 Newlands’ law of octaves

 Law of octaves, in chemistry, the generalization made by the English chemist

J.A.R. Newlands in 1865 that, if the chemical elements are arranged according
to increasing atomic weight, those with similar physical and chemical properties
occur after each interval of seven elements. In 1864, Newlands made an
attempt to classify elements. There are seven musical notes in music. Every
eighth note is similar to the first one and it is the first note of the nest scale.
Similarly, Newland stated that the eighth element starting from a given one is a
kind of repetition of the first like the eighth notes of an octave of music. So he
called this relationship as the Law of octaves.
 In Newland’s table of elements lithium, sodium and potassium occupied places
near each other.

 Fluorine and chlorine or oxygen and sulphur were placed near each other.

 Note: This classification worked well with the elements with small atomic weights
but failed in the case of elements with large atomic weights.

 Mendeleev’s table
 Mendeleev published in 1869, using atomic weight to organize the elements, information
determinable to fair precision in his time. Atomic weight worked well enough to allow
Mendeleev to accurately predict the properties of missing elements.
 The atomic number is the absolute definition of an element and gives a factual basis for the
ordering of the periodic table.
 Mendeleev realized that the physical and chemical properties of elements were related to
their atomic mass in a ‘periodic’ way, and arranged them so that groups of elements with
similar properties fell into vertical columns in his table. Modern-day periodic tables are
expanded beyond Mendeleev’s initial 63 elements.

 Modern Periodic Table

1) VALENCY: Valency may be defined as “the combining capacity of the atom of

an element with atoms of other elements in order to acquire the stable
configuration (i.e. 8 electrons in the valence shell. In some special cases it is 2
electrons).”

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2) ATOMIC SIZE:

 It refers to the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an isolated atom to its
outermost shell containing electrons.
 The atomic radius decreases on moving from left to right along a period. This is due
to an increase in nuclear charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to the
nucleus and reduces the size of the atom.
 In a group, atomic size increases from top to bottom due to the increase in a
number of shells.

3) METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC PROPERTIES

 In a period from left to right metallic nature decreases while non-metallic character
increases.
 In a group metallic character increases from top to bottom while non-metallic
character decrease.

4) ELECTRONEGATIVITY: The relative tendency of an atom to attract the shared

pair of electrons towards itself is called electronegativity. In a period from left to
right, the value of electronegativity increases while in a group from top to bottom
the value of electronegativity decreases.

5) IONIZATION ENERGY
 The ionization energy (IE) is the amount of energy required to remove the most
loosely bound electron, the valence electron, of an isolated gaseous atom to form
a cation.
 In a period from left to right, the value of ionization energy increases while in a
group from top to bottom the value of ionization energy decreases.

6) ELECTRON AFFINITY: The electron affinity of an atom or molecule is defined as

the amount of energy released or spent when an electron is added to a neutral
atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion. In a period from left
to right, the value of electron affinity increases while in a group from top to bottom
the value of electron affinity decreases.

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 Modern Periodic Table

List periodic table elements

 Group 1 (Alkali Metals)
The alkali metals are the series of elements in Group 1 of the periodic table. The
series consists of the elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb),
caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr).

TRICK: LiNa ki Rubi Se Friendship ho gyi.

Lithium(Li) + Sodium(Na) Pottasium(k) Rubidium(Rb) caesium (Cs) francium (Fr).

Properties:

 The alkali metals are silver-coloured (caesium has a golden tinge), soft, low-density
metals.

 These elements all have one valence electron which is easily lost to form an ion with
a single positive charge.

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  They have the lowest ionization energies in their respective periods. This makes
them very reactive and they are the most active metals.

 Due to their activity, they occur naturally in ionic compounds, not in their elemental
state.

 The alkali metals react readily with halogens to form ionic salts, such as table salt,
sodium chloride (NaCl).

 They react with water to liberate hydrogen gas.

Alkali metal + water → Alkali metal hydroxide + hydrogen

 Group 2 (Alkaline Earth Metals)

Group 2 of Periodic Table the series consists of the elements beryllium (Be),
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba) and radium (Ra).

TRICK:
Ber Mehnge kr ke Sarkar Bahut Roi

beryllium(Be) magnesium(Mg) calcium(Ca) strontium(Sr) barium(Ba) radium(Ra)

Properties for Group 2 of Periodic Table elements:

 The alkaline earth metals are silvery coloured, soft, low-density metals, though are
a bit harder than the alkali metals.
 These elements all have two valence electrons and tend to lose both to form ions
with a two-plus charge.
 Beryllium is the least metallic element in the group and tends to form covalent
bonds in its compounds.
 They react readily with halogens to form ionic salts and can react slowly with water.

 Group 13 (Boron Group)

Group 13 of the Periodic Table consists of the elements boron (B), aluminium (Al),
gallium (Ga), indium (In), thallium (Tl).
TRICK:
Baba Ali Gya India Thaila Lekar

Boron(B) Aluminium(Al) Gallium(Ga) Indium(In) Thallium(Tl)

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 Properties for Group 13 of Periodic Table elements

 In this group, we begin to see the changeover toward the non-metallic character.
First appearing at the top of the group. Boron is a metalloid, it has characteristics
intermediate between metals and non-metals, and the rest of the group are
metals.

 These elements are characterized by having three valence electrons. The metals
can lose all three electrons to form ions with a three-plus charge in ionic
compounds.

 Aluminium is the third most abundant element in the earth’s crust (7.4 percent), and
is widely used in packaging materials. Aluminium is an active metal, but the stable
oxide forms a protective coating over the metal making it resistant to corrosion.

 Group 14 (Carbon Group)

Group 14 of the Periodic Table consists of the elements carbon (C), silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), & lead (Pb)
TRICK:
Kl Sita Gita Sangita Punjab Gyi

Carbon(C) Silicon(Si) Germanium(Ge) Tin(Sn) Lead(Pb)

Properties of Group 14 of Periodic Table elements

 This group has a mixed type of element with the non-metal carbon, two metalloids,
and two metals. The common characteristic is four valence electrons.

 The two metals, tin and lead, are unreactive metals and both can form ions with a
two-plus or a four-plus charge in ionic compounds.

 Carbon forms four covalent bonds in compounds rather than form monatomic ions.
In the elemental state, it has several forms, the most known of which are graphite
and diamond.

 Silicon in some respects is similar to carbon in that it forms four covalent bonds, but
it does not form a wide range of compounds. Silicon is the second most abundant
element in the earth’s crust (25.7 percent) and we are surrounded by silicon-
containing materials: bricks, pottery, porcelain, lubricants, sealants, computer chips,
and solar cells.

 The simplest oxide, silicon dioxide (SiO2) or silica, is a component of many rocks
and minerals.

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  Group 15 (Nitrogen Group)
The Nitrogen group is the series of elements in group 15 (formerly Group V) of the
periodic table. It consists of the elements Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As),
Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi) The collective name pnictogens is also sometimes
used for elements of this group.
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Newspaper Aaj Sb Bikega

Nitrogen(N) Phosphorus(P) Arsenic(As) Antimony(Sb) Bismuth (Bi)

Properties for Group 15 of Periodic Table elements

 These elements all have five valence electrons. Nitrogen and Phosphorous are non-
metals. They can gain three electrons to form fairly unstable ions with a three minus
charge, the nitride and phosphide ions.

 Nitrogen, as a diatomic molecule is the major constituent of air and both elements
are essential for life. Nitrogen comprises about 3 percent of the weight of the
human body and phosphorous about 1.2 percent. Commercially, these elements
are important for fertilizers. Arsenic and Antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is the
only metal in the group. Bismuth can lose three electrons to form an ion with a
three-plus charge.

 Bismuth is also the heaviest completely stable element that does not decay
radioactively to other simpler elements.
 Group 16 (Chalcogens)
They are oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), the radioactive
polonium (Po), and the synthetic ununhexium (Uuh).
TRICK:
Oo Sanam Se Tere Pore Hai Hum

Oxygen(O) Sulphur(S) Selenium(Se) Tellurium(Te) polonium(Po) ununhexium (Uuh)

Properties for Group 16 of Periodic Table elements

 This group has six valence electrons. Oxygen and sulphur are non-metals; their
elemental form is molecular, and they can gain two electrons to form ions with a
two minus charge.

 Sulphur has probably the most allotropes of any element, though the most common
and stable form is the yellow crystals of S8 molecules.

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 Group 17 (Halogens)
The halogens are the elements in Group 17 (formerly Group VII or VIIa) of the
periodic table. They are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine
(At).
TRICK:
Fakire kol Barfi aayi Aate vali

Fluorine(F) Chlorine(Cl) Bromine(Br) Iodine(I) Astatine (At)

Properties for Group 17 of Periodic Table elements

 These elements all have seven valence electrons.

 This group is the first one to consist of entirely non-metals.
 They exist as diatomic molecules in their natural state
 Fluorine and chlorine exist as gases at room temperature, bromine as a liquid, and
iodine as a solid.

 They requires one more electron to fill their outer electron shells, and so have a
tendency to gain one electron to form singly-charged negative ions. These
negative ions are referred to as halide ions, and salts containing these ions are
known as halides.

 Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to biological
organisms in sufficient quantities.

 Fluorine is the most reactive and the reactivity declines as we go down the group.
 Chlorine and iodine are both used as disinfectants.
 In their elemental state, the halogens are oxidizing agents and are used in
bleaches.

 Chlorine is the active ingredient of most fabric bleaches and is used in the
production of most paper products

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 Group 18 (Noble Gases)
The noble gases are the chemical elements in group 18 (formerly group VIII) of the
periodic table. They are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. They are
sometimes called inert gases or rare gases. The name ‘noble gases’ is an allusion to
the similarly unreactive Noble metals, so-called due to their preciousness, resistance
to corrosion and long association with the aristocracy.
TRICK:
Harbhajan Ne Ar Kr Zero Run Banaye

Helium(He) Neon(Ne) Argon(Ar) Krypton(Kr) Xenon(Xe) Radon(Rn)

Properties for Group 18 of Periodic Table elements

 The noble gasses are all non-metals and are characterized by having completely
filled shells of electrons.

 Physically they exist as monatomic gases at room temperature, even those with
larger atomic masses. This is because they have very weak inter-atomic forces of
attraction, and consequently very low melting points and boiling points.

 Krypton and Xenon are the only noble gasses that form any compounds at all.
These elements can do this because they have the potential to form an expanded
octet by accepting electrons in an empty d subshell.

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