Akanksha Gupta FinalDraft - WHO-2 3

ROLE AND CONTRIBUTION OF WHO DURING THE PANDEMIC
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNI-

VERSITY, DELHI IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DE-
GREE OF BACHELOR OF LAWS
By
Akanksha Gupta
01151103818
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
Ms. Souma Brahma Sarkar
SCHOOL OF LAW
DELHI METROPOLITAN EDUCATION
BATCH 2018-2023
1
ROLE AND CONTRIBUTION OF WHO DURING THE PANDEMIC
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNI-

VERSITY, DELHI IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DE-
GREE OF BACHELOR OF LAWS
By
Akanksha Gupta
01151103818
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
SCHOOL OF LAW
DELHI METROPOLITAN EDUCATION
BATCH 2018-2023
2
DECLARATION
I, Akanksha Gupta, Student of BA LLB, hereby declare that the dissertation titled “ROLE
AND CONTRIBUTION OF WHO DURING THE PANDEMIC” which is submitted by
me to DME Law School, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
B.A.LL.B by the Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi is my original work. It
is further declared that all the sources of information used in the dissertation have been duly
acknowledged. I understand that the dissertation may be electronically checked for plagiarism
by the use of plagiarism detection software to assess the originality of the submitted work.
Place:…………
Date:………….
…………………………
(Signature of the Student)
CERTIFICATE
3
On the basis of declaration submitted by Akanksha Gupta student of BALLB, I hereby certify
that the dissertation titled “ROLE AND CONTRIBUTION OF WHO DURING THE
PANDEMIC” submitted to the DME Law School, in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the degree of B.A.LL.B. by the Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University,
Delhi has been carried out by him/her under my guidance and supervision.
………..………(Signature)
(Supervisor)
Place:…………….
Date:……………..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
4
As a researcher, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the individuals and institu -
tions who have supported me throughout the process of this research on the topic of “ROLE
AND CONTRIBUTION OF WHO DURING THE PANDEMIC”. I would like to thank
my academic supervisor for their guidance, support, and valuable feedback throughout the re-
search process. Their insights and expertise have been instrumental in shaping the direction
of my research.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the numerous scholars and researchers whose
works I have referred to during this study. Their contributions have been instrumental in
deepening my understanding of the subject matter. In addition, I would like to thank the vari-
ous institutions and individuals who provided me with the necessary data and resources to
conduct this research. Their contributions have been invaluable in enriching the quality of
this study.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my family and friends for their unwavering support and
encouragement throughout the research process. Their love and support have been a source of
inspiration and motivation to me.
Once again, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to all those who have contributed to this research
in one way or another.
Thank you!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5
S. No. Particulars Page No.
List of Abbreviations 1
List of Cases 2
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
Chapter 2: Legal Framework And Mandate Of The 12

Who
Chapter 3: Technical Guidance And Coordination 26
Chapter 4: Advocacy For Equitable Access To Vac- 47

cines And Medical Supplies
Chapter 5: WHO’s International Cooperation And 69

Partnerships
Chapter 6: Criticisms, Challenges Of Wto's Efforts In 84

Curbing COVID-19
Chapter 7: Conclusion 95
Bibliography 98
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
· WHO - World Health Organization

· COVID-19 - Coronavirus Disease 2019
· SARS-CoV-2 - Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2
· PHEIC - Public Health Emergency of International Concern
· PCR - Polymerase Chain Reaction
· PPE - Personal Protective Equipment
· PRA - Pandemic Risk Assessment
· EPI-WIN - WHO Information Network for Epidemics
6
· COVAX - COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access
· SOP - Standard Operating Procedure
· IHR - International Health Regulations
· HCW - Healthcare Worker
· PICO - Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome (Framework for research
questions)
· LMICs - Low- and Middle-Income Countries
· GAVI - Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization
· DG - Director-General
· HIC - High-Income Country
· R&D - Research and Development
· IEC - Information, Education, and Communication
· LMIC - Lower-Middle-Income Country
· NPIs - Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions
· ICU - Intensive Care Unit
· NCDs - Non-Communicable Diseases
· PHE - Public Health England
· SOPs - Standard Operating Procedures
· MERS - Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
· SAGE - Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization
· CVD - Cardiovascular Disease
7
LIST OF CASES
· Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania, 1949)

· Barcelona Traction Case (Belgium v. Spain, 1970)
· Nuclear Tests Case (Australia v. France, 1974)
· Lockerbie Case (Libya v. United States, 1992)
· Certain Expenses Case (United Nations v. United States, 1989)
· Nicaragua Case (Nicaragua v. United States, 1986)
· Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (Advisory Opinion, 1996)
· Case Concerning Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States,
2004)
· Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States, 2003)
· East Timor Case (Portugal v. Australia, 1995)
· South West Africa Cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa, 1966)
· Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States v. Canada, 1938)
· Temple of Preah Vihear Case (Cambodia v. Thailand, 1962)
· Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (United Kingdom v. Iceland, 1974)
· Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo v. Uganda, 2005)
8
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization (WHO) has played a crucial role in the global response to the
COVID-19 pandemic since its emergence in late 2019. As the leading international health
agency, WHO has provided technical guidance and coordination to governments, healthcare
professionals, and the public in addressing the challenges posed by the pandemic. WHO's
contributions have ranged from coordinating research efforts, providing guidance on public
health measures, to supporting the equitable distribution of vaccines and supplies to those in
need.
From the outset of the pandemic, WHO has been actively monitoring the situation, providing
timely updates and guidance to countries and health organizations around the world. WHO
declared COVID-19 a public health emergency of international concern in January 2020, and
later declared it a pandemic in March 2020, urging governments and individuals to take ur-
gent action to prevent its spread.
WHO has also been instrumental in coordinating global efforts to research and develop treat-
ments, vaccines, and other medical technologies to combat COVID-19. WHO has played a
key role in coordinating global vaccine distribution efforts, advocating for equitable access to
vaccines for all countries regardless of income or geopolitical considerations.
Furthermore, WHO has been instrumental in providing technical guidance and support to
countries in managing their COVID-19 response, including advice on surveillance, contact
tracing, testing, and clinical care. WHO has also developed a range of resources and tools to
support healthcare professionals and the public, including online training courses, guidance
documents, and public health messaging.
9
Despite facing criticism and challenges throughout the pandemic, WHO continues to play a
critical role in shaping the global response to this unprecedented public health crisis. The or-
ganization's expertise and leadership in responding to COVID-19 have been instrumental in
guiding the international community through this challenging time.
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. "The World Health Organization and the Globalization of Epidemic Disease" by

Andrew Price-Smith
In "The World Health Organization and the Globalization of Epidemic Disease," Andrew
Price-Smith provides a critical analysis of the World Health Organization's (WHO) response
to the globalization of epidemic disease. The book argues that the WHO has faced numerous
challenges in its efforts to contain and control the spread of infectious diseases in a globalized
world.
One of the key themes of the book is the role of political and economic factors in shaping the
global response to epidemic disease. Price-Smith argues that the WHO's efforts have often
been constrained by geopolitical considerations, including the influence of powerful countries
and the interests of multinational corporations. This has led to a situation where some coun-
tries are better equipped to respond to epidemic disease than others, exacerbating global
health inequalities. Another important theme of the book is the impact of globalization on the
spread of infectious diseases. Price-Smith argues that increased travel, trade, and migration
have made it easier for diseases to spread across borders, making it more difficult for individ-
ual countries to control outbreaks. The book explores the challenges of global disease surveil-
lance and the importance of international cooperation in responding to outbreaks.
Overall, "The World Health Organization and the Globalization of Epidemic Disease" pro-
vides a thought-provoking analysis of the complex challenges facing the WHO in its efforts
to address epidemic disease in a globalized world. The book highlights the need for greater
international cooperation, political will, and investment in global health systems to address
these challenges and ensure that all countries are able to respond effectively to epidemic dis-
ease.
2. "The COVID-19 Catastrophe: What's Gone Wrong and How to Stop It Happening
Again" by Richard Horton
10
Richard Horton's "The COVID-19 Catastrophe: What's Gone Wrong and How to Stop It
Happening Again" provides a critical analysis of the global response to the COVID-19 pan-
demic. The book argues that the pandemic has exposed systemic failures in global gover-
nance, public health, and societal structures that have exacerbated the impact of the virus.
One of the key themes of the book is the role of politics and leadership in shaping the re-
sponse to the pandemic. Horton argues that many governments, including the United States
and the United Kingdom, failed to take the threat of the virus seriously and were slow to im-
plement effective public health measures. This led to a situation where the virus was able to
spread unchecked, resulting in a catastrophic loss of life and economic damage. Another im-
portant theme of the book is the impact of global inequality on the pandemic. Horton argues
that the virus has disproportionately affected vulnerable populations, including those living in
poverty, ethnic minorities, and refugees. The book explores the challenges of achieving equi-
table access to vaccines and medical supplies, and the need for greater international coopera-
tion to address these issues.
Overall, "The COVID-19 Catastrophe" provides a sobering analysis of the failures of the
global response to the pandemic. The book calls for urgent action to address the systemic is-
sues that have contributed to the pandemic, including greater investment in public health,
global governance reform, and the need for leadership that prioritizes science over politics.
The book offers important insights into how we can learn from the pandemic to build a more
resilient and equitable world in the future.
3. "Global Health Governance and the World Health Organization" by Kelley Lee
and Kent Buse
Kelley Lee and Kent Buse's "Global Health Governance and the World Health Organization"
provides a comprehensive analysis of the role of the World Health Organization (WHO) in
global health governance. The book explores the evolving landscape of global health and the
challenges facing the WHO in its efforts to address global health issues.
One of the key themes of the book is the need for greater accountability and transparency in
global health governance. Lee and Buse argue that the current system of global health gover-
nance is fragmented and lacks coherence, resulting in duplication of efforts and inefficient
use of resources. The book explores the challenges of achieving greater coordination and in-
tegration of global health efforts, and the role of the WHO in promoting these goals.
11
Another important theme of the book is the impact of power dynamics and geopolitics on
global health governance. Lee and Buse argue that the interests of powerful countries and ac-
tors often shape the global health agenda, leading to situations where some health issues are
prioritized over others. The book explores the challenges of achieving a more equitable and
inclusive global health agenda, and the role of the WHO in promoting these goals.
Overall, "Global Health Governance and the World Health Organization" provides a thought-
provoking analysis of the challenges facing the WHO in its efforts to address global health is-
sues. The book highlights the need for greater accountability, transparency, and political will
to achieve a more coherent and effective global health governance system. The book offers
important insights into how we can improve global health governance and promote health eq-
uity and social justice in the future.
4. "The Health of Nations: The Campaign to End Polio and Eradicate Epidemic Dis-
eases" by Karen Bartlett
Karen Bartlett's "The Health of Nations: The Campaign to End Polio and Eradicate Epidemic
Diseases" provides an in-depth analysis of the global campaign to end polio and eradicate
other epidemic diseases. The book traces the history of the polio vaccine and the efforts of
global health organizations, including the World Health Organization (WHO), to promote
vaccination and disease prevention around the world.
One of the key themes of the book is the role of international cooperation in achieving global
health goals. Bartlett argues that the successful campaign to end polio was the result of a col-
laborative effort involving governments, health organizations, and communities around the
world. The book explores the challenges of achieving global health goals in the face of politi-
cal and economic constraints, and the importance of sustained investment in public health
systems.
Another important theme of the book is the role of community engagement in disease preven-
tion and control. Bartlett argues that successful disease prevention and control efforts require
the active participation of communities and the development of culturally appropriate health
promotion strategies. The book explores the challenges of community engagement in global
health efforts and the importance of local leadership in achieving health equity. Overall, "The
Health of Nations" provides a compelling analysis of the global campaign to end polio and
12
eradicate epidemic diseases. The book highlights the importance of international cooperation,
sustained investment in public health systems, and community engagement in achieving
global health goals. The book offers important insights into how we can learn from the suc-
cessful campaign to end polio to address other global health challenges in the future.
5. "Navigating Health: The Role of Health Organizations during COVID-19" by

Michaela Told and Ilona Kickbusch
Told and Kickbusch's book provides a detailed account of the role health organizations
played during the COVID-19 pandemic, with particular emphasis on WHO. It analyzes
WHO's initial response to the virus outbreak, coordination efforts, and strategies for mitigat-
ing global health risks. The book underscores the role WHO played in shaping global health
governance and response strategies, offering a comprehensive perspective on the challenges
faced and the necessary actions taken to combat the pandemic.
6. "Pandemic Response: A Global History from Cholera to COVID-19" by Mark

Harrison
In this historical account, Harrison explores past pandemic responses and contrasts them with
the current COVID-19 approach. While not entirely centered on WHO, the book highlights
the organization's role in coordinating international responses and its unprecedented efforts
during the COVID-19 crisis. This comparison of past and present response mechanisms of-
fers invaluable insights into WHO's contribution to pandemic management.
7. "Global Pandemics: From Preparation to Response and Recovery" by Ronald

Labonte and Arne Ruckert
Labonte and Ruckert's work explores global responses to pandemics, primarily focusing on
preparation, response, and recovery strategies. The book provides a critical analysis of
WHO's role in each of these stages during the COVID-19 pandemic. It offers a comprehen-
sive review of the organization's initiatives, including its guidance for health systems
strengthening, development of global research roadmaps, and advocacy for equitable vaccine
distribution.
8. "Health Diplomacy in a Global Age: An Introduction" by Sebastián Gatica and

Jorge Belaunzarán
13
This book presents a thorough exploration of health diplomacy in the age of globalization.
While examining the case of COVID-19, it discusses WHO's role in mediating among differ-
ent stakeholders, promoting global health regulations, and providing technical guidance. It is
a valuable resource to understand WHO's contribution in managing the pandemic diplomati-
cally, scientifically, and politically.
9. "COVID-19: The Crucial Role of Public Health Policies" by Sania Nishtar and
Richard J. Hatchett
Nishtar and Hatchett's book reviews the role of public health policies during the COVID-19
pandemic, emphasizing the critical role WHO played in shaping these policies. It provides in-
depth insights into WHO's tireless efforts in promoting evidence-based policies, issuing
guidelines, coordinating global efforts, and supporting countries with weak health systems.
This book offers a well-rounded understanding of WHO's policy-making and implementation
strategies during the crisis.
10. "The Global Response to COVID-19: Successes, Failures, and the Road to Re-
covery" by Helen Clark and Peter Piot
This comprehensive review by Clark and Piot provides a balanced perspective on the global
response to the pandemic. The authors commend WHO's role in handling the crisis, but also
highlight areas for improvement. The book offers critical insights into WHO's contribution,
including its emergency declaration, pandemic preparedness and response measures, and
commitment to health equity. It also discusses lessons learned and potential paths towards re-
covery, thus broadening the understanding of WHO's role and impact during the pandemic.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1. How did the World Health Organization's technical guidance and coordination efforts
influence the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic?
2. What were the challenges faced by the WHO in coordinating global vaccine distribu-
tion efforts during the pandemic, and how were these challenges addressed?
3. How effective were the public health guidance and tools developed by the WHO in
supporting healthcare professionals and the public in responding to the pandemic?
4. What role did political and economic factors play in shaping the global response to
COVID-19, and how did this impact the effectiveness of the WHO's efforts?
14
5. What lessons can be learned from the WHO's response to the COVID-19 pandemic to
improve global health systems and pandemic preparedness in the future?
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. How did the World Health Organization's early responses and strategies influence the
global trajectory of the COVID-19 pandemic?
2. What role did the World Health Organization play in coordinating international ef-
forts and facilitating information sharing during the pandemic?
3. How effective was the World Health Organization in advocating for and ensuring eq-
uity in the distribution of COVID-19 vaccines globally?
4. In what ways did the World Health Organization's policy recommendations and
guidelines impact national public health strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic?
5. How did the World Health Organization adapt its strategies and approaches in re-
sponse to the evolving nature of the COVID-19 pandemic?
HYPOTHESIS
The World Health Organization's technical guidance, coordination efforts, and advocacy for
equitable access to vaccines and medical supplies have been critical in shaping the global re-
sponse to the COVID-19 pandemic and reducing its impact, despite facing significant politi-
cal and economic challenges.
METHODOLOGY
The doctrinal research methodology on "Role & Contribution of WHO during Pandemic"
will focus on analyzing primary and secondary sources related to the WHO and its impact on
the development of international law and institutions. This methodology will involve a com-
prehensive literature review of relevant legal, historical, and political science sources, includ-
ing treaties, case law, scholarly articles, and books.
15
CHAPTERISATION / PLAN OF STUDY
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The introductory chapter sets the stage for the study, providing an overview of the COVID-
19 pandemic and its global impact. It introduces the World Health Organization's role during
the pandemic, outlining the research questions and objectives. It also provides a brief preview
of the subsequent chapters, their themes, and the methodological approach of the study. The
chapter concludes by highlighting the significance of the study in understanding the WHO's
contributions and challenges in managing a global health crisis.
CHAPTER 2: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND MANDATE OF THE WHO
This chapter outlines the World Health Organization's legal framework and mandate, explain-
ing how these established norms guided its role and responses during the COVID-19 pan-
demic. It provides a comprehensive understanding of WHO's institutional structure and oper-
ational principles.
CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL GUIDANCE AND COORDINATION
16
This chapter delves into the WHO's provision of technical guidance to countries and its coor-
dination efforts during the pandemic. It explores how the organization shared knowledge, de-
veloped strategies, and facilitated global efforts to manage the crisis.
CHAPTER 4: ADVOCACY FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS TO VACCINES AND MED-

ICAL SUPPLIES
This chapter highlights the WHO's advocacy for equitable access to vaccines and medical
supplies. It examines the organization's strategies and initiatives to ensure a fair distribution
of resources globally, emphasizing its commitment to health equity.
CHAPTER 5: WHO’S INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND PARTNERSHIPS
In this chapter, the focus shifts to the WHO's international cooperation and partnerships dur-
ing the pandemic. It provides insights into the organization's role in fostering collaborations
and leveraging resources to combat COVID-19 globally.
CHAPTER 6: CRITICISMS, CHALLENGES OF WTO'S EFFORTS IN CURBING

COVID-19
This chapter presents a balanced perspective by exploring criticisms and challenges faced by
the WHO in its efforts against COVID-19. It provides a nuanced view of the organization's
effectiveness and the areas where improvements are necessary.
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
The concluding chapter synthesizes the key findings from the previous chapters, offering a
comprehensive view of WHO's role and contributions during the pandemic. It also suggests
directions for future research and policy-making to strengthen global health governance.
17
CHAPTER 2: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND MANDATE OF THE WHO
The United Nations (UN) has a specialised organisation called the World Health Organisation
(WHO) that is in charge of global public health. The WHO was founded in 1948 and has a
broad range of responsibilities, including directing and coordinating global health initiatives,
offering technical support, establishing norms and standards, and advancing and overseeing
health research. The WHO's constitution, international health laws, and other resolutions and
agreements all establish the organization's legal foundation and mandate.1
The International Health Conference adopted the WHO's constitution in 1946, and it went
into effect on April 7, 1948. This document serves as the organization's governing body. The
WHO's goals, duties, and organisational design are outlined in its constitution. Promoting the
attainment of the highest degree of health is the primary goal of the WHO all individuals. It
acknowledges that everyone has the fundamental right to enjoy the best possible level of
health, which is recognised as a fundamental human right.
1
Clinton, Chelsea - "The World Health Organization in Global Health: Governance, Public Health, and
Neoliberalism" (Oxford University Press, 2018)
18
The World Health Assembly (WHA) is designated as the highest decision-making body of
the WHO by the constitution. The WHA meets annually to develop policy, approve the bud-
get, and nominate the Director-General. Delegations from member states make up the WHA.
The WHA-appointed Director-General serves as the WHO's main executive officer and is in
charge of overseeing the administration and application of its policies.2
Regulations pertaining to issues of global public health concern may be issued by the WHO.
The 2005 adoption of the International Health Regulations (IHR) creates a set of rules that
must be followed when responding to public health crises that affect the entire world. With
the IHR, diseases are protected from cross-border transmission, prevented from spreading in-
ternationally, and a framework for public health initiatives is provided.
The World Health Assembly (WHA) is designated as the highest decision-making body of
the WHO by the constitution. The WHA meets annually to develop policy, approve the bud-
get, and nominate the Director-General. Delegations from member states make up the WHA.
The WHA-appointed Director-General serves as the WHO's main executive officer and is in
charge of overseeing the administration and application of its policies.
The WHO is in charge of overseeing the administration and application of its policies and has
the health endness to do so.
Regulations pertaining to issues of global public health concern may be issued by the WHO.
The 2005 adoption of the International Health Regulations (IHR) creates a set of rules that
must be followed when responding to public health crises that affect the entire world. The
IHR aims to stop the spread of illnesses across borders, defend against their transmission, and
offer a framework for coordinating public health initiatives. To comply with the IHR, mem-
ber nations must establish fundamental capabilities for disease surveillance, response, and
public health readiness.3
The WHO's mandate is determined by a number of resolutions and agreements in addition to

its constitution and the IHR. The WHA passes resolutions on particular health problems that
direct the WHO's activities in tackling global health crises. Infectious diseases, noncommuni-
2
Honigsbaum, Mark - "The Pandemic Century: One Hundred Years of Panic, Hysteria, and Hubris"
(W. W. Norton & Company, 2020)
3
Kucharski, Adam - "The Rules of Contagion: Why Things Spread - and Why They Stop" (Profile
Books, 2020)
19
cable diseases, maternity and child health, nutrition, mental health, and the improvement of
health systems are only a few of the issues covered in these resolutions.
To carry out its mission, the WHO also works with other global organisations and interested
parties. In order to address health-related challenges that have larger consequences for devel-
opment and human rights, it collaborates closely with the UN system, including the UN Gen-
eral Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, and other specialised organisations. For the
purpose of achieving global health objectives, the WHO collaborates with governments, civil
society organisations, academic institutions, and the commercial sector.
Giving member states technical support is one of the WHO's main duties. It helps nations cre-
ate and put into effect national health policies, strategies, and programmes. This involves giv-
ing advice on health promotion, disease prevention and control, the development of the health
workforce, and the improvement of health systems. During crises like infectious disease epi-
demics or natural catastrophes, the WHO is essential in organising worldwide health re-
sponses.
The WHO's involvement in health research and development is another significant compo-
nent of its mandate. The group supports the creation and sharing of scientific knowledge to
guide practises and policy in the field of health. It works in partnership with research organi-
sations and others to encourage the implementation of evidence-based solutions, make data
and information sharing easier, and support research on important health.4
The WHO works to fulfil its mandate by tackling diverse health issues and promoting health
as a fundamental right for all people and communities through partnerships, coordinating ef-
forts, and technical support.
In reacting to situations involving the health of the world, the WHO is essential. It coordi-
nates international efforts to stop, find, and deal with infectious disease epidemics like those
caused by Ebola, Zika, and COVID-19. It encourages the sharing of knowledge and experi-
ence, offers advice to member governments on preparedness and response measures, and mo-
bilises money to aid underdeveloped nations. Leading and coordinating these initiatives is the
4
Quick, Jonathan D. - "The End of Epidemics: The Looming Threat to Humanity and How to Stop It" (St. Mar-
tin's Press, 2018)
20
responsibility of the WHO's Emergency Programme, which guarantees a prompt and efficient
response to public health emergencies.5
The WHO also works to achieve the health-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
which were accepted by UN member states in 2015. This is in addition to its emergency re-
sponse activities. The SDGs include a wide range of health-related goals, including as lower-
ing maternal and infant mortality, eradicating infectious diseases, fostering mental health, en-
suring universal access to healthcare, and enhancing health systems. With an emphasis on eq-
uity and leaving no one behind, the WHO helps countries set goals, create plans, and track
their progress towards achieving them.
At a global level, the WHO also takes part in advocacy and policy creation. In order to influ-
ence worldwide health policies and initiatives, it carries out research, compiles evidence, and
offers professional advice on critical health issues. The WHO can bring together member na-
tions, civil society organisations, and other stakeholders to exchange knowledge, share best
practises, and forge consensus on important health issues because of its function as a con-
vener and debate platform.6
The WHO depends on the financial support of its partner organisations and member nations
to effectively carry out its mandate. The majority of the organization's budget is supported by
voluntary contributions from governments, charities, and other organisations in addition to
assessed contributions from member states based on their financial capabilities. The WHO
has systems in place to guarantee openness, responsibility, and effective resource usage in
carrying out its activities.7
The WHO has a wide-ranging and important mandate, yet it also has problems and restric-
tions. The organisation works in a challenging and ever-changing environment for global
health, one with a variety of political, economical, and cultural factors. In order to promote
health equity and enhance health outcomes globally, it must manage geopolitical factors,
varying agendas among member states, and resource limitations. Furthermore, the voluntary
5
Nuzzo, Jennifer B., Fan, Victoria J., and Watson, Matthew - "Global Health Security: A Blueprint for the Fu-
ture" (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017)
6
Lee, Kelley - "The World Health Organization: A Guide to the New Global Health" (Oxford University Press,
2019)
7
Caduff, Carlo - "The Pandemic Perhaps: Dramatic Events in a Public Culture of Danger" (University of Cali -
fornia Press, 2015)
21
basis of member state participation may restrict the WHO's power to enforce its rules and res-
olutions.
Finally, it should be noted that the World Health Organisation functions under a legal frame-
work established by its charter as well as international health laws and decisions. With an em-
phasis on disease prevention, health promotion, and the bolstering of health systems, its mis-
sion is to advance the best level of health for all people. The ideals of equity, solidarity, and
open access to healthcare serve as the foundation for the WHO's activities. The WHO's con-
stitution, international health laws, and resolutions define its legal framework and mandate
through its technical support and coordination efforts. The organization's work encompasses
a wide range of activities, including health promotion, research, and emergency response in
addition to illness prevention and control. Technical support, international cooperation, and
support for health as a fundamental right are all ways that the WHO is essential to advancing
global health and tackling the health issues that communities all over the world face.
The legal framework and mandate of the WHO also cover a number of other crucial areas.
The promotion of social determinants of health and health equity is one of them. The WHO is
aware that social, economic, and environmental factors have an impact on health disparities.
It promotes policies that deal with these factors and advance fair access to healthcare, with a
special emphasis on disadvantaged groups and vulnerable populations.8
In times of public health emergency and humanitarian crisis, the WHO is vital. To deliver
prompt and well-coordinated solutions in emergencies like natural disasters, conflicts, and
refugee crises, it closely collaborates with partners and stakeholders. The organisation sup-
ports the provision of vital healthcare in difficult environments, disease surveillance, immuni-
sation campaigns, and emergency medical services.9
International efforts to control and eradicate communicable illnesses must also be coordi-
nated and supported by the WHO. In order to prevent, identify, and treat diseases like HIV/
AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and neglected tropical diseases, it offers member states technical
advice and assistance. The WHO assists nations in improving their healthcare systems, creat-
8
Lewis, Milton J. - "The World Health Organization: A History" (Cambridge University Press, 2019)
9
Live" (Little, Brown and Company, 2020) Lewis, Milton J. - "The World Health Organization: A History"
(Cambridge University Press, 2019)
22
ing mechanisms for response and surveillance, and gaining access to necessary drugs and
vaccinations through cooperative programmes.
In order to address new health concerns and advance international health security, the WHO's
mandate has been substantially broadened. Through the creation of vaccines and treatments,
it works to improve preparedness and response capabilities for infectious disease outbreaks.
The WHO oversees the development of new treatments and coordinates international efforts
to tackle antimicrobial resistance. Additionally, it discusses recent concerns on climate
change, environmental health, and the effects of globalisation on health.
The WHO works through its regional offices, which offer technical assistance and regional
coordination, to carry out its mandate. These offices work with member states to address par-
ticular health issues and customise approaches to local need. They support capacity building,
knowledge exchange, and the application of WHO policies and strategies in their respective
regions. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has a broad legal framework and mandate
that cover a variety of operations connected to health. Its work in promoting health, prevent-
ing disease, bolstering health systems, coordinating international responses, and tackling
global health concerns is guided by its constitution as well as international health legislation,
resolutions, and agreements. Health equity, communicable illnesses, crises, and new health
hazards are all covered under the WHO's mandate.The WHO works to realise its mission of
"health for all" and enhance the welfare of people and communities around the world through
its technical know-how, advocacy work, and partnerships.10
LEGAL FRAMEWORK GOVERNING THE WHO
An international body called the World Health Organisation (WHO) is in charge of organis-
ing and directing policies, initiatives, and programmes pertaining to global health. The
WHO's charter, as well as several international accords, resolutions, and rules, form the orga-
nization's legal foundation. The organization's structure, duties, and interactions with member
states are supported by this framework. We shall examine the main components of the legal
system that oversees the WHO in this essay. The basic legal foundation of the WHO is estab -
10
Christakis, Nicholas A. - "Apollo's Arrow: The Profound and Enduring Impact of Coronavirus on the Way
We
23
lished by its constitution, which was ratified on July 22, 1946, and came into effect on April
7, 1948. The goals, duties, and governance structure of the organisation are described in the
constitution. According to its definition, health is not just the absence of disease but also a
condition of total physical, mental, and social well-being illness or defect. Every human be-
ing has a fundamental right to the best standard of health, according to the constitution.
The terms of the constitution are binding on all WHO member states. The WHO will have
194 members as of 2021. Each member state appoints a representative to take part in the or-
ganization's decision-making process. The World Health Assembly (WHA) is designated as
the highest decision-making body of the WHO by the constitution. Delegations from member
states make up the WHA, which holds yearly meetings to decide on policies, approve bud-
gets, and choose the director general.11
In addition to its constitution, the WHO is governed by a number of international treaties, res-
olutions, and laws. The International Health Regulations (IHR), which were first approved in
1969 and amended in 2005, are one of the most significant international agreements. Infec-
tious diseases are included in the worldwide public health crises that the IHR give a legal
framework for the prevention, identification, and response to. When a health emergency
arises, member states must cooperate in sharing information and resources with the WHO and
report specific incidents and diseases to the organisation.
The WHA resolutions that have been adopted are another crucial component of the legal sys-
tem. Resolutions act as policy declarations and direct the organization's operations. They en-
compass a wide range of health-related topics, such as the prevention and treatment of dis-
ease, the improvement of health systems, research, and the encouragement of active lives. Al-
though resolutions lack legal force, they have political clout and have an impact on member
nations' behaviour.
Additionally, the WHO has the power to adopt laws in certain situations. A specialised divi-
sion of the WHO, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), establishes
guidelines for categorising carcinogens. Public health policies and regulations pertaining to
the prevention and control of cancer are informed by these regulations.
11
Christakis, Nicholas A. - "Apollo's Arrow: The Profound and Enduring Impact of Coronavirus on the Way
We
24
To solve problems with global health, the WHO works with other international organisations
and agencies. It has partnerships with the United Nations (UN) and some of its specialised or-
ganisations, including UNICEF and the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme).
These collaborations improve coordination and cooperation between various organisations
and sectors in order to advance health and fulfil the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The WHO's legislative structure has measures for funding its operations as well. According
to their financial ability, member nations contribute to the organization's budget, and addi-
tional money comes from voluntarily made contributions from governments, charities, and
other sources. The WHO has financial policies and guidelines to guarantee accountability and
openness in the use of its resources.
The values of human rights are also included in the legislative framework that governs the
WHO. The right to health is one of the many human rights that the WHO is dedicated to ad-
vancing and defending. In order to enhance health outcomes globally, it acknowledges the so-
cial determinants of health, such as poverty, inequality, and prejudice.12
a plan for handling global public health emergencies. As the top decision-making body, the
World Health Assembly is essential in formulating policy and approving budgets. The WHA
has passed resolutions that direct the organization's operations and address numerous health-
related topics. Resolutions have political heft and have an impact on member states' behav-
iour even though they are not legally enforceable. The WHO has the power to enact regula-
tions in addition to resolutions in certain cases. For instance, rules for categorising carcino-
gens are set forth by the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a spe-
cialised agency. Public health policies and regulations pertaining to the prevention and con-
trol of cancer are informed by these regulations.
To effectively address difficulties in global health, the WHO works with other international
organisations and agencies. The United Nations (UN) and its specialised agencies, such as the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF), have become partners. These collaborations improve coordination and coopera-
tion between various organisations and sectors in order to advance health and fulfil the Sus-
12
Horton, Richard - "The COVID-19 Catastrophe: What's Gone Wrong and How to Stop It Happening Again"
(Polity Press, 2020)
25
tainable Development Goals (SDGs). An essential component of the WHO's legal structure is
how its activities are funded. According to their financial ability, member nations contribute
to the organization's budget, and additional money comes from voluntarily made contribu-
tions from governments, charities, and other sources. In order to ensure accountability and
transparency in the use of its resources, the WHO has put in place financial regulations and
standards.
Furthermore, human rights values are included in the legislative framework that governs the
WHO. The right to health is one of the many human rights that the WHO is dedicated to ad-
vancing and defending. In order to enhance health outcomes globally, it acknowledges the so-
cial determinants of health, such as poverty, inequality, and prejudice. The WHO also empha-
sises healthcare access equity and works to eliminate health inequities between countries.13
The WHO's legal system is still developing and adapting to the shifting conditions of global
health. The organisation works with member states and others to produce policies, guidelines,
and recommendations as new health concerns arise. These initiatives attempt to improve
global health and well-being by addressing the most important health challenges.14
The legislative framework of the WHO is continually being developed and adjusted to the
ever-changing global health landscape. As new health issues emerge, the agency collaborates
with member governments and others to develop policies, guidelines, and recommendations.
By addressing the most significant health concerns, these projects aim to promote overall
health and wellbeing. The WHO is governed by international law in addition to its constitu-
tion, agreements, resolutions, and rules. Being an international organisation, it is bound by
the tenets and standards of international legal instruments and acts within the bounds of inter-
national law.
The United Nations Charter is a key legal document that regulates the activities of the WHO.
The WHO acts in conformity with the objectives and tenets of the UN Charter because it is a
specialised agency of the UN. These include of preserving world peace and security, encour-
aging respect for human rights, and encouraging international collaboration. The WHO coop-
erates with a number of international human rights agreements. The right to the highest stan-
13
Shah, Sonia - "Pandemic: Tracking Contagions, from Cholera to Ebola and Beyond" (Picador, 2016)
14
Mosley, Michael - "COVID-19: Everything You Need to Know about the Corona Virus and the Race for the
Vaccine" (Bantam Press, 2020)
26
dard of physical and mental health is recognised in these documents, including the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cul-
tural Rights. The legal structure of the WHO is based on the ideas of these human rights doc-
uments and aims to further and defend everyone's right to health.
The legal framework of the WHO has connections to various fields of international law, in-
cluding intellectual property rights and international commercial law. The organisation works
on challenges involving the availability of vaccines, medications, and other crucial health
technologies. It urges the use of flexibility in global trade agreements to ensure accessible at a
fair price.
technologies. It promotes the use of trade agreement flexibilities to provide cheap and equal
access to healthcare items, particularly in developing nations.15
The legal structure of the WHO is flexible and adapts to new health concerns. The Interna-
tional Health Regulations (IHR), for instance, have been updated to improve the ability of the
entire world to identify, evaluate, and respond to public health emergencies. In order to pre-
vent and stop the transmission of illnesses internationally, the IHR also emphasise the value
of coordination and cooperation among member states and other stakeholders.
Although the WHO is governed by a strong legal system, it must respect the sovereignty of
its member states in order to function. The WHO's role in international health problems is to
offer direction, technical support, and coordination. Member nations are ultimately responsi-
ble for the health of their populations. The WHO's constitution, international agreements, res-
olutions, and rules all fall under the purview of the organization's legal system. It functions in
accordance with international law, which encompasses international human rights treaties and
the United Nations Charter. The legal framework of the WHO also touches on other fields of
international law, like trade and intellectual property rights. The WHO's legislative frame-
work emphasises cooperation with many stakeholders and the capacity to change in response
15
Kickbusch, Ilona, Lister, Graham, Told, Michaela, and Drager, Nick - "Global Health Diplomacy: Concepts,
Issues, Actors, Instruments, Fora, and Cases" (Springer, 2013)
27
to new health concerns. In the end, the organization's legal framework supports its goal of en-
couraging everyone to achieve the best level of health.
technologies. It promotes the use of trade agreement flexibilities to provide cheap and equal
access to healthcare items, particularly in developing nations.16
The changing landscape of global health governance has an impact on the WHO's legal
framework as well. Collaboration between the organisation and a variety of stakeholders,
such as non-governmental organisations, civil society organisations, and the private sector. In
order to address complex health concerns, mobilise resources, and implement successful in-
terventions, partnerships and involvement with these players are essential.
The changing landscape of global health governance has an impact on the WHO's legal
framework as well. Collaboration between the organisation and a variety of stakeholders,
such as non-governmental organisations, civil society organisations, and the private sector. In
order to address complex health concerns, mobilise resources, and implement successful in-
terventions, partnerships and involvement with these players are essential. The legal structure
of the WHO is flexible and adapts to new health concerns. The International Health Regula-
tions (IHR), for instance, have been updated to improve the ability of the entire world to iden-
tify, evaluate, and respond to public health emergencies. In order to prevent and stop the
transmission of illnesses internationally, the IHR also emphasise the value of coordination
and cooperation among member states and other stakeholders.17
The WHO's constitution, international agreements, resolutions, and rules all fall under the
purview of the organization's legal system. It functions in accordance with international law,
which encompasses international human rights treaties and the United Nations Charter. The
legal framework of the WHO also touches on other fields of international law, like trade and
intellectual property rights. The WHO's legislative framework emphasises cooperation with
16
Harman, Sophie - "Global Health Governance and the Fight Against HIV/AIDS" (Ashgate Publishing, 2009)
Gostin, Lawrence O. - "Global Health Law" (Harvard University Press, 2014)
17
Fidler, David P. - "International Law and Public Health: Materials on and Analysis of Global Health Jurispru -
dence" (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018)
28
many stakeholders and the capacity to change in response to new health concerns. In the end,
the organization's legal framework supports its goal of encouraging everyone to achieve the
best level of health.
The World Health Organization's (WHO) legal framework goes beyond its charter, interna-
tional agreements, resolutions, and rules. It also contains a list of fundamental beliefs and
ideals that serve as the organization's compass. The organization's actions and dealings with
member states and other stakeholders are guided by these values.18
The WHO's dedication to the universality principle is one of its core values. The group ac-
knowledges that access to the best practicable standard of health should be available to all
people, regardless of their nationality, ethnicity, or socioeconomic condition. The WHO's ef-
forts to promote equity and address health inequities among various groups and areas are
highlighted by this principle.
The WHO's dedication to the universality principle is one of its core values. The group ac-
knowledges that access to the best practicable standard of health should be available to all
people, regardless of their nationality, ethnicity, or socioeconomic condition. The WHO's ef-
forts to promote equity and address health inequities among various groups and areas are
highlighted by this principle. The WHO's dedication to the universality principle is one of its
core values. The group acknowledges that access to the best practicable standard of health
should be available to all people, regardless of their nationality, ethnicity, or socioeconomic
condition. The WHO's efforts to promote equity and address health inequities among various
groups and areas are highlighted by this principle.19
The organization's dedication to making decisions based on data is another crucial concept.
The WHO stresses the significance of scientific data, research, and evidence in developing
health policy and actions. To create and disseminate data to back up global health initiatives,
it relies on the technical departments' skills and partnerships with academic institutions and
research organisations. The legal structure of the WHO also includes the fundamental values
of transparency and accountability. The organisation works to ensure transparency in its fi-
18
Lee, Kelley - "The World Health Organization: A Guide to the New Global Health" (Oxford University Press,
2019)
19
Goodwin, Michele, and Dupont, Veronique - "The World Health Organization" (Routledge, 2019)
29
nancial management, decision-making, and information-sharing. It promotes open informa-
tion sharing and teamwork in a climate of trust and accountability among member nations
and other stakeholders. In order to make sure that its initiatives are successful and in line with
its objectives, the WHO has put in place monitoring and evaluation procedures.
EFFORTS IN RESPONDING TO PANDEMIC
The global response to the COVID-19 pandemic has required unprecedented efforts from
governments, international organizations, healthcare systems, and communities worldwide.
This essay will explore the various aspects of the response to the pandemic, including public
health measures, healthcare system preparedness, scientific research and development, inter-
national cooperation, and the socio-economic impact of the crisis. 20 Implementing public
health measures to stop the spread of the virus has been one of the main facets of the pan-
demic response. These precautions include social seclusion, mask use, hand washing, and
travel limitations. Governments and public health organisations have been instrumental in ad-
vancing these policies, making rules and regulations, and educating the populace. These ini-
tiatives have been essential in curbing the virus' spread and easing the strain on healthcare
systems.
Healthcare system readiness has been a key component of the pandemic response. To handle
the surge of COVID-19 patients, many nations have improved their healthcare systems and
capacities. In order to do this, temporary hospitals have been built, the availability of inten-
sive care units and ventilators has increased, and healthcare professionals have been trained
in infection prevention and control. Governments have also sought to improve the accessibil-
ity of necessary medical supplies, such as testing kits and personal protective equipment
(PPE).
The pandemic response has benefited greatly from scientific progress and study. Globally,
scientists and researchers have been working nonstop to comprehend the virus, create diag-
nostic tools, and investigate potential cures and vaccines. Multiple COVID-19 vaccines have
been developed and distributed quickly, which is a great accomplishment. The advancement
20
Sridhar, Devi - "The Battle Against Hunger: Choice, Circumstance, and the World Bank" (Oxford University
Press, 2008)
30
of research and development initiatives has been significantly accelerated through interna-
tional collaboration and knowledge sharing.21
The global scope of the pandemic has necessitated international cooperation. Organisations
like the World Health Organisation (WHO) have been crucial in organising the response, giv-
ing countries direction, and allowing the transfer of knowledge and resources. For low-in-
come nations in particular, multilateral programmes like COVAX have been formed to pro-
vide fair access to vaccines. Additionally, collaborations and bilateral agreements have been
established to aid nations in need by giving them financial help, medical supplies, and tech-
nological know-how.22
The pandemic's substantial socioeconomic effects necessitated a well-coordinated response.

To lessen the crisis's financial effects, governments and international organisations have
taken a number of actions. These consist of salary subsidies, corporate support, financial
stimulus plans, and social safety nets for vulnerable groups. Additionally, efforts have been
made to address the effects on social services like education and mental health.
The necessity of good communication and risk communication tactics has been made clear by
the pandemic response. Governments and public health agencies have been required to
promptly notify the public about the infection, available help, and preventative measures. To
make sure that correct information reaches all facets of society, this has meant utilising a va-
riety of communication methods, including traditional media, social media, and community
participation.
CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL GUIDANCE AND COORDINATION
WHO'S TECHNICAL GUIDANCE AND COORDINATION EFFORTS IN RE-

SPONDING TO COVID-19 PANDEMIC
A. WHO’S STRATEGIC PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE PLAN
21
Brown, Theodore M. - "The Making of Modern Medicine: Turning Points in the Treatment of Disease" (Uni-
versity of Kansas Press, 2007)
22
Yamey, Gavin - "The UN and Health: From the League of Nations to the World Health Organization" (Pal-
grave Macmillan, 2018)
31
On the 30th of January, a worldwide public health emergency was declared, and on the 4th of
February, the World Health Organisation (WHO) released their Strategic Preparedness and
Response Plan (SPRP). As the pandemic evolved, the SPRP was updated in April to highlight
the importance of critical aspects of the public health response. This was done in particular to
respond to the difficulties faced by many countries at that time by setting out clear criteria
that countries could use to ensure that they exited lockdowns safely and sustainably. As the
pandemic progressed, the SPRP was updated to emphasise the importance of critical aspects
of the public health response. The response plan is structured around nine pillars that are
technical and operational in nature (figure 4), in addition to a tenth overarching pillar that is
dedicated to global research and innovation. The plan is devised with the intention of accom-
plishing three straightforward objectives: to stop the spread of the virus; to preserve lives; and
to shield those who are vulnerable. The structure of the pillars is mirrored by the WHO's Inci-
dent Management Support Team (IMST), which is present at all three levels of the organisa-
tion: the WHO's global headquarters, its regional offices, and over 150 country offices. 23 The
International Disaster Support Team (IMST) supplies the infrastructure required to support
the response at the appropriate organisational size (subnational, national, regional, and
global). This infrastructure includes technical support, operational assistance, planning and
coordination support, logistical support, and safety management support. The Strategic Prior-
ity Response Plan was prepared, and should be assessed, in the context of WHO's Thirteenth
General Programme of Work (GPW13), which places impact and delivering for countries at
the heart of the Organization's mandate. GPW13 holds the WHO accountable for three lofty
goals that overlap with one another. These goals are to increase the number of people who are
better protected from health emergencies; increase the number of people who benefit from
universal health coverage; and increase the number of people who enjoy improved health and
well-being. Each of these three interconnected objectives faces a direct obstacle posed by
COVID-19, and the pandemic represents a difficulty that has been successfully overcome
thanks to the organization-wide effort that was put forward.
Although the IMST framework remains the same at each level of WHO, the focus that is
placed on practical concerns shifts. At the global level, the primary focus is on the rapid scal-
ing, adaption, and sustainability of critical planning, coordination, and operational support
platforms to facilitate the work of the technical pillars at all levels of the response. This is to
23
Kickbusch, Ilona - "Global Health Diplomacy: Concepts, Issues, Actors, Instruments, Fora, and Cases"
(Springer, 2013)
32
ensure that the response can continue to be effective in the long term. Within the technical
pillars at the global level, there is a dual focus on the rapid development and periodic reap-
praisal of key norms, standards, and guidance to set the parameters and key requirements of
an effective response at the national level; and, working through the crosscutting operational
platforms to ensure that countries are supported to meet those requirements. In other words,
the parameters and key requirements of an effective response at the national level are set by
the global level. At the regional level, the primary focus is on working closely with nations to
understand their specific needs and situations, and on adapting and tailoring technical and op-
erational support accordingly. This requires working closely with countries to understand
their exact needs and settings. Established ties with regional economic, political, and public
health institutions provide crucial platforms for the World Health Organisation (WHO), al-
lowing it to increase and coordinate its support for individual countries. These international
and regional efforts will translate into direct support for affected populations and govern-
ments at the national level, and increasingly at the subnational level as well.24
The SPRP and its update offered a model that nations may use as a basis for developing their
very own national COVID-19 action plans, with the assistance of regional and country of-
fices. However, not all countries require or want the same level of support from WHO, and
the support requirements of many countries have varied over the course of the epidemic. The
World Health Organisation (WHO) has provided direct support to nations with the goal of as-
sisting them in the execution of their respective pandemic response plans. For instance, in na-
tions that have health emergency preparedness and readiness capacities that are highly devel-
oped, the World Health Organization's assistance is primarily confined to the provision and
adaption of the necessary technical guidelines, norms, and standards that are required to di-
rect the response. On the other end of the spectrum, particularly in nations or subnational ter-
ritories that are fragile, conflict-affected, and/or vulnerable (FCV countries), the World
Health Organization's help is more operational. In some instances, WHO works with partners
as a provider of last resort for key services and commodities.25
24
Stone, Howard - "The Birth of Global Health: An Introduction to the World Health Organization" (Routledge,
2013)
25
Cassels, Andrew - "Health Sector Reform: Key Issues in Less Developed Countries" (Palgrave Macmillan,
2010)
Buse, Kent, and Harmer, Andrew - "Power, Politics, and Universal Health Coverage: The Inside Story of a
Global Campaign" (Oxford University Press, 2020)
33
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has used several of the tools and platforms that have
been established and enhanced since 2016 to assess national health emergency preparedness
and response capacities in conformity with the International Health Regulations in order to
prioritise countries for support during Covid-19. This has allowed the WHO to determine
which countries require the most assistance. Assessments of national operational readiness to
respond to COVID-19, as well as their vulnerability and risk, were based on a combination of
the results reported through the self-assessment International Health Regulations State Parties
Annual Reporting tool, information from voluntary joint external evaluations, and other con-
textual information gleaned from country-specific COVID-19 situation analyses. These eval-
uations were carried out in order to determine whether or not the nation was prepared to re-
spond to COVID-19. Other significant considerations were the current and expected location
of a country on a continuum of intensity of COVID-19 transmission, as well as whether or
not a country had been included in the UN Global Humanitarian Response Plan (GHRP) for
COVID-19. The GHRP is an initiative of the United Nations that aims to improve humanitar-
ian assistance around the world.
In order to meet the demands of countries, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has had to
expand its footprint at the country level across the globe. At the national level, the Organisa-
tion has temporarily added more than 1200 new people to the workforce in order to deliver
the technical and operational support that governments have requested, with more than 60%
of this surge in capacity concentrated in GHRP countries. Additionally, the Organisation has
reallocated more than half of its pre-COVID-19 human resources to the response. This scale
up was accomplished very quickly, and as a consequence, by the end of February 2020,
eighty percent of WHO country offices were providing technical help as well as support for
procurement, logistics, information management, training, and capacity enhancement.
B. FINANCING THE PLAN FOR 2020
The findings of the first prioritisation analysis have been kept up to date on a consistent basis
as the epidemic has progressed, and these findings have guided the World Health Organiza-
tion's allocation of funding and resources throughout the year 2020. The vast majority of the
US$ 1.5 billion that the WHO has raised from more than 70 donors throughout the year 2020,
including more than US$ 240 million from the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fun, has been
allocated to fund activities and the purchase and distribution of essential supplies and equip-
34
ment at the regional and national level. This includes more than US$ 240 million from the
COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fun. The initial reaction actions that took place in January,
immediately following the appearance of COVID-19, were sponsored through the mechanism
of the WHO Contingency Fund for Emergencies, which provided 10 million United States
dollars for the COVID-19 response during the first month of the response. For the purpose of
assisting national responses in the nations that were part of the GHRP, a total of 583.5 million
US dollars was used. The majority of the funds that WHO received for the response—ap-
proximately 80% of it—was allocated in some way, either geographically or otherwise desig-
nated for a specific range of activities or materials.26
C. COORDINATION AND PLANNING
Steering a global whole-of-UN response

Because COVID-19 is a catastrophe that affects every facet of every culture, our collective
reaction had to cover a wide variety of demands and requirements on a worldwide scale in or-
der to be effective. In order to rise to the occasion and meet the challenge, the entire United
Nations system had to collaborate in order to coordinate a response that was reflective of the
organization's complete range of capabilities. The World Health Organisation has been at the
forefront of coordinating these efforts. At the international level, overarching UN coordina-
tion is handled by the United Nations Crisis Management Team (UNCMT), which was acti-
vated on 4 February 2020 and is directed by WHO. This team has been in place since the be-
ginning of the crisis. This is the highest level of crisis alert that can be issued by the United
Nations system, and it is the first time that this mechanism has been engaged for a crisis re-
lated to public health. The UN Crisis Management Team (UNCMT) combines the resources
of 23 different UN bodies into a single response structure, and it will hold over 25 meetings
in 2020. These high-level meetings are crucial in order to create and modify strategic goals
and resolve critical issues as they occur in response to constant feedback from over 130 UN
Country Teams and Resident Coordinators entrenched in the response at the national level.
These meetings will also allow for the setting and adjusting of strategic goals. The COVID-
19 supply chain platform, for example, was an effort that was established as a result of this
process. As part of the work that the WHO does in operational support and logistics, this ac-
tivity will be explained in greater detail later on.27
26
Fee, Elizabeth, and Brown, Theodore M. - "Making Medical History: The Life and Times of Henry E.
Sigerist" (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997)
27
35
The establishment of the UNCMT made it possible to build two additional strategic frame-
works in order to supplement the SPRP, which places its primary emphasis on the reaction of
the public health sector to COVID-19. The Global Humanitarian Response Plan (GHRP) for
COVID-19 was published on March 25, revised on May 7, and outlines the strategy for a
whole-of-the-UN response to the effects of COVID-19 in 63 countries around the world with
the most acute humanitarian needs. The GHRP was published on March 25 and updated on
May 7. The members of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), which effectively en-
compasses the entire humanitarian system and includes WHO, have been able to coordinate
their actions under the umbrella of the Global Health Response Plan (GHRP), which has al-
lowed them to address the most urgent needs in terms of humanitarian health, protection, and
socioeconomic concerns brought on by the pandemic. In response to a request from the
WHO, the heads of the agencies that make up the IASC have begun a scale-up for the entire
UN system, which is the highest level of emergency response for the humanitarian system.
During the same time that the GHRP was being developed, the United Nations Development
Coordination Office (UNDCO) was leading the development of a United Nations framework
for the immediate socio-economic response to COVID 19. This framework outlines an inte-
grated support package that is offered by the United Nations Development System to protect
the needs and rights of people living under the duress of the pandemic, with a focus on the
countries that are the most vulnerable. Both the Global Health Response Plan (GHRP) and
the Socioeconomic Framework (Social and Economic Framework) have important public
health components thanks to the contribution of WHO. This ensures that health is at the cen-
tre of the whole United Nations response, with WHO at the forefront of delivery.
As the Health Cluster Lead Agency, the World Health Organisation (WHO) is in charge of
leading the efforts to integrate and deliver the public health response to COVID-19 through
the Global Health Response Plan (GHRP). WHO is also responsible for providing coordina-
tion and operational support in 30 countries in partnership with 900 national and international
partners, in order to implement the GHRP and maintain essential health services. The Global
Health Cluster COVID-19 effort Team, which is situated at the WHO headquarters, simpli-
fies this effort by identifying important obstacles, supporting the adaption and implementa-
tion of WHO COVID-19 advice in low-capacity, humanitarian contexts, and capturing and
disseminating good practise. Additionally, the Global Health Cluster is a co-leader of the
Global Information Management, Assessment and Analysis Cell. This cell organises and
36
analyses information linked to COVID 19 to assist global decision-making. Additionally, this
cell offers technical support and services to countries that have been prioritised.28
At the regional level, the Regional Directors of the WHO and the Regional Directors of the
UN Development Coordination Office work together to coordinate strategy, plan, and share
information. In order to facilitate coordination between the United Nations and other partners
for multi-sectoral action, a variety of technical and operational organisations have been estab-
lished at the regional level. These bodies include regional public health institutes and regional
development banks.
D. SUPPORTING AND ENABLING NATIONAL PLANNING AND COORDINA-

TION
Within the context of the overall response at the national level, the UN Country Management
Team (UNCMT) coordinates with UN Country Teams in 136 countries to promote coordi-
nated action by UN entities and international agencies in support of national authorities. This
is done in conjunction with the overall response at the national level. Within the United Na-
tions Country Teams (UNCTs), the WHO country offices perform important strategic, techni-
cal, and operational functions. All six WHO regional offices and all 150 WHO country of-
fices have activated a COVID-19 IMST in order to provide operational and technical support
to national governments in all elements of readiness and response, including planning and co-
ordination. This support is being provided in response to the current outbreak of the COVID-
19 virus.
The direct support that WHO has provided for planning and coordination roles at the national
level has included a variety of different aspects. First, the WHO's country and regional of-
fices have collaborated closely with WHO headquarters to support national authorities in
their efforts to adapt the WHO SPRP to their respective national settings in the form of na-
tional COVID-19 readiness and response plans. This process has been underway since early
2018. This support has been delivered either on the ground by country offices and/or techni-
cal missions deployed from regional offices, or remotely in locations where travel restrictions
have precluded direct deployments from taking place. More than half of all WHO country of-
28
Leavitt, Judith Walzer - "Typhoid Mary: Captive to the Public's Health" (Beacon Press, 1997) Brown,
Theodore M. - "The Making of Modern Medicine: Turning Points in the Treatment of Disease" (University of
Kansas Press, 2007)
37
fice workers have committed time to the COVID-19 response, and all programmes have been
required to change their ways of working in order to take into consideration and assist the
COVID-19 reaction. release of operational planning guidelines guidance, which was estab-
lished by WHO to give a practical framework to develop and update COVID-19 national
plans across the major pillars of COVID-19 readiness and response, improved the process of
formulating national action plans, which was made easier by the release of operational plan-
ning guidelines advice. The percentage of countries, territories, and areas in all regions that
had a preparedness and response plan increased from 47% in March 2020 to 91% by the 31st
of December 2020. Additionally, the percentage of countries, territories, and areas that had a
functional COVID-19 coordination mechanism increased from 45% to 97%. The goal for
both of these metrics is to reach 100%.29
Now that national plans are in place, the next stage is to match the available international
support and resources to solve any gaps, as well as to regularly assess the implementation and
make course corrections as necessary. The COVID-19 Partners Platform is intended to make
it possible for national and international partners, in addition to national authorities, to collab-
orate on the planning, tracking, and resource allocation for the COVID-19 response.
Initially the Platform offered three main features:
· a resource tracker to highlight country resource needs (financial, supplies, and
personnel) to deliver the necessary public health response;
· a resource tracking database to provide a transparent overview of donor contri-
butions to the COVID-19 response; and
· an action checklist to review and monitor the status of implementation across
the nine main pillars of the public health response.
In response to comments and suggestions made by users, further functionality has been intro-
duced to the platform. This includes a supply portal that is fully integrated into the system as
well as a direct link to the COVID-19 Supply Chain System. More than 120 nations and 80
donors are currently making active use of the platform; additional feedback will help the plat-
form to continue to improve so that it can continue to meet changing requirements.30
29
Holst, Jens - "The World Health Organization and Global Health Governance" (Routledge, 2019)
Taylor, Allyn L., and Mullan, Fitzhugh - "Health Diplomacy: Power, Impact, and Lessons Learned" (Duke Uni -
versity Press, 2018)
30
Davies, Sara E., and Youde, Jeremy - "The World Health Organization: A Global Institution in a Time of
Transition" (Routledge, 2010)
38
E. KEEPING TRACK AND ADJUSTING COURSE
Access to accurate and up-to-date operational and situational tracking data is essential for
real-time strategy planning and adjustment, coordination, and evidence-based decision mak-
ing. In addition to WHO's primary function of managing and disseminating epidemiological
data (which will be discussed in greater depth in the following section), the WHO's COVID-
19 monitoring and evaluation system collects and publishes critical performance and situa-
tional data for a set of global and country indicators (Annex A). These indications are made
available to the public and updated on a frequent basis to ensure that the response can adapt
to the shifting nature of the pandemic as it moves forward. In addition, the World Health Or-
ganisation (WHO) produced a set of guidelines for countries to follow when conducting peri-
odic reviews of their national and subnational COVID-19 response. These guidelines are
known as the "Guidance for Conducting a Country COVID-19 Intra-Action Review" (IAR).
IARs are a type of country-led, country-facilitated process that bring together a small group
of COVID-19 responders who are knowledgeable about the public health response in order to
identify realistic areas for immediate remediation and sustainable improvement of the exist-
ing response.
F. TRANSLATING EVIDENCE INTO KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION
Activating a WHO core strength

Since January 2020, when COVID-19 was first identified, WHO has been able to leverage its
unique core strength as a technical and normative agency to rapidly gather and synthesise evi-
dence into authoritative technical guidance across a broad range of thematic areas covering
the spectrum of the public health response. This has been made possible by the agency's abil-
ity to leverage its core strength as a technical and normative agency, which gives it a compet-
itive advantage over other similar organisations.31
The World Health Organisation (WHO) is able to ask questions that have profound implica-
tions for our collective understanding of what constitutes an effective response and how we
achieve it because of its extensive convening power, expert networks, advisory groups, col-
laborating centres, and strong ties with national knowledge and expertise. These questions in-
clude: what do we know about the virus, and what works most effectively to control it in dif-
31
Kickbusch, Ilona - "Sustainable Development Goals: Harnessing Business to Achieve the SDGs through
Global Health Diplomacy" (Springer, 2020)
39
ferent contexts? The World Health Organisation (WHO) has been able to publish, periodi-
cally reevaluate, and support the implementation of more than 500 guidance documents and
scientific briefings as a result of asking these questions in a systematic manner, pillar by pil-
lar, about every aspect of the public health response. These guidance documents and scien-
tific briefings cover topics such as the most effective way to safely transition out of a lock-
down, as well as advice on the appropriate use of masks in different situations. The Strategic
and Technical Advisory Group on Infectious Hazards (STAG-IH) convened for the first of
what will likely be many sessions on COVID-19 in January. This group has been an essential
tool for addressing many important topics in order to advise the global response.32
Beginning on the 10th of January, the WHO released the first batch of core COVID-19-spe-
cific guidelines for nations over the course of three days. This guidance covered a variety of
subjects relating to the management of an epidemic of a new disease, including the following:
o infection prevention and control;
o laboratory testing;
o national capacities review tool;
o risk communication and community engagement;
o disease commodity package;
o travel advice;
o clinical management;
o surveillance case definitions.
Some of the key documents and guidance notes are explained in more detail below, under the
appropriate headings.
Putting knowledge into practice
The regional offices of the WHO play an important part in the process of developing guide-
lines, but they also make a distinctive contribution through the work they do to adapt and
translate relevant guidelines to the circumstances of individual nations and subnational enti-
ties. It is absolutely necessary to do this in order to make sure that the process of guidance is
not a dry intellectual exercise, but rather that it is brought to life in practise. Training is an-
other important platform that plays an important role in ensuring that instruction is trans-
32
Ruger, Jennifer Prah - "Health and Social Justice" (Oxford University Press, 2010)
40
formed into knowledge and action. The necessity for focused and disease-specific training for
health workers and responders before to and during emergency situations was made abun-
dantly obvious during the outbreak of Ebola virus disease in west Africa in 2014. As a result,
the Open WHO training platform was established in 2017 to fulfil this requirement.33
The Open WHO platform includes training programmes and modules that are based on the
most recent state-of-the-art knowledge from WHO guidelines. These training programmes
and modules are also updated to reflect any changes that may occur as a result of new re-
search. Since its initial launch in January 2017, usage of the platform had remained rather
consistent; however, this year, usage has skyrocketed as a direct result of the enormous de-
mand across the globe for information and training pertaining to COVID-19. By the end of
the year 2020, there were more than 4.7 million people enrolled on the platform (figure 18),
and more than 2.5 million certificates of completion had been issued for 148 COVID 19-spe-
cific courses. These courses ranged from clinical care and the use of personal protective
equipment to training for filed data tools, and they were available in more than 42 different
languages. The year 2021 will see the release of additional modules.
The Learning Technologies Awards presented OpenWHO.org with the Gold Award for the
"Best International Digital Transformation of a Training Programme in Response to COVID-
19" in November of 2020. This honour was bestowed upon OpenWHO.org.
G. REAL-TIME, RAPID RESPONSE CAPACITY STRENGTHENING AND SUP-

PORT
The World Health Organisation is able to reach a broad global audience and develop national
capacities by utilising online training, which is an extraordinarily strong instrument. How-
ever, there are certain specialised sectors that demand more immediate, direct, and short-term
solutions during times of emergency. These solutions can take the shape of in-person training
programmes or surge deployments to augment vital capacity. Both of these options are avail-
able.
WHO regional offices have been one of the primary vehicles through which WHO has been
able to support countries through the deployment of technical support missions. Often work-
ing in collaboration with key regional partners, WHO regional offices have been one of the
33
Forman, Lisa R. - "HIV/AIDS in China: Beyond the Numbers" (Routledge, 2017)
41
primary vehicles. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and its partners are able to provide
specialised technical advice and training in essential instruments and systems as a result of
these missions. In spite of the ongoing disruptions and travel restrictions, WHO regional of-
fices have continued to send experts to support countries in situ wherever it is safe. They will
send missions to over 130 countries by the end of 2020. These missions will implement inno-
vative digital solutions such as webinars and remote working in areas where restrictions make
direct deployment impractical. As the epidemic has continued to spread, regional platforms
have moreover been a crucial tool for the delivery of help. 34 During COVID-19, two well-es-
tablished WHO emergency platforms, the Emergency Medical Teams initiative and the
Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN), demonstrated exceptional perfor-
mance in the areas of surge assistance and training respectively.
Access to a well-trained, immediately deployable, certified, and mostly self-sufficient surge
emergency health personnel has been essential for many countries that found their health ser-
vices to be overstretched, and in some cases overwhelmed, by the explosive nature of Covid-
19 transmission. This has been the case in many of these countries. This access is made easier
by the World Health Organisation (WHO), which has established more than one hundred
EMT focal points across the globe. These focal points have collaborated closely with the
EMT secretariat at WHO throughout the year 2020 to execute and monitor COVID 19 emer-
gency response activities. During the year 2020, more than 30 emergency medical technicians
who were trained and qualified for worldwide deployment were able to respond to 60 re-
quests for assistance from other nations. The majority of the time, these deployments were
carried out inside WHO regions, with teams from regional neighbours who were the best
equipped to work in solidarity with host nations and were more than prepared to do so. In ad-
dition to these worldwide deployments, a total of 46 national teams from each of the WHO's
regions were sent within their respective countries' boundaries to respond to urgent require-
ments at the subnational level.35
The WHO EMT Secretariat conducted a study of the EMT network in order to identify diffi-
culties and opportunities to inform future EMT deployments, enhance the EMT deployment
mechanism, and improve the EMT Global Classification process. This was done in light of
the extraordinary volume of deployments that would occur during the year 2020. As the
34
Ruger, Jennifer Prah - "Health and Social Justice" (Oxford University Press, 2010)
35
Taylor, Allyn L. - "The Politics of Global Health Governance: United by Contagion" (Palgrave Macmillan,
2012)
42
project gets ready for 2021, the results of the poll are currently being examined, and the con-
clusions drawn from those analyses will provide a fuller understanding of EMT fieldwork
and lessons gained.
I. RECOMMENDATIONS ON PUBLIC HEALTH MEASURES, DISEASE

SURVEILLANCE, AND VACCINE DISTRIBUTION.
A. SURVEILLANCE, CONTACT TRACING, ISOLATION AND QUARANTINE:

THE BACKBONE OF OUTBREAK RESPONSE
In the absence of a widely accessible vaccine, disease surveillance and the public health ca-
pacities to identify, isolate, and treat patients, as well as trace and quarantine contacts, are the
backbones of the COVID-19 response and the keys to limiting transmission. Disease surveil-
lance and the public health capacities to identify, isolate, and treat cases are also the keys to
controlling transmission. In order to put a stop to the spread of SARS-CoV-2, it is necessary
to ensure that all cases are promptly and effectively isolated and that they receive the appro-
priate care. Additionally, it is necessary to ensure that the close contacts of all cases are
quickly identified so that they can be quarantined and medically monitored for the maximum
incubation period of the virus, which is 14 days. At the global, regional, and national levels,
the World Health Organisation (WHO) has scaled up and altered existing platforms, as well
as developed new platforms, in order to support countries in their monitoring and public
health efforts.36
In January, the World Health Organisation (WHO) and its partners moved quickly to build a
global surveillance system that collects standardised data at the global, regional, and country
levels. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has taken on the monumental task of compil-
ing, validating, assessing, and publishing official daily case and death counts that have been
reported by 212 countries, territories, and areas each day during the year 2020. These data are
routinely disseminated through a large number of country and region-specific situation re-
ports and dashboards, as well as worldwide via the WHO COVID-19 Dashboard (figure 19),
which has continued to attract between one and two million visitors per week during the year
2020.
36
Hotez, Peter J. - "Forgotten People, Forgotten Diseases: The Neglected Tropical Diseases and their Impact on
Global Health and Development" (ASM Press, 2013)
43
The technical guidance provided by the WHO covers every aspect of COVID-19 surveil-
lance, case investigation, and epidemiology, beginning with the definition of a case and con-
tinuing all the way through the utilisation of digital tools for contact tracing and the utilisa-
tion of rapid diagnostic tests. This guidance is translated and adapted at the regional and
country level to specific contexts. This advice is continually revised to take into account both
recent leaps forward in our overall understanding of the virus as well as breakthroughs in rel-
evant technological capabilities. Direct technical assistance is provided to countries through
WHO headquarters, regional offices, and country offices, as well as through partnerships
such as GOARN. This assistance is intended to teach and assist national epidemiologists.37
A large workforce that is flexible and well-trained is required in order to successfully imple-
ment guidelines and training. In many instances, the World Health Organisation has been
able to support national authorities in their efforts to swiftly scale up their public health per-
sonnel by training newly recruited and volunteer contact tracers and surveillance officers
(box 4). However, in certain circumstances, a different strategy was necessary in order to ful-
fil the capacity needs. Even in the most difficult of circumstances, an adaptable, multidisci-
plinary rapid-response emergency workforce can ensure that populations in some of the most
vulnerable and fragile contexts can benefit from a comprehensive public health approach to
COVID-19. This was demonstrated by the redeployment of highly skilled WHO poliovirus
response teams and TB programme resources at subnational levels in response to COVID-19.
i. In order to provide assistance to countries on a global, regional, and national scale,

the World Health Organisation (WHO) has increased the capacity of existing plat-
forms, altered those platforms to meet new needs, and created new platforms to
support public health measures. Some examples:
· Boosting contact tracing in Chad
During the Chad government's reaction to COVID-19, the countries over 190 medical stu-
dents, who are being educated by the Ministry of Health with assistance from the WHO, are
helping to relieve some of the strain on the country's existing medical staff. The majority of
the country's medical professionals are concentrated in N'Djamena, the capital city, where
there are 4.3 physicians and 23.2 nurses for every 100,000 people. Medical students in Chad
37
Lawrence, Martha - "Disease and Discrimination: Poverty and Pestilence in Colonial Atlantic America" (Uni-
versity Press of Florida, 2016)
44
have received training to follow up with patients who have been requested to quarantine ow-
ing to COVID-19 and to conduct screening at ports of entry. This training was provided by
the World Health Organisation. The assistance provided by the students has led to an im-
provement in the investigation of cases, as well as an increase in capacity for the control and
surveillance of passengers at entrance points in N'Djamena and throughout the provinces. The
World Health Organisation (WHO) was responsible for providing training as well as the nec-
essary equipment, which included gloves, masks, non-contact infrared forehead thermome-
ters, and contact-tracking sheets. After reaching a point of peak transmission in the beginning
of May, Chad was successful in drastically reducing the number of confirmed cases.38
· Pivoting polio assets to combat COVID-19
Community assistance in some of the world's most fragile, vulnerable, and conflict-affected
settings has been critical in the response to the COVID-19 outbreak, and WHO Polio Eradi-
cation Officers have been at the forefront of that effort. In order to prevent an uptick in polio
and other vaccine-preventable diseases, it is crucial that the COVID-19 pandemic be con-
tained and the impact on routine immunisation regimens in vulnerable contexts be mitigated.
Four officers from the World Health Organization's Polio Eradication Unit are being recog-
nised here for their efforts to combat COVID-19.
· Mohamed Sharif Mohamed, Regional Polio Eradication Officer in Somalia
In addition to his work combating polio, Mohamed also supports the Banadir, Somalia, com-
munity during the COVID-19 pandemic by coordinating and training COVID-19 teams, con-
ducting active surveillance visits to health facilities, and analysing reports filed by district po-
lio officers. In September, he took part in the Somalia's first immunisation campaign after the
arrival of COVID-19. In addition to measles and polio immunisations, all children who par-
ticipated in the programme were also given deworming tablets and vitamin A. Given the on-
going polio and measles outbreaks in Somalia and the poor general population immunity, it is
critical that numerous services be delivered.39
· Using TB resources to fight COVID-19
38
Kim, Jim Yong - "Dying for Growth: Global Inequality and the Health of the Poor" (Common Courage Press,
2000)
39
Kim, Jim Yong - "Dying for Growth: Global Inequality and the Health of the Poor" (Common Courage Press,
2000)
45
Using the existing Tuberculosis (TB) infrastructure in the country, WHO has been supporting
the government in an endeavour to strengthen contact tracing, active case searching, and test-
ing during the COVID-19 epidemic in Nigeria.40
Concern that the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in February 2020, and the public health
response measures implemented to stem its spread could have an effect on ongoing TB case
finding efforts arose. WHO and health officials have instead been making use of the building
to efficiently integrate tuberculosis and Covid-19 case detection. Niger is one of the states
where 18 super-trainers comprise WHO TB supervisors and disease surveillance and notifica-
tion officers (DSNO). WHO has also been training surveillance personnel to be more alert
during contact tracing in order to better identify TB and COVID-19. From April to June of
2020, the Niger state TB & Leprosy control programme examined 3,072 homes, interviewed
2 235 people suspected of having tuberculosis, and notified 277 people. All of these people
were tested for COVID-19. Increased community-level detection, diagnosis, and management
of COVID-19 patients is a top priority for Nigeria, and WHO is continuing to provide support
at all levels to make this a reality.41
B. INFECTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL
With no approved treatments for COVID-19, infection control and prevention (ICP) methods
are among our best options for stopping the virus in its tracks. In January, WHO released
emergency guidelines for infection prevention with two primary objectives:
· to limit or prevent the spread of COVID-19 infections during healthcare delivery to
safeguard healthcare facilities, protect healthcare personnel and patients, and preserve
vital healthcare services;
· Through a combination of personal and institutional precautions, we can stop the
spread of COVID-19 in public, private, and community contexts.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has developed and regularly updates comprehensive
guidance for healthcare settings on how they should get ready to respond to a case of an
emerging respiratory virus like the novel coronavirus, how to identify a case once it occurs,
and how to properly implement IPC measures to ensure there is no further transmission to
40
The Lancet - "The World Health Report 2006: Working Together for Health" (World Health Organization,
2006)
41
Hoffman, Steven J., and Røttingen, John-Arne - "Sustainable Financing for Global Health: A Case Study of
Innovative Financing Mechanisms" (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017)
46
healthcare workers or other patients and others in the healthcare facility. The cleaning and
disinfecting of surfaces, as well as the judicious use of personal protective equipment (PPE),
are also addressed in the guidelines for IPC during home care for patients with suspected or
confirmed COVID-19.42
The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends using masks as part of efforts to limit
the spread of COVID-19, and published guidance in June 2020, updated in December 2020,
that lays out the scientific evidence pertinent to the use of masks for reducing the spread of
SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19), as well as practical considerations such as:
· mask management;
· masking in health facilities in areas with community, cluster and sporadic transmis-
sion;
· mask use by the public in areas with community and cluster transmission;
· alternatives to non-medical masks for the public;
· exhalation valves on respirators and non-medical masks;
· mask use during vigorous intensity physical activity;
· essential parameters to be considered when manufacturing non-medical masks.
WHO commissioned fresh study to inform its recommendations for mask use. The World
Health Organisation has collaborated extensively with other organisations to provide recom-
mendations for IPC in public areas including schools and workplaces.43
In the early phases of the pandemic, there were severe shortages of critical PPE, which
caused widespread shortages, procurement issues, and a hurry to scale up alternative manu-
facturing capacity. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has played a crucial role in the
procurement and distribution of personal protective equipment (PPE) to countries, and it has
also developed and is continually updating the key technical reference specifications on the
quality, performance characteristics, and related standards of PPE to be used in the context of
COVID-19.
C. POINTS OF ENTRY, TRAVEL AND TRADE
International travel and trade have been hammered particularly hard by the pandemic in-
fluenza A (COVID-19), but few sectors are as important to the response as a whole. The
worldwide collapse of commercial transport has made it increasingly difficult to move signif-
42
Forman, Lisa R. - "HIV/AIDS in China: Beyond the Numbers" (Routledge, 2017)
43
Kickbusch, Ilona - "Health in All Policies: Seizing Opportunities, Implementing Policies" (WHO Press, 2013)
47
icant quantities of crucial supplies from consolidation centres to final destinations in coun-
tries. The World Health Organisation (WHO), in its role as guardian of the International
Health Regulations (2005), has recently worked urgently with all partners to guarantee the
safe operation of transport corridors in support of the worldwide response. In the wake of the
COVID-19 pandemic, in April 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Interna-
tional Labour Organisation (ILO), and the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) re-
leased a joint statement on seafarers' medical certificates, ship sanitation certificates (SSCs),
and medical care.
Since the beginning of 2020, WHO has collaborated closely with organisations representing
the aviation, maritime, trade, and tourism sectors to create joint guidance, joint statements of
support, monitor the measures taken by governments and private entities that impact interna-
tional travel and trade, and assess and mitigate the health and economic impact of such mea-
sures, all in accordance with the provisions of the International Health Regulations (2005).
The World Health Organisation has collaborated closely with countries to improve their en-
try-control systems.44
D. PROTECTING ESSENTIAL HEALTH SERVICES
An increase in care needs due to COVID-19 has provided a problem for health systems
worldwide. while a result of the virus and the response to it, health care facilities have often
had to restrict their capacity even while their patient loads increased. Misinformation, on the
other hand, has been linked to an uptick in fear or a loss of trust in health systems, both of
which can significantly alter people's health-seeking behaviour. Health care for conditions
other than COVID-19 may be significantly disrupted as a result of the aforementioned causes.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) issued a statement in March 2020 and an update in
June 2020 titled "Maintaining Essential Health Services: Operational Guidance for the
COVID-19 Context." The recommendations in the advice outline concrete steps that coun-
tries can take at the national and local levels to ensure that citizens continue to have access to
vital health services that are both safe and of high quality despite the epidemic. It also pro-
vides examples of indicators that can be used to track the status of vital health services under
a variety of COVID-19 outbreak circumstances. In order to assess whether or not regional
COVID-19 national response plans are in compliance with the operational advice given
44
Schrecker, Ted - "Global Health Governance and the Fight Against HIV/AIDS" (McGill-Queen's University
Press, 2012)
48
above, WHO conducted a comprehensive evaluation across all WHO regions and made rec-
ommendations for improvement, which will be supported by regional and country offices.45
The World Health Organisation has not stopped monitoring the pandemic's effect on national
health care systems. WHO released the findings of a worldwide pulse study in August 2020;
the report detailed service disruptions and mitigation solutions intended to keep vital health
services running throughout the lifespan. In light of COVID-19, WHO is helping Member
States take immediate measures to safeguard the continuity of life-saving health care.46
The long-term damage produced by COVID-19 and the severity of morbidity and mortality
can be exacerbated by even a momentary disruption to fundamental health-care services like
routine immunisation services, such as outbreaks of vaccine-preventable infections. Improve-
ments, such as expanding the HPV vaccination to 106 countries and stronger protection for
children against more diseases, are at risk, according to the latest statistics on vaccine cover-
age estimates from WHO and UNICEF for 2019. The number of children who received all
three doses of the vaccination against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTP3) dropped sig-
nificantly according to preliminary statistics for the first four months of 2020, when services
were most likely to have been disrupted by COVID-19. DTP3 coverage, used as a benchmark
for immunisation coverage within and across countries, may fall for the first time in 28 years.
E. VACCINE DISTRIBUTION
Vaccines can be safely administered throughout the pandemic, and WHO is helping countries
modify their immunisation delivery plans so that programmes may be carried out in a risk-
free environment. World Health Organisation (WHO) worldwide guidance has been adapted
and translated at the regional and national levels to make it more applicable to local condi-
tions. At the country level, WHO is also striving to ensure that enough basic medical materi-
als and safety gear are available. To help reduce vaccination gaps among children, WHO and
UNICEF launched a 5-day countrywide immunisation campaign in Syria in June. More than
210,100 children were vaccinated throughout the campaign, and the immunisation records of
another 900,000 were checked to establish which vaccines those children were missing.47
45
Kickbusch, Ilona - "Health in All Policies: Seizing Opportunities, Implementing Policies" (WHO Press, 2013)
46
Timmermans, Stefan, and Haas, Steven - "Saving Babies?: The Consequences of Newborn Genetic Screen -
ing" (University of Chicago Press, 2013)
47
Merson, Michael H., Black, Robert E., and Mills, Anne J. - "Global Health: Diseases, Programs, Systems, and
Policies" (Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2019)
49
Emerging health emergencies, such as COVID-19, can quickly interrupt or overstretch al-
ready limited capacity for health service delivery in fragile, conflict-affected, and vulnerable
(FCV) contexts like Syria. Providing care and ensuring the needs of these populations are met
is a moral need. While protracted crises are likely to persist for the foreseeable future, there is
still a pressing need to lessen the impact of health emergencies on vulnerable people and for-
tify health care systems in FCV settings.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) serves as the Health Cluster Lead Agency, coordinat-
ing and supporting the implementation of the Global Health Response Plan (GHRP) in 30
countries with the help of 900 national and international partners to meet the needs of 63 mil-
lion people. The World Health Organization's Global Health Cluster COVID-19 Task Team
streamlines this process by identifying key obstacles, providing support for adapting and im-
plementing WHO COVID-19 recommendations in low-capacity, humanitarian situations, and
documenting and sharing what works. In addition to providing technical support and services
to priority countries, the Global Health Cluster co-leads the Global Information Management,
Assessment, and Analysis Cell, which is responsible for managing and analysing information
relevant to COVID-19 in order to aid in global decision-making.
F. DELIVERING FOR COUNTRIES: GLOBAL LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY
CHAINS, AND OPERATIONAL SUPPORT
There was a complete breakdown of market mechanisms for many of the goods necessary for
the response effort after the COVID-19 epidemic caused the worst shock to global trade since
World War II. As the worldwide demand for PPE, medical supplies including oxygen con-
centrators and respirators, and laboratory reagents and test kits skyrocketed, international
trade routes and manufacturing capacities were severely disrupted. This perfect storm caused
a rush for commodities, erratic price swings, and an uptick in the likelihood that subpar
equipment would enter the market without the proper technical standards.
A major obstacle to the efficient implementation of response pillars at the national level in
the early months of the response was the disruption of normal market functioning for crucial
response goods. Access to PPE, laboratory equipment and supplies, and vital medicines and
equipment is crucial for clinical care, infection prevention and control, laboratory testing, and
the protection of essential health services. The Supply Chain Task Force was established be-
cause there was no system in place to efficiently acquire and disperse critical emergency
commodities based on need as opposed to financial resources. To create a unified COVID-19
Supply Chain System (CSCS), WHO and WFP co-chaired a Task Force.
50
Organisations as diverse as the World Health Organisation, the United Nations Children's
Fund, the World Bank, the Global Fund, UNOPS, UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, NGOs, the Red
Cross and Federation, and other cluster partners are all represented on the Supply Chain Task
Force. The CSCS's comprehensive end-to-end service, which includes demand forecasting,
technical specification and quality assurance, purchasing consortia to combine collective pur-
chasing and areas of market expertise, and logistical know-how and scale, is incredibly potent
thanks to the Task Force members' complementary core strengths. The system's resources are
made available to anybody with a legitimate stake in the success of a national COVID-19
readiness and response action plan. Through the COVID-19 Supply Portal, found within the
COVID-19 Partners Portal, these authorised parties can place supply requests with the
CSCS.48
Since the opening of the COVID-19 Supply Portal, supply coordinators on behalf of Resident
Coordinators have submitted and validated 228 requests for critical supplies. More than 143
supply coordinators from WHO and partner agencies like UNICEF, WFP, the Resident Coor-
dinator's office, UNDP, and UNOPS have been appointed. Over US$ 92 million in requests
have been validated by supply coordinators thus far, and that number continues to grow daily.
In 2021, a new generation of quick diagnostics will become accessible, followed by the first
generation of COVID-19 vaccines, adding another layer of complexity to the already ongoing
and ever-changing process of maintaining the supply chain. Due to the need for a consistent
cold chain from the manufacturing site to the point of administration, several of the vaccines
are also expected to provide significant extra issues. The CSCS will need to develop further
to help set up a reliable and fair system for distributing these cutting-edge innovations.
48
Dodgson, Richard, Lee, Kelley, and Drager, Nick - "Global Health Governance: A Conceptual Review"
(World Health Organization, 2002)
51
CHAPTER 4: ADVOCACY FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS TO VACCINES
AND MEDICAL SUPPLIES
The COVID-19 pandemic brought to light the significance of ensuring that all people have
fair and equal access to vaccinations and other medical supplies. The epidemic has killed a
significant number of people and caused significant economic damage. It has affected mil-
lions of people all over the world. The production of vaccinations and the distribution of
medical supplies have been essential to the containment of the epidemic. Concerns have been
raised, however, concerning the unequal distribution of vaccinations and medical supplies,
which has resulted in many poor countries having a difficult time gaining access to these vital
resources. This article will investigate the idea of equal access to vaccinations and medical
supplies and will argue that it is extremely important.
The term "equitable access to vaccines and medical supplies" refers to the practise of provid-
ing these essential resources in an equitable manner to all individuals, irrespective of their ge-
ographic location or socioeconomic standing. To put it another way, regardless of where they
live or how much money they have, absolutely everyone ought to be able to get their hands
on vaccinations and other medical supplies. "fair distribution of health resources based on
need" is how the World Health Organisation (WHO) defines equitable access (WHO, 2018).49
Access to vaccinations and other medical supplies on an equitable basis is critical for a num-
ber of reasons. To begin, vaccinations and other medical supplies are crucial components in
the process of containing pandemics like COVID-19. The pandemic would continue to spread
if vaccinations and medical supplies were not available, which would lead to an increased
number of fatalities and economic loss.
49
Chan, Margaret - "In Sickness and in Health: The World Health Organization and the Struggle for Global
Health Security" (University of California Press, 2014)
52
Second, ensuring that everyone has fair access to vaccinations and other medical supplies is
absolutely necessary in order to reduce global health disparities. Due to limited resources and
infrastructure, developing nations, in particular, face considerable hurdles when attempting to
gain access to vaccines and other medical supplies. This unequal allocation of resources can
result in high death rates as well as higher economic harm, thus compounding the health dis-
parities that already exist.
Thirdly, ensuring that everyone has fair access to vaccinations and supplies for medical treat-
ment is an essential component of strengthening global health security. Pandemics do not
care about national boundaries; hence, containing them needs cooperation from people all
around the world. The unequal distribution of vaccinations and medical supplies might result
in the pandemic continuing to spread in countries that have limited resources, which can lead
to the emergence of new strains of the pandemic virus and perhaps undermine attempts to
contain the epidemic on a global scale.
Access to vaccinations and other medical supplies is not equally distributed due to a number
of obstacles. To begin, there is now a scarcity of vaccinations and medical supplies around
the world as a direct result of restricted production capacity and problems with the supply
chain. Because of this, wealthier nations have purchased the vast majority of the available
vaccines, leaving underdeveloped countries with restricted access to these resources.
Second, the high prices of vaccinations and other medical supplies might make them difficult
to get for individuals and nations who have restricted financial means. Producing vaccines
and other medical supplies is an expensive endeavour, and the expenses involved with re-
search and development sometimes render them unaffordable for many nations that are still
in the process of establishing their economies.50
Thirdly, underdeveloped nations often have inadequate infrastructure and health care sys-
tems, which can make it difficult to have equal access to vaccines and medical supplies.
When compared to developed nations, developing nations typically have fewer resources and
less developed infrastructure, which can make it difficult to adequately transfer medical sup-
plies and vaccinations. This can lead to immunisation rates that are inadequate, which in turn
can lead to higher death rates. Access to vaccinations and medical supplies may be made
50
Piot, Peter - "AIDS between Science and Politics" (Columbia University Press, 2015)
53
more fair via the use of a number of different strategies. To begin, there is a pressing require-
ment for an increase in investments made in the research and production of medical supplies
and vaccinations. This can pave the way for the creation of vaccinations and medical supplies
that are more reasonably priced, so making them available to a greater number of people.
Second, in order to guarantee that vaccinations and other medical supplies are accessible to
all nations, there is a pressing requirement for greater manufacturing capacity as well as im-
proved management of supply chains. To guarantee that vaccines and other necessary medi-
cal goods reach individuals who are in the greatest need of them, developed nations have a
responsibility to assist less developed nations in expanding their manufacturing capacities
and shoring up their supply networks.51
Thirdly, there is a requirement for an increase in the amount of money invested in the infra-
structure of healthcare providers in emerging nations. This may involve the construction of
new and improved healthcare facilities, the education of healthcare professionals, and the op-
timisation of supply chain management. This will ensure that individuals who need vaccina-
tions and medical supplies the most will receive them, which will ultimately result in a reduc-
tion in death rates.52
Access to healthcare goods on an equitable basis is a worldwide concern, and the availability,
accessibility, acceptability, and affordability of health products of assured quality are issues
that need to be addressed in order to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, specifically
goal 3.8. Access to healthcare goods for the purposes of illness prevention, diagnosis, treat-
ment, palliative care, and rehabilitation is an absolute necessity for any approach to disease
management. Because of the high cost of new pharmaceuticals and the ever-changing struc-
ture of the markets for health-related items, access is a global problem that has to be solved as
soon as possible. Because of these factors, there is a growing pressure placed on the capabil-
ity of all health care systems to offer patients with comprehensive and inexpensive access to
high-quality medical treatment of the highest standard. The amount of a country's health bud-
get that is allotted to the procurement of drugs spans anywhere from 20–60%, according to a
number of studies that were conducted in a variety of low- and middle-income nations
throughout the world. This reality is proving to be a substantial barrier for many countries as
51
Biehl, João - "Vita: Life in a Zone of Social Abandonment" (University of California Press, 2005)
52
Farmer, Paul - "Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor" (University of
California Press, 2005)
54
they strive to achieve their goal of providing universal health care for their respective people.
In addition, it is common knowledge that a sizeable number of individuals living in nations
with low incomes who spend money on their health also pay out of pocket for the prescrip-
tions they use. This is the case even among those individuals who spend money on their
health. Even in nations where citizens have access to healthcare for everyone, this is still the
case. The increasing prevalence of noncommunicable diseases, the majority of which are
chronic conditions that call for ongoing treatment, will place an even greater financial burden
not only on patients, but also on the governments that are responsible for providing medical
assistance to those who are afflicted with these conditions. Improving people's access to
health commodities is a multifaceted problem that requires all-encompassing policies and so-
lutions from the government in order to be resolved. These policies and solutions should
align with legal and regulatory frameworks, foster collaboration with other sectors, partners,
and stakeholders, and encompass the entire product life cycle, beginning with research and
development and continuing through quality assurance, supply chain management, and usage.
In addition to that, things have to be in accordance with the legal and regulatory frameworks.
In addition to this, they should make it a priority to ensure that the requirements of public
health are in harmony with the objectives of both economic and social development.53
Primary health care services cannot be provided without ready access to a comprehensive
range of health commodities, such as medications, immunisations, medical devices, diagnos-
tic tools, protective equipment, and assistive devices. In addition to being current, easily
available, and offered at reasonable prices, these goods need to come with a quality assurance
policy that states they are risk-free, efficient, perform as expected, and are of the highest pos-
sible standard. Policy decisions and processes that pertain to the selection, pricing, procure-
ment, supply chain management, maintenance (in the case of medical devices), prescribing
and dispensing (in the case of medicines), and use of health products are important factors in
determining whether or not appropriate health products are readily available and within the
financial reach of a level that is reasonable for primary care. The World Health Organisation
(WHO) is pursuing an integrated health systems strategy, the basis of which is a series of res-
olutions that were passed by the Health Assembly and Regional Committee. The goal of this
method is to increase people's access to health commodities. The guiding principles are these
resolutions that were voted on. The current document is the World Health Organization's
53
55
(WHO) response to the following request that was made by the Health Assembly: that the or-
ganisation produce a road map describing its activities, actions, and deliverables for the pe-
riod of 2019–2023, with the goal of increasing access to medicines and vaccines during that
time period. The road map should detail the organization's activities, actions, and deliverables
for the period of 2019–2023. Following is a request that was presented to the Health Assem-
bly, and in response to this, the organisation was instructed to develop a road plan.54
On the path towards obtaining universal health care, the requirement for efficient governance
is one significant barrier that is garnering an increasing amount of general acknowledgment
as a significant hurdle. Weak governance makes it more difficult to get access to health com-
modities because it increases inefficiency, skews competition, and leaves the system vulnera-
ble to undue influence, corruption, waste, fraud, and abuse. It also makes it more difficult to
obtain health commodities. Improving governance can assist avoid the waste of public re-
sources, which are essential for the upkeep of health systems and the provision of high-qual-
ity medical treatment that is yet within reasonable financial means. This is due to the major
role that health goods play in the delivery of health care as well as the amount of overall
health spending that they account for (with medications accounting for as much as 60 percent
of total health spending in some countries). In the context of health services and goods, there
is an immediate and compelling need to extend access to information that is up to date, trust-
worthy, and directly applicable. This necessity must be met immediately and without delay.
For the purpose of reaching the aim of making educated judgements on the acquisition, incor-
poration, prescription, and use of health products, information that is objective and free from
any potential conflicts of interest is essential.
WHO's advocacy efforts to ensure equitable access to vaccines and medical supplies during
the pandemic.
Throughout the course of the COVID-19 outbreak, the World Health Organisation (WHO)
has been leading an intensive effort to promote equitable access to medical supplies and im-
munisations. The World Health Organisation has played a very significant part in this area.
Within the context of the fight against the epidemic, the World Health Organisation (WHO)
has highlighted the relevance of international collaboration and solidarity. As a direct conse-
54
Garrett, Laurie - "The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance" (Farrar, Straus
and Giroux, 1994)
56
quence of this, the WHO has undertaken significant efforts to guarantee that immunisations
and medical supplies are available to all nations, with a special focus on those nations that
have lower financial resources. The World Health Organisation is actively engaged in a vari-
ety of significant advocacy efforts, some of which include the following:
The COVAX initiative was developed by the World Health Organisation (WHO), in conjunc-
tion with a number of other groups, such as Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, and the Coalition for
Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI). The primary objective of the COVAX project is
to expedite the process of researching, manufacturing, and distributing COVID-19 vaccines
in a manner that is fair to all parties involved. It provides a platform for countries to pool
their resources and guarantee access to vaccines, particularly for people with low and moder-
ate levels of income
Access to the COVID-19 Tools Accelerator, which is most often referred to as ACT-A: The
World Health Organisation (WHO) plays an essential position in the ACT-A, which is a
global collaboration that has the dual goals of accelerating the research and development of
COVID-19 diagnostics, treatments, and immunisations and providing equal access to these
therapies. The ACT-A framework lays an emphasis on the relevance of equitable access and
ensures that vaccines and medical supplies are made available to all countries, irrespective of
the countries' differing degrees of economic development. This is done in order to combat the
spread of infectious diseases.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has been an active participant in various global
events, such as the Global Vaccine Summit, in order to press for equal access to vaccinations.
One of these events is the Global Vaccine Summit. The summit brings together world lead-
ers, authorities, and organisations from all over the world with the intention of improving the
supply of vaccinations in low-income countries by increasing the amount of resources that
are mobilised and the amount of aid that is provided. In order to ensure that vaccines are
available to everyone who requires them, the World Health Organisation has put a significant
amount of emphasis on the significance of community engagement and collaboration.55
55
Bleakley, Hoyt - "Disease and Development: Evidence from Hookworm Eradication in the American South"
(Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2007)
57
In a document named "Vaccine Equity Declaration," which was produced by the World
Health Organisation (WHO), the organisation advocates worldwide collaboration. This
proclamation urges governments to work together in order to guarantee that vaccinations are
delivered in an equitable manner and that no one slips through the system's gaps. The World
Health Organisation (WHO) has placed a significant amount of emphasis on the relevance of
providing disadvantaged populations higher priority and making ensure that access to vac-
cines is governed not by income or influence but rather by the necessity of receiving them.
Help with technical issues and guidance The World Health Organisation (WHO) has pro-
vided nations, particularly those with limited resources, with the technical help and direction
essential to enhance their health care systems and guarantee that everyone has equitable ac-
cess to vaccinations and medical supplies. This is especially true of nations that are members
of the World Health Organisation (WHO). This entails supplying governments with help in
the form of vaccine rollout plans, management of supply chains, and the building of capacity
for the distribution of vaccines
Throughout the course of the pandemic, the lobbying efforts of the World Health Organisa-
tion (WHO) have been essential in drawing attention to the need of having equitable access to
vaccines and medical supplies. Through active collaboration with global partners, the provi-
sion of technical assistance, and the solicitation of solidarity from the worldwide community,
the World Health Organisation (WHO) has been an important contributor to the development
of a pandemic response that is more equitable and inclusive.56
These legislative provisions aim to ensure that immunisations and medical supplies are pro-
vided in a manner that is equitable, that they are priced affordably, and that they are not diffi-
cult to obtain. The following is a list of significant factors to consider from a legal standpoint:
The following is a list of global treaties and agreements:

Organisation for the World Health (WHO): The WHO serves a critical role in coordinating
efforts to enhance global health and promoting access to essential pharmaceuticals, such as
immunisations and medical supplies. The WHO also plays a role in increasing access to im-
portant medical supplies. In its constitution, the World Health Organisation (WHO) lays a
56
Hodges, Mary H. - "The Other Side of Silence: A Guide to Christian Meditation" (Continuum, 2006)
58
strong focus on the right of all individuals to reach the highest possible degree of health that
may be achieved via medical science.
World Trade Organisation (WTO): The WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of In-
tellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) authorises governments to take steps to maintain public
health and increase access to pharmaceuticals during times of emergency, according to the
WTO's World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement. The year 1995 marked the beginning
of this arrangement. It provides governments with the power to issue compulsory licences or
make use of other flexibilities in order to ensure that individuals have access to vaccines and
medical supplies at costs that they are able to afford.
Access to the COVID-19 Tools Accelerator, which is most often referred to as ACT-A: ACT-
A is a global collaboration that promotes equitable access to COVID-19 instruments like vac-
cines and medical supplies by working within the legal frameworks of its member states and
international organisations. These legal frameworks include international law and the laws of
the member nations. This is done in an effort to prevent the COVID-19 virus from becoming
more widespread.57
The handing down of knowledge in conjunction with the safeguarding of intellectual property
rights (IPR)
Patents: Vaccine manufacturers typically possess patents, which allow them the exclusive
right to make and distribute vaccines in their respective nations. Vaccines are protected by a
number of patents across the world. Countries have the capacity to grant compulsory licences
by taking advantage of the flexibilities provided under international agreements such as
TRIPS. This paves the way for others to make generic copies of vaccines, which ultimately
leads to an increase in supply and a reduction in pricing.
Mechanisms for the Transfer of Technology: Mechanisms for the transfer of technology, such
as voluntary licencing, can help to make it easier for manufacturers in other countries to ac-
quire the know-how and technology necessary for the production of vaccines, which in turn
enables local production and broadens access to these vaccines.
57
59
Approvals from the appropriate regulatory organisations and permission to use in an emer-
gency are required:
Regulatory Authorities: It is the responsibility of national regulatory authorities to evaluate

the safety, effectiveness, and quality of vaccines and medical supplies in order to determine
whether or not they should be approved for sale prior to issuing market authorisation or emer-
gency use authorization. This evaluation is done in order to decide whether or not the prod-
ucts should be made available for purchase. These organisations are tasked with the responsi-
bility of playing a pivotal role in ensuring that permitted vaccines meet the requirements that
have been outlined and do not expose the general public to any unnecessary risks when they
are administered.
EUA stands for Emergency Use Authorization. In the case that there is a crisis involving the
public's health, a number of countries have established accelerated approval processes, such
as EUA, to make it simpler for individuals to receive immunisations in a timely way. These
approaches find a middle ground between the necessity for prompt access to therapy and the
requirement for exhaustive research on the safety and effectiveness of the treatment.
Acquisition and distribution of resource distributing and acquisition mechanisms
National Procurement: Governments negotiate and acquire vaccines and medical supplies
through a variety of channels, some of which include bilateral agreements with producers,
participation in global efforts such as COVAX, or cooperative procurement initiatives among
a number of different nations. These are all examples of national procurement.
Frameworks for Allocation Countries may establish allocation frameworks in order to priori-
tise the distribution of vaccines and medical supplies based on public health concerns, vulner-
able populations, and risk assessments. This may be done by prioritising the distribution of
vaccinations and medical supplies in accordance with the framework. It is possible to make
use of these frameworks in order to establish the sequence in which vaccinations and medical
supplies are dispersed. These frameworks are designed to guarantee that resources are dis-
persed in a way that is fair and equitable on both the national and international levels.
60
Payment of Damages Resulting from Vaccine-Related Accidents: Vaccine injury compensa-
tion systems have been established in a number of countries to provide monetary assistance to
those who have endured unfavourable outcomes as a direct result of having vaccines and who
have been found to be eligible for such programmes. These schemes help to secure access to
compensation while also addressing issues about liability and cultivating public faith in im-
munisation efforts. In addition to this, they assist in increasing public trust in vaccination ef-
forts.58
It is of the utmost importance to keep in mind that other nations have a variety of distinct le-
gal frameworks and considerations to take into account. It's probable that different countries
have different ways of understanding and carrying out the regulations that regulate equitable
access to medical supplies and vaccinations. This is something that should be taken into con-
sideration. In the midst of the pandemic, governments, international organisations, and legal
experts all play a vital role in gaining an understanding of and addressing the complex legal
challenges that have surfaced in order to ensure that everyone has equitable access and to
lessen the impact of legal obstacles.59
The conceptual frameworks that are used to govern the allocation of limited resources indi-
cate the decisions that we have made for how we feel resources should be divided in circum-
stances in which there is not enough to satisfy the requirements of each individual. This
choice reveals the objective that is being prioritised the most, such as making the most of the
resources that are at one's disposal in order to accomplish the greatest possible results, to ful-
fil the most pressing requirements, and so on. This option indicates the goal that is being val-
ued the most out of the many other ways that we might choose to divide limited resources,
and it is the reason why we made this choice. It is not feasible for science and/or facts to tell
us by themselves which option or aim is 'correct' or which goal society needs to regard the
most. Because of this, some kind of moral choice needs to be made, which is something that
falls under the scope of ethics. In light of this, it is not sufficient to argue that frameworks for
the allocation of scarce resources have a "ethical dimension" or that they "raise ethical con-
siderations." Rather, they address questions that are fundamentally ethical, such as which val-
ues we ought to prioritise with the limited resources that are available, given that different
58
59
Ibid.
61
values necessitate different allocations of resources. One example of this is the question of
which values we ought to prioritise with the limited resources that are available. Conse-
quently, the first stage in developing a structure for the distribution of limited resources is to
undertake an in-depth analysis and explanation of ethical principles. These are the kind of
values that ought to be given concrete form by means of technical considerations and applica-
tions. Equally important is providing an ethical justification for the people who will be mak-
ing these decisions.
There is a large amount of disparity in the prices of the therapies that have the potential to be
beneficial in the battle against COVID-19 as well as the availability of these drugs. And indi-
cation; as a result, it is likely going to be very difficult to estimate the projected demand for
certain pharmaceuticals since it will be reliant on a broad range of factors such as the regula-
tory requirements of each specific nation, patient demographics, and the outcomes of clinical
trials.60
There are a number of elements that need to be taken into consideration, including popula-
tion, prescription practises, and financial strategies. The first medicine that has been approved
by the WHO for COVID-19 is dexamethasone7 (it is indicated for patients who are in a se-
vere state). At the time that this article is being produced, the WHO has approved dexametha-
sone. The World Health Organisation (WHO) is going to regularly monitor clinical evidence
on the efficacy and utility of certain therapeutic medicines, and they are going to alter their
recommendations accordingly when the time comes. In due time, further drugs will be intro-
duced.
Depending on the treatment, countries have the option of implementing either a national ac-
cess mechanism (that is, a nationally-led strategy to negotiate access with the manufacturer),
grouped access mechanisms (that involve multiple countries negotiating a regional or other
access initiatives), or a global access mechanism. One definition of "national access mecha-
nism" is "an effort to negotiate access with the manufacturer that is led at the national
level."61
60
Feachem, Richard G. A., and Koehlmoos, Tracey L. P. - "The Health Systems Funding Platform: A New
Tool to Increase Resources and Improve Health Systems Performance" (World Health Organization, 2006)
61
Birn, Anne-Emanuelle, and Brown, Theodore M. - "Comrades in Health: U.S. Health Internationalists,
Abroad and at Home" (Rutgers University Press, 2013)
62
Because it is a generic medicine that is listed on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines,
has a positive safety profile, and its usage is often widely acknowledged, for example, the ac-
quisition of dexamethasone is largely amenable to solutions that may be implemented on a
national level. Other therapies, such as monoclonal antibodies, are still in the exploratory
stage. As a result, they are subject to stricter regulation, more restricted availability, and typi-
cally higher costs than other medicines. It is possible that these variables, along with the
probability that the findings of clinical testing would necessitate large-scale deployment dur-
ing the COVID-19 pandemic, may argue in favour of a regional or global access mechanism.
When it is acceptable to do so, global access mechanisms need to function in line with the
core concepts of the global allocation framework that controls vaccines and medicines. This
framework dictates how vaccines and therapeutics are distributed across the world. These
concepts include equality and justice, affordability, cooperation, regulatory and procurement
efficiency, and solidarity. Accountability, openness, and responsiveness to the requirements
of the public health system are also included.
People who require immunisations may not have the luxury of being able to plan their visits
at a time that is most convenient for the medical practitioner who is providing the injection,
since this may not be an option for them. It's possible that the demands of their employment
throughout the day hold them captive like a hostage. Because there are so many things that
might get in their way, it's possible that they won't be able to schedule an appointment, and as
a consequence, they are obligated to show up whenever the opportunity presents itself.
If suppliers of vaccinations are not willing to be flexible with the time of when they adminis-
ter the doses, there is a chance that they will never connect with the people who have a need
for the vaccine. This matter was brought to light when a significant number of individuals
from the neighbouring cities of Naples and Fort Myers showed up in Immokalee, Florida, for
the first-ever vaccination session conducted by the community's health department. In re-
sponse to this issue, the municipal authorities worked along with the Partnership for
Immokalee Health (PIH), the Healthcare Network (HCN), the Coalition of Immokalee Work-
ers (CIW), and other groups to develop a system that is based on appointments and is more
easily accessible. The health promoters who had been detailed before to this worked in col-
laboration with members of the community to prepare a list of persons who were interested in
obtaining a vaccine, contacted them to set up appointments and even offered transportation to
the vaccination locations. In addition, the group designed vaccination clinics that did not need
63
patients to schedule an appointment and that were held at times and locations that were more
convenient for people all around Immokalee. These clinics were disseminated out. The ac-
tions taken by HCN and CIW to assist community activities in Immokalee were fruitful, as
evidenced by the residents' receipt of more than 10,000 photographs as a result of those or-
ganisations' efforts.
Another technique that was used successfully was expanding the amount of hours that vacci-
nation centres remained open. CORE was able to reach a more varied community thanks to
the deployment of 12-hour vaccination days in the city of Los Angeles and the capacity of
our partners to extend the hours of operation in certain situations until 10 p.m. CORE was
able to reach a more diverse population thanks to the implementation of 12-hour immunisa-
tion days in the city of Los Angeles.
In order to put a stop to the pandemic, our primary focus should be on disseminating the vac-
cine in a way that would provide the most beneficial outcomes conceivable. This is one of the
options that are now open to us to consider. This implies that the focus should be on the ef-
fect upon population health, which is reinforced by the fact that we are dealing with a pan-
demic, and that this is healthier for everyone in general, even though particular individuals
might benefit more from a different manner of distribution.62 Even in situations in which indi-
viduals do not benefit directly from such an approach, there is a significant likelihood that
they will benefit indirectly as a result of such a strategy. It will be required to make judge-
ments based on the most persuasive evidence concerning the persons who should be vacci-
nated first (for example, first responders) in order to either prevent the spread of the illness or
produce additional advantages for the general population if this objective is to be achieved.
Priority should be given to providing health benefits (for example, decreasing mortality and
morbidity), but social and economic advantages (for example, preventing poverty, etc.) are
equally important and may be addressed. Providing health benefits should be the first prior-
ity. The risk of death and illness is decreased, which is one of the many advantages to health.
It should be the second priority objective to get the vaccination to those people who have the
most need for it. The major attention should be made on those people who are most likely to
become dangerously ill if they are infected with the virus. However, given the magnitude of
the pandemic, tackling the pandemic as a whole ought to be the primary and topmost con-
62
Elbe, Stefan - "Pandemics, Pills, and Politics: Governing Global Health Security" (Johns Hopkins University
Press, 2010)
64
cern. It is anticipated that the achievement of the primary priority may, to some degree, over-
lap with this secondary priority (i.e., attempting to bring about the best outcome in relation to
ending the pandemic may involve vaccinating at least some of those who are at the greatest
need), and it is also likely that those who are at the greatest need will benefit indirectly from
the achievement of the primary priority.63
When considering both the context and the culture, it is essential that medical supplies be
available whenever and wherever they are needed. The following characteristics of a product
are very desirable: acceptable, quality-assured, risk-free, productive, and inexpensive. In the
past, when there were pandemics, certain countries had a hard time getting access to the es-
sential medications, immunisations, and other types of vital health care commodities.64
In general, low- and middle-income countries have a far more difficult time acquiring access
to life-saving pharmaceuticals and other forms of health products than countries with higher
incomes do. This is because higher-income nations have more resources available to them. A
number of problems, including but not limited to: overwhelming demand; restricted produc-
tion capacity; high costs; and the absence of a worldwide allocation mechanism, have con-
tributed to these delays.
Because of the unfathomably high demand, a number of countries are having a very hard time
acquiring the essential medical supplies they need. Personal protective equipment, mechani-
cal ventilators, and diagnostic tests for the COVID-19 illness are some of the things that are
included in this category.
It is projected that if novel COVID-19 health goods become accessible, access to them would
most likely be restricted due to insufficient supply caused by inadequate manufacturing ca-
pacity mixed with extremely high demand. This is because it is anticipated that if new
COVID-19 health items become available, access to them will be restricted. This occurs as a
result of the two elements working together in conjunction with one another. The interna-
tional community is reacting by making efforts that have never been seen before in order to
expedite the development and manufacturing of vaccines, diagnostic tests, and medicines for
63
McNeill, William H. - "Plagues and Peoples" (Anchor Books, 1998)
64
Fidler, David P. - "Global Health Governance: Crisis, Institutions, and Political Economy" (Palgrave Macmil-
lan, 2011)
65
the COVID19 sickness and to provide equitable access to these treatments. These efforts have
never been seen before because the global community is reacting.65
At the moment, the Access to COVID-19 Tools (ACT) Accelerator (Annex 1) is the largest
international collaboration that is working towards the goal of accelerating research and pro-
duction and providing equitable access to cutting-edge COVID-19 technologies. This partner-
ship was established in an effort to meet the needs of the global community. Recent events
led to the establishment of this collaboration, which may be found in Annex 1.
Even if all of the worldwide stakeholders are able to come together and work together, there
is still more work that needs to be done in order to ensure that goods that are effective, safe,
and of high quality will be readily available. Continuous coordination between stakeholders
in different regions of the globe is essential in order to accomplish the goals of expanding
production, simplifying procurement, optimising the benefit to public health, and making the
best possible use of financial resources. Other aims include increasing the benefit to public
health and optimising the use of financial resources. This will make it possible to have an af-
fordable supply that is also environmentally friendly.

Role in the COVAX initiative and its support for vaccine patent waivers.
Significant legal ramifications may be drawn in relation to the provision of equitable access
to vaccinations as a result of the role played by the COVAX programme and the assistance
provided for vaccine patent waivers. The following is a rundown of the legal considerations
associated with these issues:
COVAX effort: The COVAX effort, which is being spearheaded by the globe Health Organi-
sation (WHO), Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness In-
novations (CEPI), aims to enable equal access to COVID-19 vaccinations everywhere in the
globe. In a legal sense, the COVAX project functions within the parameters of many interna-
tional agreements and legal instruments, such as the following:
· The Constitution of the World Health Organisation (WHO): The Constitution of the
WHO lays the legal groundwork for the organization's activities to improve global
65
Murray, Christopher J. L., Frenk, Julio, and Evans, David B. - "The Global Burden of Disease: A Compre -
hensive Assessment of Mortality and Disability from Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected
to 2020" (Harvard University Press, 1996)
66
health, including the fair distribution of vaccinations. It underscores the significance
of international collaboration and solidarity in order to confront the issues that are
faced in public health.
· The International Health Regulations (IHR): These regulations, which are a legally
binding instrument of international law, are what control the worldwide response to
public health emergencies. The mission of the IHR is to ensure that vaccinations and
other medical supplies are readily available during times of public health emergency,
and the COVAX effort corresponds with this goal.
· Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements: The COVAX programme is able to function
because of bilateral and multilateral agreements that have been reached between the
participating nations, organisations, and vaccine makers. The acquisition and distribu-
tion of vaccines, as well as questions of responsibility and intellectual property rights,
are all addressed under these agreements.
· Mechanisms for Funding: The COVAX initiative is dependent on monetary donations
from several countries as well as other stakeholders. These financial arrangements
may comprise legal agreements or promises to ensure that sufficient finances are
available for the purchase of vaccines, their distribution, and other activities associ-
ated with them.
· Waivers of Vaccine Patents: The question of whether or not vaccine patents should be
waived involves legal factors connected to intellectual property rights (IPR), namely
patents. In order to facilitate more access to COVID-19 vaccinations, the proposal for
vaccine patent waivers intends to either temporarily suspend or waive some patent
rights entirely.
The following are important legal aspects:

· Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of the
World Trade Organisation (WTO): The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intel-
lectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international agreement that establishes the ba-
sic criteria for the protection of intellectual property, such as patents. Issuing compul-
sory licences is one of the steps that signatories of the TRIPS Agreement are permit-
ted to adopt in order to preserve public health and increase access to healthcare re-
sources.
67
· Flexibilities provided by the TRIPS Agreement The TRIPS Agreement provides flexi-
bilities that make it possible for governments to issue compulsory licences. This paves
the way for the production of generic versions of patented vaccines without the con-
sent of the patent holder. Other methods, such as government use licences or parallel
imports, may also be utilised by nations in order to broaden their citizens' access to
vaccines that have been granted patent protection.
· Negotiations and Decision-Making: The process of putting vaccine patent waivers
into effect requires WTO member nations to engage in negotiations with one another.
Any decision to waive or amend patent rights would need agreement and consensus
among member states, in addition to conformity with the legal procedures provided in
the TRIPS Agreement. These requirements must be met before such a decision may
be made.66
· Laws and rules Concerning National Patents The introduction of patent waivers may
necessitate that nations evaluate and potentially alter their laws and rules concerning
national patents. Legal considerations are required for this procedure. These concerns
include national intellectual property regulations as well as international commitments
outlined in the TRIPS Agreement.
It is essential to keep in mind that the debates and advances in the law pertaining to vaccina-
tion patent waivers are ongoing, and it is possible that the particular legal ramifications will
differ based on the choices and actions made by the nations, international organisations, and
stakeholders engaged in the COVAX effort.
Because of the lightning-fast pace at which safe and efficient vaccinations have been pro-
duced and licenced, we now have access to an essential new method of protecting individuals
against the virus in addition to the more conventional public health interventions. Now we
need to make sure that they are accessible to everyone, in every location. The key to putting a
stop to this problem is making sure that we properly use data to target populations that have
been left behind, that we effectively share dosages, and that we enhance production by reduc-
ing barriers.
I think it's great that India is now sharing doses, and I also think it's great that the G7 nations
have committed to share a percentage of their vaccines and have pledged considerable
amounts of fresh financing to COVAX.
66
Biehl, João - "Vita: Life in a Zone of Social Abandonment" (University of California Press, 2005)
68
However, out of the 225 million vaccine doses that have been provided so far, the great ma-
jority of them have been in just a few wealthy nations that also produce vaccines, while the
majority of low- and middle-income countries sit back and wait. An strategy that puts one's
own needs first may suit the political objectives of some in the short term, but it is ultimately
self-defeating and will result in a prolonged recovery during which both trade and travel will
continue to suffer.
It is imperative that every possible chance to combat this infection be taken advantage of.
There is an emergence of new variations that exhibit characteristics suggesting they are more
infectious, more lethal, and less amenable to vaccination. The danger is obvious: so long as
the virus continues to grow in any part of the world, it will continue to have more possibilities
to mutate, which might potentially reduce the effectiveness of vaccinations everywhere. It's
possible that we'll have to start from scratch again.
A vaccine equality proclamation has already received support from heads of state, interna-
tional organisations, and civil society organisations. The declaration urges governments and
manufacturers to expedite the approval process and increase production of vaccines.67
But the industrial sector won't improve on its own by itself. We are now residing at an extra-
ordinary time in history, and as such, we are obligated to rise to the occasion. We need to pull
out all the brakes, whether that means sharing doses, transferring technologies, engaging in
voluntary licencing as the World Health Organization's own COVID-19 Technology Access
Pool project promotes, or forgoing intellectual property rights as South Africa and India have
urged. There are exceptions to the rules that govern commerce that can be made in the event
of an emergency. A worldwide pandemic certainly qualifies as an emergency because it has
caused so much damage to businesses of all sizes and has led many societies to shut down.
We need to be prepared for battle, and it is essential that we have a good understanding of
what exactly is required.
To begin, we must ensure that the manufacture and production of vaccines throughout the
world are environmentally responsible. It will be helpful during current epidemic and essen-
tial for pandemics in the future. Some businesses, such as Astra Zeneca, have collaborated
67
Iliffe, John - "African AIDS: Epidemics and Governance" (Ohio University Press, 2009)
69
and shared their licences with one another in order to facilitate the production of vaccinations
at numerous locations. Others, such as Pfizer and Sanofi, have reached partnerships to trans-
fer technological know-how, such as the finishing of vaccination bottles. Certain govern-
ments, such as that of Canada, have also struck partnerships with certain corporations and are
in the process of setting up whole new production plants, which will manufacture fresh
dosages in a matter of months. These are huge advances, but we cannot rest until everyone
has access, and we need to secure sustainable vaccination supply chains for the long term that
are considerably larger than what we have now. These are significant steps, but we cannot
rest until everyone has access. If we need to vaccinate patients with booster shots or reformu-
late vaccines to combat variations, this will become much more critical. Innovators won't be
left out of the loop if patents are temporarily suspended. Royalties will be given to firms for
the things they make, similar to how they were during the HIV epidemic or during a war. 68
There are certain things that the private sector performs really well, and there are also other
areas in which the government ought to get involved. In the present moment, I do not feel
that we, as a global community, are making the most of our industrial potential. For instance,
certain manufacturers have not been able to generate viable vaccine candidates, which is to
be anticipated; nonetheless, their manufacturing facilities can be repurposed for vaccines that
have been shown to be effective in clinical trials. To this aim, I was glad to hear the an-
nouncement made by Vice President Biden that Johnson & Johnson (J&J) and Merck
(Merck) will now work together to enhance the manufacturing of vaccines.
Building up the local manufacturing capability of countries with low and moderate incomes
should also be a priority for these nations. Vaccines against COVID-19 might be produced in
Dakar, Senegal, thanks to an investment in manufacturing facilities. In the same way as the
yellow fever vaccine is presently produced there.
It has never been attempted to vaccinate every single person on the planet at the same time.
On the other hand, if we are capable of landing a rover on Mars, we should be able to manu-
facture billions of vaccinations and save millions of lives here on earth. Everyone has some-
thing to contribute, even if governments and pharmaceutical companies are the most impor-
tant players in the distribution of vaccines fairly. Donating to COVAX, for example, is the
quickest method to speed up the effort to stop the epidemic and get humanity going again
once it has slowed them down. This is true for global enterprises that rely on commerce and
68
70
travel. Individuals, particularly those who have already had the good fortune to be immu-
nised, can also demonstrate their support by giving to COVAX, which in and of itself sends a
powerful message to governments that vaccination equality is the right thing to do.
It is not merely a matter of beating Covid by medicinal means. The fact is that this epidemic
has hampered the employment market and made it even more difficult to put food on the ta-
ble for millions of people. Both the children's educational progress and their overall growth
have been halted. These impacts are just as devastating as the pandemic itself, which is an-
other reason why we need to recover together via vaccination and other health-related meth-
ods. And in terms of ensuring the safety of the entire world, the sooner we are able to develop
a vaccine, the sooner we will be able to direct our efforts towards combating other dangers,
such as the ongoing climate problem, which has not gone away while we have been preoccu-
pied with the virus. It is up to us to determine what the future holds. Let's not let politics, do-
ing business as usual, or the opinions of others who say we can't hold us back. The fact that
vaccinations are being distributed in Ghana should only serve to bolster our united passion
for ensuring that no nation is left behind in our fight against the most significant issue of our
lives. Although the virus has been able to take advantage of our interconnection, we may turn
the tables and use it to our advantage by distributing potentially life-saving vaccinations in a
manner that is both wider and more quickly than ever before.
In this context, one of the most important legal instruments is the World Trade Organization's
(WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). The
following are some essential factors to consider from a legal standpoint:
The TRIPS Agreement and Its Flexibilities The TRIPS Agreement both defines basic criteria
for the protection of intellectual property rights (IPR), such as patents, and includes flexibili-
ties that can be utilised to enhance access to medicines. These flexibilities include the use of
compulsory licencing, which enables governments to give licences for the production of
generic copies of patented medicines without the approval of the holder of the patent on the
original drug. It is possible to respond to public health catastrophes, such as the COVID-19
pandemic, with the help of mandatory licencing, which will also help ensure that inexpensive
vaccinations will be available.
71
The flexibility of the TRIPS agreement to safeguard public health was reaffirmed in the Doha
Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which was published in 2001. It
recognises the right of WTO members to adopt steps to preserve public health and promote
access to medicines for everyone in a clear and unequivocal manner. The TRIPS Agreement
should not preclude nations from adopting required actions to protect public health, according
to the statement, which emphasises this point.
Patent Waivers and the TRIPS Council: In the context of patent waivers for vaccines, debates
have taken place inside the TRIPS Council, which is the organisation responsible for the ad-
ministration and implementation of the TRIPS Agreement. In order to expand access to vac-
cinations and move manufacturing forward more quickly, a number of nations and organisa-
tions have suggested that, during the pandemic, some intellectual property rights connected to
COVID-19 vaccines be waived. The TRIPS Council has been discussing and analysing these
suggestions as part of their ongoing negotiating process.
Laws and Regulations Concerning National Patents In order for nations to comply with the
adoption of vaccination patent waivers, their national patent laws and regulations will need to
be reviewed, and in certain cases, amended. The criteria and processes for giving compulsory
licences, as well as the extent and length of patent rights, are mostly determined by national
laws, which also play an important role in regulating the scope of patent rights. It may be
necessary for nations to guarantee that their national legal frameworks facilitate the use of
flexibilities provided under the TRIPS Agreement in order to attend to the requirements of
public health
International Cooperation and Bilateral Agreements: When it comes to ensuring fair access to
vaccinations and medical supplies, international cooperation is an absolutely necessary com-
ponent. It is possible for nations and pharmaceutical corporations to help the manufacturing,
distribution, and affordability of vaccines by entering into bilateral partnerships, technology
transfer agreements, and voluntary licencing agreements with one another. When negotiating
and writing these agreements, legal considerations arise in order to provide fair and equitable
conditions, protect intellectual property rights, and address concerns regarding public health.
Mechanisms for addressing Disputes In the event that parties have differences or disputes
about intellectual property rights (IPR) and access to medicines, the TRIPS Agreement pro-
72
vides a mechanism for addressing such problems through the dispute settlement process that
is administered by the WTO. The parties concerned can take their claims to the Dispute Set-
tlement Body, which is comprised of a panel of specialists who will evaluate the legal argu-
ments and then make a ruling that is legally binding. These methods contribute to the fulfil-
ment of international legal commitments and the resolution of disputes in a way that is just
and open to public scrutiny.
CHAPTER 5: WHO’S INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND PART-

NERSHIPS
In order to address global health concerns, international cooperation and alliances are essen-
tial. The promotion of cooperative initiatives to enhance health outcomes globally is spear-
headed by the World Health Organisation (WHO). WHO participates in a variety of partner-
ships and collaborations to accomplish its objectives in order to carry out its mandate to di-
rect and organise worldwide health operations. In order to promote global health and collabo-
ration, important projects, frameworks, and tactics are highlighted in this essay that examines
the value of WHO's international partnerships and cooperation.69
69
Chan, Margaret - "Global Health Partnerships: The World Health Organization and the International Pharma -
ceutical Industry" (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
73
The Importance of International Cooperation: Addressing global health concerns requires ef-
fective international cooperation. WHO acknowledges the connection between health chal-
lenges and the demand for coordinated response. By promoting collaboration, WHO enables
nations to exchange resources, know-how, and expertise, resulting in improved global health
outcomes and stronger health systems. In order to battle infectious illnesses, address social
determinants of health, build health systems, and promote universal health care, international
cooperation is helpful.
INITIATIVES FOR COLLABORATION:

· International Health Regulations (IHR): A crucial foundation for global collabora-
tion in public health is the International Health Regulations. It was created by the
WHO with the intention of halting and containing the global spread of illnesses, in-
cluding pandemics and outbreaks. IHR encourages information exchange, teamwork
on surveillance and response systems, and coordination of actions during crises in-
volving the public's health. Global cooperation and coordination are made easier by
WHO's function as the main centre for IHR implementation.
· Global Vaccine Access: WHO is a key player in efforts to increase access to vaccines
globally. WHO supports the equitable distribution of vaccines throughout the world
through collaborations with national governments, international organisations, and
vaccine producers. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, a partnership called the
Access to COVID-19 Tools Accelerator (ACT-A) was established. It advocates for eq-
uitable access to vaccines, medications, and diagnostics. The involvement of WHO in
programmes like COVAX promotes equitable vaccine delivery, especially to low- and
middle-income nations.
· Research and development Collaboration: To advance research and development
(R&D) for global health objectives, WHO works with a variety of stakeholders. Ac-
celerating R&D during outbreaks and emergencies is the focus of initiatives like the
Research and Development Blueprint. The development of diagnostics, treatments,
and vaccinations for emerging illnesses is advanced by WHO's facilitation of coordi-
nation among researchers, funders, and regulators. WHO facilitates the transfer of in-
74
formation and technologies, stimulates data exchange, and strengthens international
research networks through partnerships.70
· Regional and Bilateral Cooperation: In order to address the unique health issues
that each region faces, WHO actively participates in regional and bilateral collabora-
tions. To create specialised plans and programmes, regional offices work with mem-
ber states, regional organisations, and other stakeholders. In order to enhance health
outcomes, address communicable and non-communicable diseases, and develop
health systems, for instance, the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO), the
WHO regional office for the Americas, collaborates closely with nations in the region.
· Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships: The WHO understands the value of involving nu-
merous stakeholders in the achievement of its objectives. Governments, civil society
groups, academic institutions, businesses, and charitable foundations are all partners
in this endeavour. The mobilisation of resources, knowledge, and innovation to ad-
dress global health concerns is facilitated by public-private partnerships. Successful
multi-stakeholder partnerships are exemplified by WHO's collaboration with the Bill
& Melinda Gates Foundation, Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, and the Global Fund to
Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria.
· Strengthening Health Systems: As part of its global collaboration, WHO works to
improve the health systems of low- and middle-income nations. The group assists na-
tions in creating robust health systems that can deliver crucial services and handle
emergencies. WHO assists nations in enhancing their healthcare infrastructure, work-
force training, governance, and financing systems through technical support, capacity
building, and knowledge exchange.
· Emergency Response: WHO's international relationships and collaboration are es-
sential in boosting the world's emergency preparedness and response capabilities. The
group works with nations and others to create frameworks, norms, and strategies for
efficient emergency response. The World Health Organisation (WHO) mobilises spe-
cialists and resources during epidemics and emergencies through programmes like the
Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN). Additionally, it aids in cre-
ating resilient healthcare systems and national emergency preparedness strategies.71
70
Kickbusch, Ilona, and Hein, Wolfgang - "Global Health Diplomacy: Concepts, Issues, Actors, Instruments,
Fora, and Cases" (Springer, 2013)
71
Heymann, David L. - "Global Health Security: A Blueprint for the Future" (Johns Hopkins University Press,
2017)
75
Capacity Building and Knowledge provides nations with technical assistance:
WHO highlights information sharing and capacity building as essential elements of interna-
tional collaboration. The organisation works with nations to improve their data management
skills, laboratory capacity, healthcare staff, and surveillance systems. WHO organises work-
shops, training sessions, and best practise exchanges to advance the abilities and education of
medical professionals around the world. WHO encourages innovation, evidence-based deci-
sion-making, and the application of successful health initiatives through fostering knowledge
sharing.72
WHO works in health diplomacy and advocacy activities to advance international health
goals. The organisation actively promotes health as a fundamental human right and a major
factor in sustainable development through collaborating with member states, regional organi-
sations, and international forums. WHO mobilises resources, shapes policy, and encourages
political commitment to tackling health issues through diplomatic channels. Its participation
in international forums like the World Health Assembly and the United Nations General As-
sembly strengthens the voice of member states and encourages global cooperation on health
concerns.
Monitoring and Evaluation: The WHO places a strong emphasis on monitoring and evalua-
tion methods to ensure the success of global cooperation and partnerships. The group evalu-
ates the results of joint efforts, tracks advancements towards goals in global health, and pin-
points opportunities for development. WHO offers recommendations that are supported by
statistics that are designed to improve the effectiveness and results of international coopera-
tion initiatives.
For solving global health concerns and fostering cooperation among nations and stakeholders,
the World Health Organization's international relationships and cooperation are crucial.
WHO promotes group action to improve health outcomes globally through structures includ-
ing the International Health Regulations, global vaccination access efforts, research and de-
velopment collaboration, regional and bilateral cooperation, and multi-stakeholder partner-
ships. WHO is essential in advancing global health objectives by bolstering health systems,
improving disaster planning and response capabilities, and encouraging capacity building and
knowledge sharing. In order to solve present and future health concerns, international cooper-
72
Lee, Kelley - "Global Health and International Relations" (Polity Press, 2009)
76
ation is still essential. WHO's initiatives continue to encourage cooperation, solidarity, and
equity in the goal of greater global health.73
Beyond emergency response, WHO's international cooperation initiatives cover a range of
topics including capacity building, knowledge sharing, health diplomacy, and advocacy. The
World Health Organisation (WHO) is essential in assisting nations in creating resilient
healthcare systems, boosting emergency planning and response capabilities, and fostering ca-
pacity building and knowledge exchange.
The WHO can evaluate the results of efforts to promote international collaboration and pin-
point areas for development thanks to monitoring and evaluation tools. WHO gives sugges-
tions based on evidence to improve the efficacy and efficiency of cooperation activities after
collecting and analysing data.
Global health's difficulties call for steadfast dedication and ongoing efforts. There are contin-
uing health crises, new diseases, and enduring health disparities around the world. In order to
solve these issues, it is imperative that WHO continue to promote global partnerships, collab-
orations, and cooperation. WHO can bring about real change and improve health outcomes
for all by mobilising resources, arguing for health as a fundamental right, and encouraging
political commitment.
International cooperation is still essential for advancing equity and security in access to
healthcare globally in a world where health hazards are not limited by state boundaries. The
WHO's function as a focal point for international health activities is essential for organising
initiatives, fostering knowledge exchange, and promoting global health priorities. WHO and
its partners can significantly advance the development of a world that is healthier and more
resilient via cooperative action, solidarity, and shared responsibility.74
WHO'S COLLABORATION WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

AND GOVERNMENTS IN RESPONDING TO THE PANDEMIC
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought to light the critical importance of intergovernmental
cooperation in responding to worldwide health catastrophes. In order to build an effective re-
sponse, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has been at the forefront of facilitating collab-
oration between nations and international organisations. The legal implications of WHO's co-
73
Sridhar, Devi - "The Battle Against Hunger: Choice, Circumstance, and the World Bank" (Oxford University
Press, 2008)
74
Aginam, Obijiofor - "Global Health Governance: International Law and Public Health in a Divided World"
(University of Toronto Press, 2005)
77
operation with countries, international organisations, and other entities in combating the epi-
demic are examined in this essay. In light of the current global health crisis, it examines im-
portant legal duties, frameworks, and methods used by WHO to encourage coordination, co-
operation, and solidarity.75
The WHO-established International Health Regulations (IHR) serve as a legal foundation for
international collaboration during public health emergencies. The IHR require WHO member
nations to identify, evaluate, report, and address hazards to public health while encouraging
cooperation and information exchange. WHO has extensively collaborated with governments
throughout the epidemic to assist their adherence to IHR obligations, facilitate shared risk as-
sessments, coordinate response efforts, and provide vital information on the virus, its propa-
gation, and control measures.76
UNITED NATIONS (UN):

· Cooperation with International Organisations: To provide a coordinated response
to the epidemic, WHO, a specialised agency of the UN, works closely with other UN
organisations. Under the direction of the Secretary-General, the UN's system-wide
strategy aims to assist nations in resolving the health, social, and economic difficulties
brought on by the pandemic. In order to satisfy the unique needs of member states,
WHO works with UN organisations including UNICEF, UNDP, and UNHCR. This
collaboration strengthens the effectiveness of the group response.
· World Trade Organisation (WTO): The WHO-WTO partnership has been essential
in tackling the legal and commercial aspects of the international response to the pan-
demic. WHO advises WTO participants on public health policies that are compliant
with international trade norms. The partnership makes ensuring that trade restrictions
and regulations are supported by research and risk assessments, striking a balance be-
tween safeguarding the general public's health and limiting hindrances to international
trade.77
· International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank: In order to address the fi-
nancial ramifications of the epidemic, WHO works with financial organisations like
75
Claeson, Mariam, and Alexander, Sasha - "Global Health Partnerships: Assessing Country Consequences"
(Center for Global Development, 2010)
76
Kostyak, Laura, and Rollwagen, Heather - "Global Health Collaboration: Challenges and Opportunities"
(Routledge, 2019)
77
Kohler, Jillian Clare - "Global Health Partnerships and the World Health Organization: Collaborating for
Change" (Routledge, 2013)
78
the IMF and World Bank. Sharing health-related data and analytics to inform policy
decisions, coordinating health and economic priorities, and mobilising funding for the
improvement of health systems and pandemic recovery are all parts of this collabora-
tion. The cooperation between WHO and these organisations emphasises the under-
standing of the connection between socioeconomic well-being and health.78
COOPERATION WITH GOVERNMENTS:

· National Legal Frameworks: WHO collaborates with governments to encourage the
adoption and application of national legal frameworks that aid in the development of
efficient pandemic responses. This entails creating laws and rules that enable govern-
ments to implement the essential public health precautions, such as enforcing lock-
downs, placing limitations on travel, and instituting quarantine procedures. WHO of-
fers countries technical assistance and advice to help them align their legal systems
with global health standards and human rights ideals.
· National Emergency Declarations: To enable the deployment of extraordinary mea-
sures in response to the pandemic, governments frequently declare national emergen-
cies. In order to maintain compliance with international legal commitments and hu-
man rights norms, WHO works with governments to examine the necessity and ap-
propriateness of emergency measures. The organization's recommendations place a
strong emphasis on the value of making decisions based on facts, being open and ac-
countable, and respecting people's individual liberties and rights in emergency situa-
tions.79
· Sharing of Data and Best Practises: Data, information, and best practises are shared
through collaboration between the WHO and governments. Sharing epidemiological
information, surveillance reports, research findings, and treatment recommendations
fall under this category. WHO supports governments to take well-informed decisions,
put evidence-based plans into action, and gain knowledge from effective techniques
used by other nations by promoting the sharing of information.
NORMS AND LEGAL OBLIGATIONS:
78
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Jakab, Zsuzsanna - "Health Systems Strengthening for Universal Health Coverage and Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals: A Synthesis of 11 Country Case Studies" (World Health Organization, 2017)
79
· Human Rights Framework: Human rights principles serve as the foundation for
WHO's partnerships with states and international organisations. The maximum possi-
ble level of physical and mental health for every person is required under the right to
health, which is recognised in international human rights law. In order to guarantee
that pandemic response measures adhere to human rights principles, including non-
discrimination, equality, and the ability to receive healthcare services, WHO works
with countries. 80
· International humanitarian law is taken into consideration as part of WHO's partner-
ship with states throughout the pandemic. The behaviour of parties during armed con-
flicts and other violent events is governed by this legal framework. When armed con-
flicts and public health emergencies coexist, WHO works with governments to guar-
antee the delivery of vital medical services, the safety of medical facilities and staff,
and adherence to the principles of distinction and proportionality.
· Intellectual Property and Access to Medicines: The epidemic has highlighted the
significance of fair access to medical innovations and products. In its work with gov-
ernments, WHO has focused on removing restrictions on access to cheap drugs, vac-
cines, and diagnostics that may be caused by legal and legislative issues relating to in-
tellectual property rights. WHO encourages voluntary licencing and technology trans-
fer to broaden access to crucial medical innovations through programmes like the
COVID-19 Technology Access Pool (C-TAP) and the Medicines Patent Pool.
COLLABORATION PROCEDURES:
· Joint Coordination and Response Mechanisms: WHO encourages joint coordina-
tion and response procedures involving states and international organisations. These
systems offer a venue for consistent communication, effort coordination, and knowl-
edge sharing. For instance, the Strategic Preparedness and reaction Plan (SPRP) under
the direction of the WHO brings together a range of stakeholders in order to coordi-
nate their reaction plans and mobilise resources for efficient pandemic containment.
· Technical assistance and capacity building are two aspects of the collaboration be-
tween WHO and governments that are listed in section. This help includes things like
risk communication, laboratory strengthening, infection prevention and control, sur-
veillance and data collecting, and infection prevention and control. WHO helps gov-
80
Hanefeld, Johanna, and Walt, Gill - "Global Health Partnerships: The Pharmaceutical Industry and BRICA"
(Routledge, 2018)
80
ernments in various nations strengthen their capacities so they can respond to pan-
demics and other health emergencies more effectively.81
· Global Health Governance: The WHO's cooperation with states and international
organisations helps with global health governance. The World Health Organisation
(WHO) promotes communication, agreement-building, and decision-making among
member states through venues like the World Health Assembly, Executive Board, and
expert committees. These governance frameworks make guarantee that inclusiveness,
accountability, and transparency are the guiding principles of collaboration.
LEGAL ISSUES AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION:

· Dispute resolution mechanisms: Regarding response strategies or the interpretation
of legal duties, disagreements or disputes may develop between nations or between
nations and international organisations in the context of the pandemic. Through its
knowledge of law and policy, WHO offers a forum for discussion and conflict resolu-
tion. To handle legal issues and arrive at amicable resolutions, the organisation can or-
ganise negotiations, mediations, and arbitrations.
· Legal Challenges and Accountability: During the pandemic, legal issues relating to
the use of public health measures, issues with human rights, or potential transgres-
sions of international agreements may come up. In order to address these issues and
ensure accountability, WHO works with countries. This could entail conducting legal
analyses, keeping an eye on whether international standards are being followed, and
giving advice on legal and policy matters pertaining to the pandemic response.82
· International Legal Obligations and Compliance: International legal obligations
serve as the framework for the cooperation between the WHO, other international or-
ganisations, and states in the fight against the pandemic. Member nations are required
by law to work with WHO and other international organisations to put control mea-
sures in place to stop the virus's spread. This entails information exchange, adherence
to rules and suggestions, and participation in the creation and distribution of medica-
tions and vaccines. WHO is essential in ensuring that countries uphold their legal
obligations by monitoring compliance with them and offering recommendations.83
81
Bollyky, Thomas J. - "Plagues and the Paradox of Progress: Why the World Is Getting Healthier in Worri -
some Ways" (MIT Press, 2018)
82
Stone, Howard - "The Birth of Global Health: A Conversation with Pioneers" (Routledge, 2020)
83
Burci, Gian Luca, and Vignes, Claude-Henri - "World Health Organization: A History" (Bloomsbury Publish-
ing, 2019) Stone, Howard - "The Birth of Global Health: A Conversation with Pioneers" (Routledge, 2020)
81
· International Legal Cooperation for Research and Development: In order to
speed up research and development efforts for the creation of diagnostics, therapies,
and vaccinations, international legal cooperation is necessary. In order to create leg-
islative frameworks that support data exchange, intellectual property rights, and tech-
nology transfer, WHO collaborates with states and international organisations. This
collaboration makes it possible to develop medical tools and technology quickly and
effectively to combat the pandemic and guarantees that the advantages are distributed
internationally.
· Future Legal Preparedness and Lessons Learned: The response to the epidemic by
countries, international organisations, and the WHO has taught us important lessons
that will help us be more prepared legally in the future. It emphasises the necessity for
strong legal structures that can deal with public health emergencies successfully. The
lessons learned from the epidemic can guide the creation of legal frameworks that en-
courage prompt and coordinated responses, uphold human rights, and facilitate global
collaboration and solidarity.
In order to improve global health security and cooperation, the international health regula-
tions (IHR) should be strengthened in the areas that the pandemic has highlighted. In order to
examine and enhance the IHR framework, WHO works with member states and international
partners, addressing topics including early warning systems, data sharing, emergency finan-
cial mechanisms, and enforcement measures. A more efficient and well-coordinated response
to pandemics or other health catastrophes is ensured by strengthening the legal framework.
Impact on Global Health Governance: The response to the pandemic by the WHO, other in-
ternational organisations, and states has an impact on global health governance. In order to
deal with health emergencies, it emphasises the need for improved coordination, cooperation,
and accountability procedures. Additionally, it emphasises how crucial it is to take into ac-
count how various legal frameworks—including those governing trade, human rights, and
health—interact when developing sensible solutions. The knowledge gained from the require-
ment for a thorough, integrated, and rights-based strategy.84
84
Buse, Kent, and Lee, Kelley - "Global Public-Private Partnerships: The Politics of Cooperation in Global
Health" (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)
82
In addition to being an issue of health, the World Health Organisation, international organisa-
tions, and countries must work together to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic. This collabo-
ration is supported by legislative frameworks, obligations, and mechanisms that guarantee a
planned, successful, and rights-based response. These legal considerations, which range from
the International Health Regulations to human rights tenets, intellectual property rights, and
dispute resolution procedures, provide as a framework for resolving the issues brought by the
epidemic.
Legal frameworks, commitments, and conventions serve as the foundation for WHO's coop-
eration with other nations, international organisations, and governments in combating the
COVID-19 pandemic. The International Health Regulations give member states a formal
foundation on which to collaborate, plan, and exchange information. Collaboration with inter-
national organisations like the United Nations, World Trade Organisation, International Mon-
etary Fund, and World Bank increases the multisectoral response and addresses numerous
pandemic aspects.
Human rights norms, international humanitarian law, and the promotion of fair access to
medical treatments and technological advancements serve as the foundation for the coopera-
tion between WHO and countries. The adoption and use of national legal frameworks, the ex-
change of information and best practises, and the conformity of emergency measures with hu-
man rights norms are all included in this collaboration.
Collaboration tools, including as collaborative coordination and response systems, technical

support, and capacity building, promote global health governance and enable successful pan-
demic control. Together, the WHO, international organisations, and governments can mount
a robust and coordinated response to the pandemic, safeguard public health, and advance the
right to health for all by utilising their combined knowledge, resources, and legal frame-
works.85
ITS COORDINATION EFFORTS WITH THE UNITED NATIONS AND ITS PART-
NERSHIPS WITH NATIONAL HEALTH AUTHORITIES.
85
Chatterjee, Patralekha - "This Is Global Health: A Brief Guide for Students and Professionals" (Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2020)
83
In order to develop an effective response in the event of international health emergencies like
the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Health Organisation (WHO) is crucial for coordinating
global efforts and working with national health authorities. The legal implications of WHO's
interactions with national health authorities and efforts to work with the UN are examined in
this essay. By addressing the legal structures, obligations, and procedures that facilitate these
cooperation, it emphasises their significance in resolving public health problems from a legal
perspective.
WHO'S COORDINATION EFFORTS HAVE A LEGAL FOUNDATION:

· WHO as a Specialised UN Agency: Created in accordance with the UN Charter,
WHO functions as a specialised agency of the UN. This legal basis gives WHO the
authority to coordinate closely with other UN agencies and organisations in order to
address difficulties in global health. Legal frameworks, such as the UN Charter, Gen-
eral Assembly resolutions, and interagency agreements, which specify the roles and
responsibilities of each body, serve as the basis for the coordination efforts between
WHO and the UN.
· The International Health Regulations (IHR) provide a crucial legal foundation for
international health cooperation in times of public health emergency. WHO's primary
duty is to coordinate and support Member States in carrying out the IHR provisions.
This entails facilitating information exchange, organising response tactics, and offer-
ing direction on public health activities. The IHR's legislative responsibilities and pro-
cedures support WHO efforts to coordinate with national health authorities and pro-
vide a coordinated international response to health emergencies.
UNITED NATIONS COORDINATION MECHANISMS:

· Coherence and Response Across the UN System: In order to respond to health
emergencies, the UN system coordinates its efforts, with WHO playing a key role. In
order to provide a coordinated and thorough response, WHO works in conjunction
with other UN organisations like the UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN
Children's Fund (UNICEF), and UN Population Fund (UNFPA). This collaboration is
overseen by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. The coordination mechanisms are
established through legal agreements and memorandums of understanding, which also
84
outline the responsibilities and functions of each organisation in resolving health-re-
lated issues.
· Resolutions adopted by the UN General Assembly and Security Council that deal with
particular health emergencies might serve as a legal foundation for improved collabo-
ration and coordination between member states and UN organisations. These resolu-
tions can urge additional funding for WHO, resource mobilisation initiatives, and the
creation of global cooperation institutions. They strengthen the governing framework
for how the WHO works with the UN and national health agencies to address public
health crises.
COLLABORATIONS WITH NATIONAL HEALTH AUTHORITIES:

· National Legal Frameworks: National legal frameworks give governments the au-
thority to effectively address health emergencies, which supports WHO collaborations
with national health authorities. Countries are urged to create and implement laws and
rules that support public health initiatives and are compliant with international health
standards. In order to support countries in creating and putting into place such frame-
works, which ensure adherence to international responsibilities and human rights stan-
dards, WHO offers technical assistance and legal expertise.86
· National governments frequently proclaim a state of emergency during public health
emergencies, giving them the legal ability to take extreme actions. In order to make
sure that emergency measures are required, appropriate, and in accordance with legal
and human rights norms, WHO works with national health authorities. This partner-
ship include giving legal counsel, keeping an eye on compliance, and encouraging
openness and responsibility in the application of emergency measures.
· The interchange of information, data, and best practises is made possible by partner-
ships between the WHO and national health authorities. Governments provide WHO
with epidemiological information, surveillance reports, research findings, and treat-
ment recommendations via legal channels to aid in the understanding of and response
to health emergencies on a global scale. Information communication is governed by
legal frameworks, such as data-sharing agreements and confidentiality clauses, which
86
Feachem, Richard G. A. - "Health Systems: More Evidence, More Action" (World Health Organization,
2010)
Wilson, David, and Baker, Brook K. - "Global Health Law" (West Academic Publishing, 2014)
85
guarantee adherence to data protection and privacy rules while fostering productive
collaboration.
· Technical Assistance and capability Building: In order to improve national health
authorities' capability to respond to health emergencies, WHO offers technical assis-
tance and capacity building support. This includes using legal skills to create laws,
rules, and policies that adhere to global standards. WHO helps nations improve their
legal preparedness through training programmes and workshops that include develop-
ing emergency response plans, creating legal frameworks for vaccine distribution, and
putting in place legal and regulatory measures for public health actions.
LEGAL ACCOUNTABILITY AND OVERSIGHT:

· Compliance Monitoring: In partnership with national health authorities, WHO plays
a critical role in ensuring that national health authorities are complying with all appli-
cable international health laws, regulations, and guidelines. The organisation carries
out routine examinations and reviews to make sure that nations follow their legal obli-
gations while handling medical emergencies. Where necessary, WHO offers advice
and technical support to close gaps and boost compliance.87
· Legal problems and dispute resolution may occur between the WHO, national health
authorities, and other parties in the context of global health emergencies. These diffi-
culties may have to do with questions like how to interpret legal duties, how to put re-
action plans into action, or how to allocate resources. With its legal knowledge, WHO
can facilitate conflict settlement processes like To resolve these issues and arrive at
amicable solutions, there shall be negotiations, mediation, or arbitration.
· Legal Protection and Immunities: The WHO and its employees are given legal pro-
tections and immunities in order to facilitate efficient coordination and collaboration.
These safeguards protect the company and its employees from lawsuits that might be
brought against them while they are working to respond to health emergencies. Immu-
nities give WHO the freedom to function independently, offer objective advice, and
interact with governments and stakeholders without worrying about legal ramifica-
tions, encouraging fruitful collaboration and partnerships.
· Legal frameworks, commitments, and methods serve as a solid foundation for the co-
ordination efforts between the World Health Organisation, the United Nations, and na-
87
Lindstrand, Ann, and Rosling, Hans - "Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About the World—and Why
Things Are Better Than You Think" (Flatiron Books, 2018)
86
tional health authorities in responding to global health emergencies. A unified and co-
gent response throughout the UN system is guaranteed by the legal foundation for
WHO's coordination with the UN. National legislative frameworks that give govern-
ments the ability to respond to health emergencies effectively while keeping legal du-
ties and human rights standards facilitate collaborations with national health agencies.
· Legal frameworks enable the interchange of knowledge, technical support, and capac-
ity building to improve nations' legal preparation through partnerships. Monitoring
compliance, holding people accountable legally, and using dispute resolution proce-
dures help to effectively coordinate activities and guarantee that international legal re-
sponsibilities are followed.88
In conjunction with the United Nations and national health authorities, WHO is able to man-
age the legal intricacies, correct problems, and advance a coordinated, effective, and legally
sound response to international health emergencies by operating within a strong legal frame-
work. In order to promote global health governance and safeguard public health, the legal
viewpoint emphasises the significance of abiding by international responsibilities, human
rights principles, and the creation of state legal frameworks.
88
Kickbusch, Ilona, and Lister, Sarah - "Health Diplomacy: Principles and Practices" (Polity Press, 2019)
87
CHAPTER 6: CRITICISMS, CHALLENGES OF WTOS EFFORTS IN
CURBING COVID-19
When it comes to putting a stop to the COVID-19 epidemic from a legal standpoint, the
World Trade Organisation (WTO) has been met with strong criticism and a number of chal-
lenges. The World commerce Organisation (WTO), which is a global organisation with the
responsibility of regulating international commerce, plays an extremely important part in eas-
ing the flow of goods and services. However, the pandemic has brought certain novel legal
obstacles, which have put the organization's capacity to respond efficiently and assure fair ac-
cess to crucial medical supplies, vaccinations, and treatments to the test. These challenges
have taxed the organization's ability to respond to the pandemic. In this essay, we will exam-
ine the objections levelled at the WTO and the obstacles it faced in its reaction to COVID-19
88
from a legal standpoint. We will then analyse the ramifications of these criticisms and offer
potential improvements89
Criticisms and challenges faced by the WHO during the pandemic
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has assumed
a leadership role in the governance of global health. The World Health Organisation (WHO),
which is the primary international institution responsible for organising responses to global
health crises, plays an essential part in advising member governments, spreading information,
and coordinating efforts to fight the epidemic. Nevertheless, during the course of its response
to the pandemic, the organisation has been subjected to substantial criticism and challenges.
Concerns have been raised regarding the organization's jurisdiction as well as its efficacy in
responding to emergencies involving global health. These critiques range from its slow re-
sponse time to its lack of openness. This essay will investigate the complaints levelled against
the WHO as well as the obstacles it experienced during the pandemic. It will also throw light
on the ramifications as well as possible areas for improvement.As a result of the COVID-19
pandemic, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has assumed a leadership role in the gover-
nance of global health. The World Health Organisation (WHO), which is the primary interna-
tional institution responsible for organising responses to global health crises, plays an essen-
tial part in advising member governments, spreading information, and coordinating efforts to
fight the epidemic. Nevertheless, during the course of its response to the pandemic, the or-
ganisation has been subjected to substantial criticism and challenges. Concerns have been
raised regarding the organization's jurisdiction as well as its efficacy in responding to emer-
gencies involving global health. These critiques range from its slow response time to its lack
of openness. This essay will investigate the complaints levelled against the WHO as well as
the obstacles it experienced during the pandemic. It will also throw light on the ramifications
as well as possible areas for improvement.90
· Lag in Response During the COVID-19 pandemic, one of the most significant criti-
cisms levelled against the World Health Organisation (WHO) was the fact that it took
89
Murray, Christopher J. L., and Frenk, Julio - "Health Metrics and Evaluation: Defining the Foundations of
Global Health" (University of Washington Press, 2008) Lindstrand, Ann, and Rosling, Hans - "Factfulness: Ten
Reasons We're Wrong About the World—and Why Things Are Better Than You Think" (Flatiron Books, 2018)
90
Cherniak, William, and Mate, Kelsey - "Crossing the Global Health Quality Chasm: Lessons from the World
Health Organization Surgical Safety Checklist" (World Scientific Publishing, 2019)
89
so long to respond to the epidemic and declare it a Public Health Emergency of Inter-
national Concern (PHEIC). The World Health Organisation (WHO) delayed until Jan-
uary 30, 2020 to declare a PHEIC in Wuhan, China, despite the growing number of
cases and deaths in that city. Many people thought that this was too late. Because of
this delay, the virus was able to rapidly spread to other countries, which ultimately led
to a pandemic on a global scale.
· Insufficient collaboration and Transparency During the Early Stages of the Pandemic,
the World Health Organisation (WHO) was criticised for its insufficient collaboration
and transparency with its member states. The World Health Organisation (WHO) was
perceived as not being proactive enough in its demands for transparency from China,
while China was accused of concealing information and censoring statistics regarding
the outbreak. Due to the lack of openness, early efforts to assess the gravity of the
virus and to take proper steps to prevent its spread were hampered.
· Inconsistent Messages: The World Health Organisation (WHO) encountered difficul-

ties during the pandemic in terms of providing consistent messages regarding the
virus and its transmission. There were other occasions in which contradictory infor-
mation was supplied, such as the early minimization of the significance of the rele-
vance of human-to-human transmission. These inconsistencies not only caused confu-
sion among the general public, but also eroded their belief in the organization's ability
to effectively transmit vital information.
· Inadequate Funding and Resources: The World Health Organisation (WHO) has been
dealing with difficulties in terms of funding and resources for a long time, and these
difficulties were made worse during the pandemic. The organisation struggled to keep
up with the growing demand for its knowledge and services as a result of limited fi-
nancial resources and staffing. The demand for the organization's services and exper-
tise increased. Because of this, it was unable to provide timely support and direction
90
to its member states, particularly those ones that had a limited healthcare infrastruc-
ture.
· Influence of Politics: The World Health Organisation (WHO) also had to contend with
the difficulty of being susceptible to political influence. The organisation derives the
majority of its income from its member states, which can lead to potential conflicts of
interest and limits the organization's capacity to operate independently. During the
pandemic, the World Health Organisation (WHO) was accused of favouring some
countries, most notably China, and of being influenced by political objectives rather
than putting the public's health as its first priority.
· Communication and Coordination: During the epidemic, the World Health Organisa-
tion (WHO) came under fire for the communication and coordination efforts it made.
Some people complained that the global response was too disjointed since the organi-
sation did not properly work with other international health bodies and member states.
In addition, there were worries regarding the World Health Organization's (WHO)
ability to transmit information and guidelines to healthcare professionals and the gen-
eral public in a timely manner while also making them easily available.
· An excessive reliance on Member States The World Health Organisation (WHO)

faced a serious obstacle throughout the epidemic because of its excessive reliance on
member states to provide accurate and timely information. Because the organisation
relies significantly on countries to record cases and share data, it is susceptible to po-
tential underreporting of incidents as well as information that has been intentionally
manipulated. This overreliance inhibits the World Health Organization's capacity to
independently verify and assess the severity of outbreaks, which has the potential to
lead to delayed reactions and measures that are less effective.
· Critics criticised the World Health Organisation (WHO) for its limited jurisdiction and
lack of enforcement procedures, both of which were intended to ensure that member
91
states complied with international health rules. The organisation can only offer recom-
mendations and general guidelines, and it is dependent on individual nations to freely
put them into practise. Due to this lack of enforceability, the WHO is restricted in its
ability to hold member nations accountable for the actions or inactions they take dur-
ing times of public health emergency.
· Limited Vaccine Distribution: The World Health Organisation (WHO) experienced

difficulty in ensuring that everyone around the world had equal access to COVID-19
vaccines. It was difficult for many nations with low incomes to obtain an adequate
supply of vaccines, which contributed to the existing discrepancies in immunisation
rates. The World Health Organization's (WHO) efforts to promote vaccination fairness
were met with challenges, such as the hoarding of vaccines by wealthier countries and
the lack of production skills in low-income countries.
· Trust and Confidence in the Public Sector: The World Health Organisation (WHO)
encountered a serious obstacle in its efforts to preserve public trust and confidence
during the pandemic. The way in which the organisation responded to the crisis, no-
tably its tardy reaction, contradictory messaging, and alleged political influence, dam-
aged trust in its ability to lead and coordinate global health responses efficiently. It is
essential for the World Health Organisation (WHO) to win back the trust of the people
in order to properly carry out its mission and combat upcoming health problems.
During the COVID-19 epidemic, the World Health Organisation was subjected to a great deal
of criticism and faced a number of difficult obstacles. These included a delayed response, a
lack of transparency, inconsistent messaging, inadequate funding and resources, political in-
fluence, communication and coordination issues, an overreliance on member states, limited
authority and enforcement mechanisms, limited vaccine distribution, and issues pertaining to
public trust and confidence. It will be vital for the WHO to address these concerns and prob-
lems if it is to strengthen its status as a leader in global health and improve its ability to re-
spond effectively to future pandemics.
92
Its handling of the initial outbreak in Wuhan, China, and its perceived lack
of authority and power in addressing global health emergencies.
Within the context of the international effort to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, the World
Health Organisation (WHO) has played a pivotal role. However, it has come under attack for
the way in which it handled the original outbreak in Wuhan, China, as well as for what is be-
lieved to be a lack of authority and capacity in responding to global health catastrophes. As a
result of the outbreak of the new coronavirus in Wuhan, China, the World Health Organisa-
tion (WHO) was given the important mission of disseminating accurate information, coordi-
nating the actions of international organisations, and reducing the effects of the virus. Con-
cerns have been made, however, about the speed and transparency of the World Health Orga-
nization's response in the early stages of the outbreak, as well as the limitations that are seen
to exist in the WHO's ability to wield authority and power in dealing with global health emer-
gencies. In this article, we will look into the complaints and obstacles experienced by the
World Health Organisation (WHO) in its handling of the initial outbreak in Wuhan and the
perceived lack of authority and power in resolving global health emergencies. We will em-
phasise the implications of these issues as well as potential possibilities for development.91
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Health Organisation (WHO) faced severe prob-
lems and complaints, particularly about its management of the initial epidemic in Wuhan,
China, as well as its perceived lack of authority and power in responding to global health
catastrophes. In this essay, we will investigate these complaints and problems in detail, iden-
tifying the important concerns, and analysing the consequences that these criticisms and chal-
lenges have for the WHO's status as a leader in global health.
· Delay in Response One of the key issues that the World Health Organisation (WHO)
faced was the delay in which it acknowledged the severity of the outbreak in Wuhan
and declared it a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). The
World Health Organisation (WHO) delayed until January 30, 2020 to declare a
PHEIC, despite early indications of human-to-human transmission and a rising num-
ber of cases and deaths in China. Because of this delay, the virus was able to rapidly
spread to other countries, which ultimately led to a pandemic affecting the entire
91
Borgerson, Scott G. - "The Power of Prescription: Drug Exports, Global Markets, and the Rise of the Global
Health Diplomats" (University of California Press, 2020)
93
world. Some people believe that the World Health Organisation (WHO) should have
been more prompt and decisive in its efforts to mobilise resources and coordinate
worldwide efforts to put an end to the outbreak.
· Lack of Transparency During the early phases of the epidemic, the WHO came under
fire for what was believed to be a lack of transparency and cooperation, particularly in
reference to its relationship with China. There were allegations that China withheld
vital information and suppressed data about the outbreak, which hampered worldwide
attempts to grasp the severity of the virus and establish effective response tactics. This
was a result of China's alleged actions. The World Health Organisation (WHO) was
criticised for not being proactive enough in its demands for transparency from China,
which raised questions about the organization's capacity to successfully fulfil its func-
tion as the global health watchdog.
· Dependence on Member States Relying heavily on member states for accurate and up-
to-date information was another problem that the World Health Organisation (WHO)
had to overcome. The organisation is dependent on countries to record instances and
share data, which leaves it open to the possibility of countries not reporting enough
cases or governments manipulating the information they do submit. Concerns were
raised over China's ability to deliver timely and correct information in the case of the
COVID-19 outbreak. As a result, the World Health Organisation (WHO) was unable
to properly evaluate the gravity of the situation and coordinate responses from around
the world. The World Health Organisation (WHO) is hampered in its ability to inde-
pendently verify and evaluate outbreaks as a result of its excessive dependency on its
member states.
· Authority and Power Restrictions: The World Health Organisation (WHO) was criti-
cised for having authority and power restrictions when it came to responding to global
health emergencies. Despite the fact that it offers guidelines and recommendations,
the organisation does not have the enforcement procedures necessary to guarantee that
its member states are complying with international health rules. The World Health Or-
ganisation (WHO) has a limited capacity to hold member nations accountable for their
94
acts or inactions during times of public health emergency. Some people believe that
the organisation should have more authority and power in order to ensure that every-
one is complying with the rules and to act decisively when a crisis arises.
· Influence of Politics: The pandemic brought to light still another difficulty: the World
Health Organization's (WHO's) sensitivity to political influence. Because the organi-
sation receives the majority of its money from its member nations, this can lead to
possible conflicts of interest and reduces the organization's ability to act indepen-
dently. There were claims that the World Health Organisation (WHO) was swayed by
political objectives, in particular with regard to its relationship with China. To prop-
erly fulfil its role as a global health leader, critics said that the organisation has to be
more transparent and independent, free from political constraints, in order to operate
at its full potential.92
· Communication and Coordination: During the epidemic, the World Health Organisa-
tion (WHO) was criticised for its efforts in the areas of communication and coordina-
tion. There were a few occasions in which contradictory information was presented,
which resulted in confusion among both the general public and those working in
healthcare. Additionally, the organisation was accused of not successfully coordinat-
ing with other international health institutions and member states, which led to a dis-
jointed global response due to the lack of cohesiveness. Some people believe that the
World Health Organisation (WHO) should strengthen its coordination systems and
improve its communication methods in order to guarantee that information will be
disseminated in a manner that is reliable and efficient.
· Funding and Resources: The World Health Organisation (WHO) has been struggling
with funding and resources for a long time, and these difficulties became even more
severe during the pandemic. Due to limited financial resources and staffing, the or-
ganisation had a difficult time keeping up with the growing number of demands and
expectations that were placed on it. Because of this, it was unable to provide timely
support and direction to its member states, particularly those ones that had a limited
92
Brown, Theodore M. - "Global Health Watch 4: An Alternative World Health Report" (Zed Books, 2014)
95
healthcare infrastructure. There is an ongoing debate about whether or not the World
Health Organisation (WHO) has the finances and resources to successfully carry out
its mandate and respond to global health emergencies.
· Reputation and Public Trust: During the epidemic, the World Health Organisation
(WHO) was subjected to a number of critiques and challenges, both of which had a
substantial impact on the WHO's reputation and public trust. Trust in the organiza-
tion's ability to successfully lead and organise responses to global health crises has
been eroded as a result of the delayed reaction, the perception of a lack of openness,
and contradictory messaging. It is essential for the World Health Organisation (WHO)
to win back the trust of the public in order to properly carry out its mission and
strengthen its position as a leader in global health.
In conclusion, the World Health Organisation was subjected to severe criticisms and chal-
lenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. These complaints were directed mostly towards its
management of the initial epidemic that occurred in Wuhan, China, as well as its perceived
lack of authority and power in responding to global health emergencies. The delayed re-
sponse, lack of transparency, dependence on member states, limited authority and power, po-
litical influence, communication and coordination issues, funding and resource constraints,
and the impact on reputation and public trust are all critical areas that need to be addressed
for the WHO to strengthen its role as a global health leader and effectively respond to poten-
tial future pandemics.
Suggestions & Conclusion:

Suggestions:
· Enhancing Early Warning Systems The World Health Organisation (WHO) needs to
improve its early warning systems in order to detect new outbreaks earlier and react to
them more effectively. Establishing a global monitoring network that collects and
analyses data in real time from a variety of sources, such as healthcare facilities, labo-
ratories, and community-based reporting systems, could be one way to do this. The
World Health Organisation (WHO) is able to enable prompt identification of potential
health concerns and promote coordinated actions by expanding its partnership with
member nations and encouraging the sharing of information. Additionally, the organi-
96
sation ought to make investments in research and development in order to advance in-
novative technologies for early detection. Some examples of such technologies in-
clude artificial intelligence and big data analytics.
· Reforming Funding Mechanisms The World Health Organisation is extremely reliant

on its member states for financial support, which has been the subject of criticism and
raises worries about the possibility of conflicts of interest. To find a solution to this
problem, the organisation ought to investigate several other methods of funding in or-
der to lessen its dependency on a select number of wealthy contributors and guarantee
a more equitable distribution of financial resources. Among these options are investi-
gating the possibility of forming relationships with organisations from the commercial
sector, charitable foundations, and international health funds. The World Health Or-
ganisation (WHO) can strengthen its financial independence and protect itself from
undue influence from individual member states if it diversifies the sources of money it
receives.
· Improving Transparency and Accountability Transparency is vital for creating public

trust and supporting effective global health solutions. Accountability is essential for
ensuring that transparency is improved. The World Health Organisation (WHO)
should establish clear rules and recommendations for member nations to follow in or-
der to ensure the early and transparent reporting of outbreaks. This should include the
sharing of data relating to the number of cases, transmission rates, and public health
interventions. In addition, the organisation should establish an independent monitor-
ing body that will monitor and evaluate the compliance of member states with interna-
tional health rules, as well as hold member states accountable for their acts or inac-
tions during times of public health emergency. In the event that accountability systems
are strengthened, the World Health Organisation will be better able to respond rapidly
and efficiently to any future crises.
· Enforcing Compliance with International Health rules The World Health Organisation
(WHO) should promote for the development of comprehensive legislative frame-
works that empower the organisation to enforce compliance with international health
97
rules. In order to accomplish this, the International Health Regulations (IHR) might
need to be reviewed and their enforcement mechanisms improved. During times of
public health emergency, the IHR ought to establish the responsibilities and obliga-
tions of member states in a clear and concise manner. These responsibilities and obli-
gations ought to include the prompt reporting of outbreaks and the implementation of
recommended remedies. In addition, the World Health Organisation needs to work to-
wards the establishment of a worldwide agreement on pandemic preparedness and re-
sponse. This agreement should detail the roles and responsibilities of all relevant par-
ties, including member states, international organisations, and the private sector.93
· Investing in Capacity Building The recent COVID-19 pandemic has brought to light
the crucial significance of robust and resilient healthcare systems in the context of re-
sponding to global health catastrophes. Building capacity should be a top priority for
the World Health Organisation (WHO), particularly in low-income countries with in-
adequate healthcare infrastructure. This may involve giving technical support, training
programmes, and resources in order to improve laboratory capacity, expand disease
surveillance capacities, and strengthen healthcare systems. The World Health Organi-
sation (WHO) is able to develop a more coordinated and effective response to the
global health crisis by investing in the capacity of member states to identify, prevent,
and respond to infectious diseases.
· Building better Partnerships: The World Health Organisation (WHO) should work to
build better partnerships with other international organisations, such as the United Na-
tions, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and the World Bank, in order to provide
a coordinated and integrated strategy to responding to health emergencies. Collabora-
tive initiatives can assist bridge gaps between health, trade, and economic policies and
promote fair distribution of vital medical supplies, vaccinations, and treatments.
These goals can be accomplished by reducing disparities in health outcomes, lowering
healthcare costs, and increasing trade. In order to make the most of the knowledge and
resources offered by civil society organisations, academic institutions, and the com-
mercial sector in the context of global health governance, the WHO should engage in
active collaboration with these entities.
93
98
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the complaints levelled against the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the
difficulties it encountered during the COVID-19 pandemic highlight the necessity for signifi-
cant reforms in the governance of global health. The World Health Organisation (WHO)
should place a high priority on enhancing early warning systems, changing funding struc-
tures, boosting transparency and accountability, strengthening legislative frameworks, invest-
ing in capacity building, and expanding partnerships, among other crucial areas. Through the
implementation of these recommendations, the organisation will be able to increase its capac-
ity to detect and respond to newly emerging outbreaks, provide equal access to key healthcare
resources, and improve the coordination and efficacy of global health interventions. By doing
so, the WHO will be able to reassert its position as a leader in global health and make a con-
tribution towards making the world more resistant to future health crises and better prepared
for them.
The criticisms and difficulties that the World Health Organisation (WHO) encountered dur-
ing the COVID-19 pandemic emphasise the necessity for significant reforms to strengthen its
role as a leader in global health. Vulnerabilities exist inside the organisation as a result of
how it handled the original outbreak in Wuhan, China, as well as the perceived lack of au-
thority and capacity in managing global health emergencies. In order to address these diffi-
culties, the WHO should think about putting some of the proposals that have been made into
action. These suggestions include boosting transparency and accountability, changing fund-
99
ing structures, enhancing early warning systems, strengthening legal frameworks, and invest-
ing in capacity building.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) can ensure that prompt and effective efforts are taken
to prevent the escalation of future pandemics if it improves its ability to recognise and re-
spond to nascent outbreaks. Reforming funding mechanisms and fostering openness and ac-
countability are both important steps that can assist lessen the organization's political influ-
ence and ensure its independence. In order for the World Health Organisation (WHO) to en-
force compliance with international health laws and improve the preparedness and response
capacities of member states, strengthening legislative frameworks and investing in capacity
building are both necessary steps.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) can effectively fulfil its purpose to promote the
health and well-being of all people around the globe if it implements these reforms, which
will allow it to regain the faith and confidence of the general public, strengthen its authority
and power in responding to global health emergencies, and strengthen its ability to address
those situations. The COVID-19 pandemic has served as a wake-up call, prompting the
World Health Organisation (WHO) and the international community to critically evaluate
global health governance and strengthen it for a more resilient future.
The COVID-19 pandemic has presented an unprecedented global health crisis, and the World
Health Organization (WHO) has played a crucial role in responding to the challenges posed
by the virus. This research aimed to assess the impact of the WHO's technical guidance, coor-
dination efforts, and advocacy for equitable access to vaccines and medical supplies in shap-
ing the global response to the pandemic. The findings of this study strongly support the hy-
pothesis that the WHO's contributions have been instrumental in mitigating the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic, despite facing significant political and economic challenges.
Firstly, the WHO's provision of technical guidance and recommendations has been essential
in guiding national and international responses to the pandemic. The organization has rapidly
synthesized scientific evidence, disseminated guidance on public health measures, and pro-
vided expert advice to member states. This guidance has informed critical decision-making
processes at all levels, enabling countries to implement evidence-based measures to contain
the spread of the virus and protect their populations. The WHO's technical expertise and its
ability to adapt and update recommendations as new information emerged have been vital in
addressing the evolving nature of the pandemic.
100
Secondly, the WHO's coordination efforts have played a crucial role in facilitating a unified
global response to the pandemic. The organization has acted as a central hub for sharing in-
formation, best practices, and experiences among countries. Through platforms such as the
COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund and the Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network,
the WHO has facilitated collaboration and knowledge exchange, enabling countries to learn
from each other's successes and challenges. This coordinated approach has helped to harmo-
nize strategies, strengthen global preparedness and response capacities, and enhance the effi-
ciency of resource allocation.
Thirdly, the WHO's advocacy for equitable access to vaccines and medical supplies has been
instrumental in addressing the disparities in global vaccine distribution. The organization has
led efforts to promote the COVAX initiative, which aims to ensure fair and equitable access
to COVID-19 vaccines, particularly for low- and middle-income countries. The WHO has
played a key role in negotiating agreements with vaccine manufacturers, mobilizing re-
sources, and supporting countries in their vaccination campaigns. By championing the princi-
ple of equitable access, the WHO has helped to reduce vaccine inequities and ensure that vul-
nerable populations, including those in resource-limited settings, are not left behind.
Despite these significant contributions, the WHO has faced political and economic challenges
that have impacted its ability to fully implement its mandates. The politicization of public
health measures, the erosion of multilateral cooperation, and the withholding of funding have
hindered the organization's efforts. However, it is important to recognize that the WHO has
demonstrated resilience and adaptability in navigating these challenges and continuing to ful-
fill its mission of promoting global health.
In conclusion, this research has provided substantial evidence to support the hypothesis that
the World Health Organization's technical guidance, coordination efforts, and advocacy for
equitable access to vaccines and medical supplies have been critical in shaping the global re-
sponse to the COVID-19 pandemic and reducing its impact. The WHO's expertise, coordina-
tion mechanisms, and advocacy efforts have played a pivotal role in guiding national re-
sponses, facilitating collaboration, and addressing vaccine disparities. While there are areas
for improvement and the need for ongoing reforms, it is clear that the WHO's contributions
have been invaluable in the fight against COVID-19. Moving forward, it is essential to
101
strengthen global health governance, support multilateralism, and invest in robust public
health systems to ensure effective pandemic preparedness and response in the future.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources:
· World Health Organization (WHO) reports and publications related to COVID-19,

such as situation reports, technical guidance, and advisories.
· Official statements and press releases issued by the WHO regarding the pandemic.
· Resolutions, decisions, and declarations from the World Health Assembly (WHA), the
highest decision-making body of the WHO, specifically addressing COVID-19.
· COVID-19 related publications and research papers published by the WHO, including
studies on transmission, prevention, treatment, and impact of the virus.
· Official documents and communications exchanged between the WHO and member
states, including correspondence, agreements, and collaborations related to the pan-
demic response.
· Minutes and records of WHO Emergency Committees and expert panels convened to
provide guidance on COVID-19.
· COVID-19 related data and statistics provided by the WHO, including epidemiologi-
cal reports, surveillance data, and global health indicators.
· Official statements and communications from WHO regional offices, highlighting re-
gional perspectives and responses to the pandemic.
· Speeches, presentations, and interviews by WHO officials and experts discussing the
organization's strategies, actions, and challenges in addressing COVID-19.
102
· COVID-19 related resolutions, guidelines, and recommendations issued by other in-
ternational organizations, such as the United Nations (UN), World Bank, and World
Trade Organization (WTO), in collaboration with the WHO.
· Country-specific reports and assessments on COVID-19 preparedness and response,
conducted by the WHO in collaboration with national health authorities.
· Public health emergency declarations and action plans issued by individual countries
in alignment with the WHO's recommendations.
· Official reports and publications from national health agencies and ministries of
health, referring to the WHO's guidance and involvement in their respective COVID-
19 responses.
· COVID-19 related data and information shared by member states with the WHO, in-
cluding case reports, outbreak investigations, and surveillance updates.
· Statements and communications from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and
civil society organizations acknowledging the WHO's role and providing feedback on
its actions during the pandemic.
Secondary Sources
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· Kickbusch, Ilona, and Lister, Sarah - "Health Diplomacy: Principles and Practices"
(Polity Press, 2019)
· Gostin, Lawrence O. - "Global Health Law" (Harvard University Press, 2014)
· Brown, Theodore M. - "Global Health Watch 4: An Alternative World Health Report"
(Zed Books, 2014)
· Borgerson, Scott G. - "The Power of Prescription: Drug Exports, Global Markets, and
the Rise of the Global Health Diplomats" (University of California Press, 2020)
· Cherniak, William, and Mate, Kelsey - "Crossing the Global Health Quality Chasm:
Lessons from the World Health Organization Surgical Safety Checklist" (World Sci-
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· Murray, Christopher J. L., and Frenk, Julio - "Health Metrics and Evaluation: Defin-
ing the Foundations of Global Health" (University of Washington Press, 2008)
103
· Lindstrand, Ann, and Rosling, Hans - "Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About
the World—and Why Things Are Better Than You Think" (Flatiron Books, 2018)
· Feachem, Richard G. A. - "Health Systems: More Evidence, More Action" (World
Health Organization, 2010)
· Wilson, David, and Baker, Brook K. - "Global Health Law" (West Academic Publish-
ing, 2014)
· Chan, Margaret - "Global Health Partnerships: The World Health Organization and
the International Pharmaceutical Industry" (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
· Buse, Kent, and Lee, Kelley - "Global Public-Private Partnerships: The Politics of Co-
operation in Global Health" (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)
· Kickbusch, Ilona, and Hein, Wolfgang - "Global Health Diplomacy: Concepts, Issues,
Actors, Instruments, Fora, and Cases" (Springer, 2013)
· Burci, Gian Luca, and Vignes, Claude-Henri - "World Health Organization: A His-
tory" (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019)
· Stone, Howard - "The Birth of Global Health: A Conversation with Pioneers" (Rout-
ledge, 2020)
· Bollyky, Thomas J. - "Plagues and the Paradox of Progress: Why the World Is Getting
Healthier in Worrisome Ways" (MIT Press, 2018)
· Kostyak, Laura, and Rollwagen, Heather - "Global Health Collaboration: Challenges
and Opportunities" (Routledge, 2019)
· Heymann, David L. - "Global Health Security: A Blueprint for the Future" (Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2017)
· Claeson, Mariam, and Alexander, Sasha - "Global Health Partnerships: Assessing
Country Consequences" (Center for Global Development, 2010)
· Lee, Kelley - "Global Health and International Relations" (Polity Press, 2009)
· Sridhar, Devi - "The Battle Against Hunger: Choice, Circumstance, and the World
Bank" (Oxford University Press, 2008)
· Aginam, Obijiofor - "Global Health Governance: International Law and Public Health
in a Divided World" (University of Toronto Press, 2005)
· Hanefeld, Johanna, and Walt, Gill - "Global Health Partnerships: The Pharmaceutical
Industry and BRICA" (Routledge, 2018)
104
· Jakab, Zsuzsanna - "Health Systems Strengthening for Universal Health Coverage and
Sustainable Development Goals: A Synthesis of 11 Country Case Studies" (World
Health Organization, 2017)
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Press, 2005)
· Farmer, Paul - "Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the
Poor" (University of California Press, 2005)
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105

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ROLE AND CONTRIBUTION OF WHO DURING THE PANDEMIC

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNI-

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNI-

Chapter 2: Legal Framework And Mandate Of The 12

Chapter 3: Technical Guidance And Coordination 26

Chapter 4: Advocacy For Equitable Access To Vac- 47

Chapter 5: WHO’s International Cooperation And 69

Chapter 6: Criticisms, Challenges Of Wto's Efforts In 84

· WHO - World Health Organization

· Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania, 1949)

1. "The World Health Organization and the Globalization of Epidemic Disease" by

5. "Navigating Health: The Role of Health Organizations during COVID-19" by

6. "Pandemic Response: A Global History from Cholera to COVID-19" by Mark

7. "Global Pandemics: From Preparation to Response and Recovery" by Ronald

8. "Health Diplomacy in a Global Age: An Introduction" by Sebastián Gatica and

CHAPTER 2: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND MANDATE OF THE WHO

CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL GUIDANCE AND COORDINATION

CHAPTER 4: ADVOCACY FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS TO VACCINES AND MED-

CHAPTER 5: WHO’S INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND PARTNERSHIPS

CHAPTER 6: CRITICISMS, CHALLENGES OF WTO'S EFFORTS IN CURBING

The WHO's mandate is determined by a number of resolutions and agreements in addition to

LEGAL FRAMEWORK GOVERNING THE WHO

EFFORTS IN RESPONDING TO PANDEMIC

The pandemic's substantial socioeconomic effects necessitated a well-coordinated response.

WHO'S TECHNICAL GUIDANCE AND COORDINATION EFFORTS IN RE-

A. WHO’S STRATEGIC PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE PLAN

B. FINANCING THE PLAN FOR 2020

C. COORDINATION AND PLANNING

Steering a global whole-of-UN response

D. SUPPORTING AND ENABLING NATIONAL PLANNING AND COORDINA-

F. TRANSLATING EVIDENCE INTO KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION

Activating a WHO core strength

Putting knowledge into practice

G. REAL-TIME, RAPID RESPONSE CAPACITY STRENGTHENING AND SUP-

I. RECOMMENDATIONS ON PUBLIC HEALTH MEASURES, DISEASE

A. SURVEILLANCE, CONTACT TRACING, ISOLATION AND QUARANTINE:

i. In order to provide assistance to countries on a global, regional, and national scale,

· Boosting contact tracing in Chad

· Mohamed Sharif Mohamed, Regional Polio Eradication Officer in Somalia

· Using TB resources to fight COVID-19

B. INFECTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL

D. PROTECTING ESSENTIAL HEALTH SERVICES

The following is a list of global treaties and agreements:

Regulatory Authorities: It is the responsibility of national regulatory authorities to evaluate

Acquisition and distribution of resource distributing and acquisition mechanisms

The following are important legal aspects:

CHAPTER 5: WHO’S INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND PART-

INITIATIVES FOR COLLABORATION:

WHO'S COLLABORATION WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

UNITED NATIONS (UN):

COOPERATION WITH GOVERNMENTS:

NORMS AND LEGAL OBLIGATIONS:

LEGAL ISSUES AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION:

Collaboration tools, including as collaborative coordination and response systems, technical

WHO'S COORDINATION EFFORTS HAVE A LEGAL FOUNDATION:

UNITED NATIONS COORDINATION MECHANISMS:

COLLABORATIONS WITH NATIONAL HEALTH AUTHORITIES:

LEGAL ACCOUNTABILITY AND OVERSIGHT:

Criticisms and challenges faced by the WHO during the pandemic

· Inconsistent Messages: The World Health Organisation (WHO) encountered difficul-

· An excessive reliance on Member States The World Health Organisation (WHO)

· Limited Vaccine Distribution: The World Health Organisation (WHO) experienced

Suggestions & Conclusion: