

highways and railways, Innowattech was able to generate 250 kW to 500

It would rely on piezoelectric crystals, which produce a bit of current

Hot Magma Energy Conversion is Ten Times

Time for Adaptation to a Warming World

As we approach mid-century and beyond, some experts state even today

Cool Roofs Make a Difference in a Hotter Climate

index, or SRI. A roof's SRI is a measure of a surface's ability to reflect solar

Phase Change Insulation Is Ten Times Better

In the construction of new homes, many states like California are

To complete this section, the ultimate adaptation is a zero energy home.

Electricity for the Rest of the World

Wireless transmission and reception of electrical power across the earth

experiment by Texzon/Viziv Technologies in Texas (Figure 11) who